SOSC1969

DISCOVERING MIND AND BEHAVIOR

Lecture 2
Research Methods in Psychology
LESSON PLAN

(A) Scientific Approach to Behavior

(B) Research Methods
(C) Other Issues

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(A) SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO BEHAVIOR

 Assumption
 Behaviors/emotions/thoughts are governed by discernible laws or principles
 Psychologist: to verify these laws (Psychological Mechanism 心理機制)

 Scientific Method
 A system of gathering data so that bias and errors in measurement are minimized

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GOALS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDIES

Measure & Understand & Apply &

Describe Predict Change
• E.g., before testing if • The relationship • To promote well-
women are more between certain being
emotional than men,
we need some means variables (any • E.g., to let both
to measure measurable genders understand
“emotionality” conditions) each other more!

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BASIC CONCEPTS

Theory (理論) – explains, organizes, and predicts the variables

• E.g., Women are more emotional than men.

Hypothesis (假設) – a tentative & testable explanation of a phenomenon

• Derived from experiences, observations and existing theories
• E.g., Women are more likely to develop depression.

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CAN YOU MAKE UP A HYPOTHESIS?

ANY PHENOMENON / OBSERVATION? GUESS? INTUITION?

EVENTS YOU FIND
INTERESTING RECENTLY?

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FROM OBSERVATION OR INTUITION

 Personal space invasion & private

behaviors
 Hypothesis: Closer personal space
would affect men’s toileting
behavior

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 5 STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Formulate 2. Design the 3. Gather data 4. Analyze the 5. Report the

hypothesis study data and draw the findings
conclusion
Draw a testable Select appropriate Try to have a Try to be objective Try to be precise and
statement or research methods representative sample replicable
prediction, either be
verified (true) or
falsified (not true)

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AN EXAMPLE
1) Formulate hypothesis
 Speculation: Will children learn by observing others?
 Hypothesis: Children will do the same behaviors
after observing others
2) Design the study
 What kind of study? Experiment? Survey?
3) Gather data
 Where to get the data? Target? Age range?
4) Analyze the data and draw the conclusions
5) Report the findings 9
LESSON PLAN

(A) Scientific Approach to Behavior

(B) Research Methods
(C) Other Issues

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(B) RESEARCH METHODS: SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

Population vs. Sample Types of Psychological Research

Experimental approach: Experiments 實驗

Population 總體: Entire set of individuals to
which generalizations will be made based on a Non-experimental/Descriptive approach:
sample • Correlational studies 相關研究
Sample 抽樣: Subset of a population selected • Surveys 調查
as participants in an experiment
• Naturalistic Observations 自然的觀察
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• Case Studies 個案研究
  Experiment (實驗)
(B)  Under a well-controlled setting, the
EXPERIMENTAL researchers change or control something
to observe any change(s) accordingly
APPROACHES:
 Detection of cause-and-effect
BASIC relationships (因果關係)
CONCEPTS  Contains an experimental group (實驗組)
and a control group (對照組)

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(B) EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES: BASIC CONCEPTS

Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)

Its condition influences another variable Its condition is influenced by another

• Cause variable
• Effect
• E.g., “Coffee enhances attention.”
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(B) EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES: BASIC CONCEPTS

 Hypothesis
 How does the IV affect the DV?
 E.g., “Coffee enhances attention”
 IV (cause): coffee
 DV (effect): attention

 Operational definition
 What types of measure we use to reflect that variable?
 For IV: What coffee do you use? Only black coffee? Amount? No. of cups?
 For DV: What measure is used to reflect attention? Time spent on a speed test?

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(B) EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES: BASIC CONCEPTS

 Manipulation
 How do you create the “cause” in the experimental condition?
 Two groups are alike, except they differ in the “manipulation” (or treatment)
 Experimental group: with the manipulation
 Control group: without the manipulation

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(B) EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES: BASIC CONCEPTS

 Confounding variables (干擾結果的變數)

 Variables that are not IV (testing) but may still affect the DV
 E.g., some participants have better attention ability

 Solutions
 Randomization (隨機分配)
 All participants have the equal chance to be assigned to any condition or group

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A CLASSIC EXPERIMENT

 “See Aggression… Do Aggression”

 Bandura et al. (1960s): Bobo dolls
experiments
 Observational Learning (modeling)
 Video on Bobo doll experiment:
[Link]
qwWlJg8U&t=25s

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DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT (1)

Independent Variable (IV)

• Watching a model acting aggressively or not
• TWO conditions:
• Experimental condition: An aggressive model
• Control: A non-aggressive model

Dependent Variable (DV)

• Aggression level
• E.g., number and duration of hits on the Bobo doll, etc.

