AN INTRODUCTION TO ALGAE

OUTLINES
 General Characters
 Range of Thallus
 Organization
 Reproduction
 Classification,
 Morphology and Life Cycle
 Economic Importance

The general term "algae" includes prokaryotic organisms — cyanobacteria,

also known as blue-green algae — as well as eukaryotic organisms (all other
algal species).

Algae are diverse group of relatively simple, chlorophyll containing, photo-

autotrophic and oxygen evolving aquatic thalloid (without differentiation into
true roots, stems, leaves or leaf like organs) organisms.

 The word algae have its origin from Latin, where alga means seaweed.
 The term algae were first used by Carolous Linnaeus in 1753.
 Most of them are photo-autotrophic but few are mixotrophic and
myzotrophic (sucking through special feeding structure)
 Study of algae is known as phycology (GK. Phykos- seaweed; logos=
discourse or study) or algology.
 Professor M.O.P. Iyenger, (Mandayam Osuri Parthasarthy Iyengar) is
regarded as the father of Indian Algology of Phycology.
 He discovered the terrestrial alga Fritschiella tuberosa.

ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION

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Algae are mostly aquatic but they are present almost every available
ecological habitat on this earth. They are thus ubiquitous in their distribution.
On the basis of their habitat they are:
(1)Aquatic Algae
(2)Terrestrial Algae
(3)Parasitic algae
(4)Symbiotic Algae
(5)Algae with some special habitats

AQUATIC ALGAE
Most of algae are aquatic found in fresh water (lakes, ponds, rivers, ditches,
tanks, streams, etc.) or sea (marine environment). Bottom dwelling organism
are called benthophytes (benthic algae or benthos) or may be present on the
surface of water bodies are called Phytoplanktons.

o Phytoplanktonic algae are called euplankton (Chlamydomonas,

Cosmarium, Scenedesmus) if they are free floating from the beginning
or as tychoplankton (Cladophora, Oedogonium, Zygnema) if attached
in the beginning but later got detached and became free floating.

o Sometimes planktonic algae show extensive growth in the water

bodies and impart greenish colour to water. This is known as water
bloom or algal bloom e.g. Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Scenedesmus,
Microcystis etc.

o Fresh water forms such as Volvox, Hydrodictyon, Chlamydomonas etc

grow in stagnant water while Cladophora, Oedogonium, Ulothrix etc.
prefer to grow in slow running water. Algae grow in running water is
called lotic algae while in stagnant water is known as lentic alage.
o Some of marine algae are known as Kelps, may reach up to more than
70m (Macrocystis pyrifera) in length.

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FRESH WATER PLANKTONIC ALGAE: Chlorella, Chlamydomonas,
Scenedemus, Volvox, Eudorina, Microcystis, Oscillatoria.

FRESH WATER BENTHIC ALGAE: Chara, Cladophora (Chlorophyceae)

Bodanella, Pleurocladia (Phaeophyceae) Batrachspermum (Rhodophyceae).

MARINE PLANKTONIC: Chlamydomonas, Cyclotella, Trichodesmium,

MARINE BENTHIC ALGAE: Acetabularia, Caulerpa, Ulva (Chlorophyceae)

Ectocarpus, Fucus, Laminaria, Sargassum (Phaeophyceae) Chondrus,
Gelidium, Polysiphonia Porphyra ( Rhodophyceae).

TERRESTRIAL ALGAE/EDAPHOPHYTES
Algae which grow on or inside the moist soik are known as terrestrial algae,
e.g. Vaucheria, Botrydium, Oedogonium, Fritschiella etc. grows on the soil
surface are known as saphophytes.

 A few spp. Anabaena and Nostoc (BGA) grow inside the soil surface
and are known as cryptophytes.

PARASITIC ALGAE
Algae which grows on some plants and cause plant diseases. E.g.
Cephaleuros virescence parasite on tea leaves and causes red rust disease in
them. Harveyella mirabilis are obligate parasite and lack pigmentation.

 Rhodochytrium, Phyllosiphon, etc are other examples of parasitic

algae. Polysiophonia lanosa is a semi parasite on brown alga
Ascophyllum.

SYMBIOTIC ALGAE

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Show association with different groups
ALGAE: Rhizosolenia forms association with green algae Calothrix sp.