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DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT (2)

Participants
• Young children (age ranged 3 – 6)

Hypothesis
• An aggressive model vs. not
• More aggressive in 1st > 2nd condition
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: MANIPULATION

 Children sat in the corner of a room and

watched an adult model playing for 10 mins
 In experimental group, the model acted
aggressively to the Bobo doll
 In control group, the model acted quietly in the
room and ignored the Bobo doll
 Each child was then left alone in a room for
20 mins
 Their behaviors were recorded

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THE RESULTS…

Experimental Condition Oshh!

Control Condition

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ANOTHER INTERESTING EXPERIMENT...

 Personal space invasion & toileting

(Middlemist, Knowles & Matter, 1976)
 Research question: Does personal space invasion
affect men’s toileting?

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 Hypothesis: Men with shorter personal distance with
strangers would be “disturbed” in toileting behaviors.

Operational Definitions:
• IV – Personal space invasion: Distance of the target participants
with the stranger
• DV – toileting behaviors:
• Micturition delay: Time between participant unzipped his zipper
and urination began
• Micturition persistence: Time between the onset and
completion of urination

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METHODS AND PROCEDURES

On a normal lecture day during break

Force 60 men to use the leftmost urinal in a 3-urinal toilet

• Three conditions:
• 1. Close distance
• 2. Moderate distance
• 3. Control
• An experimenter did the time keeping in the stall

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CONDITION 1: CLOSE DISTANCE

 Ask a confederate to use the middle

urinal
 A sign with bucket of water and sponge
was placed at the rightmost

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CONDITION 2: MODERATE DISTANCE

 Ask a confederate to use the rightmost

urinal
 The sign was placed in the middle

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CONDITION 3: CONTROL

 No confederate (no personal space

invasion)
 2 signs were placed in the middle and
rightmost urinals

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 Condition 1 (Close distance):
RESULTS ↑ Delay of onset (later start of urination)
↓ Persistence (shorter duration)

 Persistence: close <

moderate < control
 Delay of onset: close >
moderate > control

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ANY OTHER EXPLANATIONS FOR THE RESULTS?
 Can you think of any confounding variables (干擾結果的變數)?

Individual difference in
kidney functioning?
Levels of urine in their
kidneys?

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LESSON PLAN

(A) Scientific Approach to Behavior

(B) Research Methods
(C) Other Issues

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 A major difference: No causal
relationship can be tested!

(B) NON- Correlational Studies

EXPERIMENTAL
• Correlation 相關
APPROACH
• Two variables are related to each other
• E.g., education level and income
• E.g., physical attractiveness and social popularity
• E.g., stress and depression
• E.g., GDP and happiness

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Subjective well-
being (SWB), per
capita gross
domestic product
(GDP) and
different types of
societies –
Inglehart, Foa,
Peterson, and
Welzel (2008)

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(B) NON-EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

 Correlation
 Two variables are related to each other
 Correlational coefficient (r) (相關系數): Indicates
the degree of relationship between two variables
1. Direction: Sign
 Positive (+) and negative (-)
2. Magnitude / Strength: Absolute value
 -1 or +1 (Strong relationship)
 0 (No relationship)

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DIRECTION & STRENGTH OF CORRELATION

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[Link]
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 Association but not explanation / causation
 X →Y ?
 Y→X?
 Z→X & Y?
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(B) NON-EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

 Descriptive research
 Survey (調查報告)
 Seeking people’s responses to a prepared set of items or
questionnaires

 Naturalistic observation (自然觀察)

 Un-intrusively (不干擾地) observe people’s behaviours
 E.g., “participant observation”

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 Some examples of case study in psychology:
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[Link]
EXAMPLE OF A
SURVEY
[Link]
nal/archive/2015/10/europeans-
comfort-touch-social-bonds/412861/

Oct 29, 2015

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 1,300 men and women were asked the
question where they were comfortable
being touched and by whom.

Participants from Finland, France, Italy,

Russia, and the U.K., detailed where
strangers, family members, friends, and
romantic partners were allowed to touch
them.

Regardless of nationality, researchers

found that the closeness of the
relationship correlated with the range of
areas that can be touched.

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“Heat map” was created by the researchers from the University of
Oxford and Finland’s Aalto University by combining the results.
 British participants were right at the
bottom on the “touchability” index

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Relation of “Touchability” to Human Bonds
SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT METHODS

Research Method Pros Cons

Experiment • Precise control on variables • Too artificial
• Cause-and-effect • Ethical concern
Survey • Gather data easily from large • Self-report data often unreliable
sample
Naturalistic • Good start when little is known • Cannot explain why certain
Observation behaviors are observed
Case Study • Suitable for study certain • Clinical samples often
phenomena (e.g., clinical) unrepresentative
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LESSON PLAN

(A) Scientific Approach to Behavior

(B) Research Methods
(C) Other Issues

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(C) OTHER ISSUES: BIASES AND ERRORS
a. Sampling error Unrepresentative sample
b. Placebo effect (安慰劑效應)
In mostParticipants have false expectations on empty or
kinds of design…
fake treatment
(except case study)
c. Experimenter bias Experimenters hold expectations or preferences
on the results
d. Social desirability bias Participants give socially-approved answers
e. Responses set Participants choose all the same answers

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 Unrepresentative
sample: Proportion
between each sector in
population and sample is
not similar (or the same)

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(C) OTHER ISSUES: BIASES AND ERRORS
a. Sampling error Unrepresentative sample
b. Placebo effect (安慰劑效應) Participants have false expectations on empty or
fake treatment
c. Experimenter bias Experimenters hold expectations or preferences
on the results
d. Social desirability biasIn experimental design…
Participants give socially-approved answers
e. Responses set Participants and researchers…
Participants choose all the same answers

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PLACEBO EFFECT AND EXPERIMENTER BIAS

Experimenter bias

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(BBC Human Senses, 14:30-18:05)

(B) OTHER ISSUES: BIASES AND ERRORS
a. Sampling error Unrepresentative sample
b. Placebo effect (安慰劑效應) Participants have false expectations on empty or
fake treatment
c. Experimenter bias Experimenters hold expectations or preferences
on the results
d. Social desirability biasIn experimental design…
Participants give socially-approved answers
e. Responses set Participants and researchers…
Participants choose all the same answers
 Solutions
 Double-blind controlled experiment
 Both experimenters and participants are kept unknown of the group arrangement
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SOLUTION: DOUBLE-BLIND PROCEDURES

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[Link]
(C) OTHER ISSUES: BIASES AND ERRORS
a. Sampling error Unrepresentative sample
b. Placebo effect (安慰劑效應) Participants havedesign…
In non-experimental false expectations on empty or
fake treatment
Such as survey or observation…
c. Experimenter bias Researchers hold expectations or preferences on
the results
d. Social desirability bias Participants give socially-approved answers
e. Responses set Participants choose all the same answers

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(C) RESEARCH ETHICS

Informed consent 同意 Minimal risk 最小風險

• Participants should be given full • The potential of possible harms

information about the study to the participants have to be
before they decide to participate minimized (to those you
• Participation should be voluntary encounter in normal day
and any withdrawal during the activities)
study should be allowed

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 Deception 欺騙 and debriefing 解說

• If participants are deceived of anything in the

(C) study, they must be debriefed afterwards

RESEARCH Confidentiality 保密
ETHICS
• All information obtained in the study are highly
confidential and is restricted to the use for
research purposes

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 CONCLUSION

1) Psychology is a 2) Causes 3) Next Lecture #3 4) Reference

“scientific” discipline (Experiment) vs.
Associations (Non- Psychology of Noba Project. (2023).
Collect empirical evidences Experimental Learning Introduction to
to support or reject the Research) Psychology.
psychological theories [Link]
Advantages vs.
disadvantages?

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