FUNGI: Many green algae and BGA live in symbiotic with fungi and form new
group lichens. Green algae Trebouxia is the most common photobiont
(previously known as phycobiont) in lichen.

 Other green algae are Cocomyxa, Trentipohlia etc. Blue-Green Algae

are Nostoc, Scytonema, Stigonema, Gloecapsa etc.

BRYOPHYTES: Nostoc lives in the mucilage filled chambers of Anthoceros

and Notothyllus (Hornworts) thalli.

PTERIDOPHYTES: Anabaena inhabits leaves of water fern Azolla. The latter

is used as a biofertilizer in paddy fields

GYMNOSPERMS: Nostoc and Anabaena live in symbiotic association in the

coralloid roots of Cycas.

ANGIOSPERMS: Nostoc inhabits papillose outgrowth of Gunnera near the

base of their leaves.

SPECIAL HABITATS
1) THERMAL ALGAE (THERMOPHYTES): They grow in hot water springs
at a temperature range of 65-850C, where ordinary plant life is not
possible. Only blue-green algae like Mastigocladus, Phormidium and
Oscillatoria brevis etc.

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2) CRYOPHYTES: Such algae grow in Polar Regions on ice and snow. E.g.
Chalamydomonas spp. and Scottiella sp. among green algae and Nostoc
among BGA algae.

 Haematococcus nivalis causes red snow ball in alpine region.

Anclyclonema nordenskioldii impart brown colour.

3) EPIPHYTES: Algae growing on the surface of other plant parts are called
epiphytes e.g. species of Oedogonium, Ulothrix etc., other examples are
Coleochaete nitellarum grows on Nitella and Chara.

Some algae, such as Trentepohlia, Rhodochytrium, grow on the surface of

angiosperms leaves, called epiphyllophytes. Some algae such as
Pleurococcus sp. grow on barks called epiphloeophytes.

4) ENDOPHYTIC ALGAE: Some algae grows within the tissue of other

plants, e.g. Nostoc grows inside thalli of Anthoceros.

5) EPIZOIC ALGAE OR EPIZOOPHYTES: This has grown on the surface of

other animals, e.g. Cladophora on snails, Cyanoderma (red algae) and
Trichophilus (Green algae) on the scales or outer hairs of Sloth.

6) ENDOZOIC ALAGE OR ENDOZOOPHYTE: Algae growing inside animals,

e.g. Chlorella within the tissue of Hydra and sponges
7) LITHOPHILIC ALGAE: Which grows on rocks e.g. Polysiphonia,
Ectocarpus etc.

8) OTHER ALGAE: Some algae like Dunaliella, Chlamydomonas chrenbergii

grows in water with high salt concentration (Halophilic algae). Fritchiella
grows on acidic soil while Oscillatoria sp., Nostoc etc., grows on alkaline
soil.

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RANGE OF THALLUS ORGANIZATION
Algae exhibits variety in their thallus organization and can be divided into
the following broad categories
(1)Unicelllular Thallus
(2)Colonial thallus
(3)Siphonaceous thallus
(4)Filamentous thallus
(5)Parenchymatous thallus

1) UNICELLULAR FORMS
The plant body is made up of single cell. Which may be motile or non motile.
Unicellular form are absent in Charophyta and Phaeophyta)

i) MOTILE FORMS: show presence of flagella or due to presence of

periplastic nature.
a) FLAGELLATED MOTILE FORMS: e.g. Chlamydomonas, Phacotus,
Chlorochromonas.

b) PERIPLASTIC FORMS: etc. They have soft cell wall and possesses fine
protoplasmic projections known as rhizopodia, which helps in
amoeboid movement e.g. Rhizochloris, Chrysamoeba.

ii) NON-MOTILE FORMS: Lack flagella, e.g. Diatoms, Chlorella,

Chlorococcum, Porphyridium and BGA (Gloeocapsa, Anacystis,
Spirullina).

2) COLONIAL THALLUS: In these form daughter cells which arise as a

result of cell division, remain loosely held together in common gelatinous
mass. These forms are of two types.

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 i) COENOBIAL FORMS: Colonial form with definite number of cells
arranged in definite manner. Coenobium are of two types.

a) MOTILE: They have flagella on their body and are able to move e.g.
Volvox, Eudorina, Pandorina etc.

b) NON-MOTILE: They lack flagella e.g. Hydrodictyon, Pediastrum,

Scenedemus, etc.

ii) CELL AGGREGATION: The daughter cells are not aggregated in a

definite manner in the colony thus the colonies are not of constant
size and shape. They are of following types

a) PALMELLOID FORMS: Cells remain irregularly arranged in a common

gelatinous matrix. They function as independent entities. These forms
may be temporary (Chlamydomonas) or permanent (Tetraspora) other
e.g. Asterococcus, Aphanocapsa.

b) RHIZOPODIAL FORMS: In these colonial forms, cells are aggregated

with each other through rhizopdia e.g. Chrysidiastrum.

c) DENDROID FORMS: Cells are aggregated with each other in a

branching pattern through mucilaginous strands arising from the base
of each cell. Such colonies look like a microscopic tree. E.g.
Ecballocystis, Chrysodendron etc.

3) SIPHONACEOUS COENOCYTIC FORMS:

 Plant body is unicellular and elongated tubular structure (e.g. Charium)
or umbrella shaped uni-nucleate body e.g. Acetabularia.
 In more advanced siphonaceous algae, thallus is aseptate and
multinucleate structure known as coenocytes.

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  Septa develop only to delimit the reproductive organs to seal off the
damaged parts e.g. Protosiphon Botrydium, Vaucheria, Caulerpa.

4) FILAMENTOUS THALLUS: A thread like multi-cellular thallus is known as

filamentous thallus. These are of following types:

i) SIMPLE UNBRANCHED THALLUS: The thallus is simple is simple and

unbranced and may be free floating as in Spirogyra or may be
attached to substratum with the help of rhizodial cells, e.g. Ulothrix,
Oedogonium, Zygnema, Nostoc, Anabaena, Oscillatoria etc.

ii) BRANCHED FILAMENTOUS THALLUS: Thallus give rise to lateral

outgrowth or branches which may be true or false branches.

a) TRUE BRANCHES: True branches arise as a result of occasional cell

division in a second plane e.g. Cladophora.

b) FALSE BRANCHES: False branches arise in blue-green algae e.g.

Scytonema due to breakage and resumption of growth by trichomes
in mucilagenous sheath of filaments

iii) HETEROTRICHOUS THALLUS: Highly evolved filamentous habit

where thallus is differentiated into creeping prostrate and upright erect
systems, e.g. Ectocapus, Fritscheilla, Stigoclonium, Coleochaete.

5) PARENCHYMATOUS THALLUS:
 It is multicellular where cell division takes place in two or more planes.
 If cell division occur in one plane only, flat foliaceous structure are
formed as in Ulva.
 If cell division takes place in more than two plane, tubular (in

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  Codium, Scytosiphon etc.) or complex structure (as in Sargassum)may
be formed.

REPRODUCTION IN ALGAE
REPRODUCTION
o Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual
organisms "offspring" are produced from their "parents".
o Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual
organism exists as the result of reproduction.
o There are three forms of reproduction.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
There are three common methods of reproduction found in algae.
1) Vegetative Reproduction
2) Asexual Reproduction
3) Sexual Reproduction
1) VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
 The vegetative reproduction in algae includes those methods of
propagation in which portion of the plant body become separated off to
give rise to individuals.
 Process does not involve the meiosis, fusion of nuclei and production of
spores.
 Very common mode of multiplication.
 Vegetative reproduction takes place by different methods.

i) BY CELL DIVISION
 The mother cells divide and the daughter cells are produced, which
become new plants.
 It is sometime known as Binary Fission.
 This type of reproduction is found in Diatoms, Euglena.

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ii) FRAGMENTATION
 The plant body breaks into several parts or fragments and each
such fragment develops into an individual.
 This type of vegetative reproduction is commonly met within
filamentous forms, e.g., Ulothrix, Spirogyra etc.
 The fragmentation of colonies also takes place in several blue green
algae, e.g. Aphanothece, Nostoc etc.

iii)BUDDING
 Bud like structure has been reported to develop on the thalli of
Protosiphon.

iv)AMYLUM STARS: They are starch filled, star shaped, cell aggregates
present on the lower node of member of Charophyceae. They
germinate into new plant bodies.

v) TUBERS: Tuber like structure develops on the rhizoids of Cladophora

and Chara. They accumulate food materials. When detached,
germinate into new plants.

vi)ADVENTITIOUS BRANCHES
o Adventitious Branches are formed in some large thalloid forms of
algae.
o These branches when get detached from the parent thallus develops
into new plant.
o Adventitious branch like protonema formed on the internodes of Chara
E.g Dictyota, Fucus.

vii) HORMOGONE FORMATION

o When the trichome's break in small pieces of two or more
cells, such pieces are called ‘hormogones’
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 o In some Blue green algae the fragments undergoes a gliding
movement which are called ‘Hormogones.
o Each hormogone develops into a new plant, e.g., Oscillatoria,
Nostoc etc.

2) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
o Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by which offspring
arise from a single organism, and inherit the genes of that parent only.
o It is reproduction which almost never involves ploidy or reduction.
o The offspring will be exact genetic copies of the parent, except in the
specific case of automixis .
o It involves the rejuvenation of the protoplasts.
o Asexual reproduction occurs through following methods.

(1) BY ZOOSPORES
o These are motile and naked reproductive bodies developed inside
special structures known as zoosporangia.
o They possess two, four or many flagella and are able to swim in water.
o Each zoosporangium may produce only one (Oedogonium), in multiple
of four (Ulothrix) or many (Cladophora) zoospores inside them.
o Flagella may be present at the interior end (green algae) or on the
lateral side (brown algae).
o They are always formed in favourable conditions.
o The zoospores are always motile.

On the basis of number of flagella present on their bodies they are of

following types
i) Biflagellate: Having two flagella, e.g. Chlamydomonas, Ectocarpus.
ii) Quardiflagellate: Having four flagella e.g. Macrozoospores of Ulothrix
iii) Octaflaellate: Having eight flagella, e.g. Polyblepharis.

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 iv) Multiflagellate: Having many flagella e.g. Oedogonium, Synzoospore of
Vaucheria.

(2) APLANOSPORES
 These are non motile spores produced inside sporangia.
 Mostly these are produced by terrestrial algae (e.g. Vaucheria) but also
by Microspora and Ulothrix (aquatic forms)
 For their formation, protoplast of the cell rounds off and develops its
own wall to become aplanospore, also considered as arrested
zoospore.
 Sometimes aplanospores are similar to their parents (Chlorella,
Scenedesmus) in all aspect except size and are known as autospore.
 Vaucheria produces minute size spore in large numbers inside
sporangium, known as microaplanospores.

(3) HYPNOSPORES
These are thick walled, non-motile aplanospores produced by some algae to
tide over the unfavourable conditions, e.g. Chlamydomonas nivalis,
Pediastrum, etc. on return of favourable conditions, hypnospore germinate
into new plant bodies.

 Chlamydomonas nivalis walls become red due to deposition of

haematochrome, responsible for Red Snow phenomenon.
Chlamydomonas nivalis.

(4) AKINETES OR CYST

 It is the types of reproduction very common in the blue green as well
as green algae.
 These akinetes are a type vegetative cell which is thick walled and will
overcome the unfavourable condition.
 Sometimes they are formed in chain.

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  In Protosiphon, akinetes are formed multinucleate protoplast to form
coenocysts. They are known as statospore in diatoms.

(5)MONOSPORES: These are haploid, naked, non-motile and uninucleate

spores produced singly inside the monosporangia during chantrantia
stage in member of class Rhodophyceae. They are liberated after the
rupturing of cell wall.

(6)TETRASPORE: These are non-motile spores produced in groups of four,

inside specialized cells known as tetrasporangia. Tetraspores are sexual
spores known as gonospores and meiospores produced after meiotic
division in diploid nucleus of tetrasporangium. found in Phaeophyceae and
some member of Rhodophyceae

(7)NEUTRAL SPORES: prouduced by direct transformation of the protoplast

of a vegetative cell into a single spore, e.g. Ectocarpus.

(8)CARPOSPORES: (Karpos= fruit + Sporo= seed) are non- motile spores

produced on short filament arising from carpogonium following
fertilization. They are feature of red algae, e.g. Polysiphonia,
Batrachospermum etc.

3) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Conditions for sexual reproduction:
(a) The sexual reproduction takes place after considerable accumulation
of food material and the climax of vegetative activity is over.
(b) The bright light is the major factor for the production of the gametes.
(c) A suitable pH value is required.
(d) The optimum temperature is necessary.

Sexual reproduction is of following types:

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 i) Autogamy
ii) isogamy
iii) Heterogamy
a) Anisogamy
b) Physiological Anisogamy
iv) Aplanogamy or conjugation
v) Parasexuality
AUTOGAMY: Is the fusion of two sister gametes produced inside the same
mother cell.
In this process, only karyogamy takes place. It is important feature of
diatoms.
(i)ISOGAMY:
o Isos = equal, alike + gamos = marriage) is the fusion of two
morphologically and physiologically similar gametes.
o Fusing gametes are known as isogametes.
o The fusion of similar motile gametes is found in many species.
o Usually the gametes taking part in fusion come from two different
individuals or filaments, sometimes these gametes come from two
different cells of the same filament.
o They cannot be classified as "male" or "female." Instead, organisms
undergoing isogamy are said to have different mating types, most
commonly noted as "+" and "-" strains, e.g. many spp. of
Chlamydomonas spp., Ulothix etc.

(ii) HETEROGAMY:
The fusion of dissimilar gametes is called heterogamy. There are two main
types:
(a) Anisogamy:
(b)Physiological Anisogamy

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a) Anisogamy: (Gr. Aniso = unequal + gamos = marriage) is the fusion of
two morphologically and physiologically dissimilar gametes.
 Fusion gametes are known as anisogametes.
 Male gametes are smaller and more active, while the female gametes
are larger and less active, e.g. Chlamydomonas braunii, Pandorina etc.

b) Physiological Anisogamy: When the fusing gametes are

morphologically similar but exhibit different physiological behaviour, the
sexual reproduction is known as physiological anisogamy.
 In this case one gamete is more active and other is sluggish e.g.
Chlamydomonas monoica, Spirogyra, Ectocarpus.
 In E. siliculosus, the sluggish (female) gamete is surrounded by a large
number of more active (male) gametes this type of fusion is known as
clump formation.

(iii) OOGAMY: (Gr. Oion = egg + gamos = marriage) is the fertilization of

a large, non-motile female gamete by small, motile male gamete.
 It is most advanced and highly evolved mode of sexual fusion and
occurs in highly evolved algae, e.g. Chlamydomonas coccifera, C.
ooganum, Volvox, Oedogonium, Chara, Fucus etc.
 In red algae Polysiphonia and Batrachospermum where male gametes
are also non-motile, oogamy is more specialized.
 Here male gametes are known as spermatia and female as carpogonia.

(iv) CONJUGATION OR APLANOGAMY: is the fusion of two similar, non-

motile gametes or cells which facilitate the transfer of genetic material
from one cell to another. The fusing gametes are known as
aplanogametes. E.g. Spirogyra, Zygnema etc.

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(v) PARASEXUALITY: The genetic recombination without the involvement
of sexual reproduction is known as parasexuality e.g. Anacytis, Anabaena
and Cylindrospermum.

LIFE CYCLES IN ALGAE

o The growth and development of algae passes through a number of
distinct morphological and cytological stages in definite orderly
manner. This sequence of orderly changes is called as life cycle or life
history.
o It comprises the sequence of events from zygote of one generation to
the zygote of next generation.
o There are five distinct types of life cycle as found in algae.

HAPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE

 Most common type.
 Life cycle is diphasic.
 Prominent phase is haploid gametophytic phase.
 Sporophytic diploid phase is represented by zygote only.
 Zygote is formed by the fusion of haploid gametes.
 Zygote immediately undergoes meiosis to form haploid zoospores.
 Zoospore on germination form haploid gametophytic generation
 Gametophytic plant produces male and female gametes by mitosis.
 This is the most simple and primitive type of life cycles found in
Chlamydomonas, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, oedogonium, Chara Bangia etc.

DIPLONTIC LIFE CYCLE

 This type of life cycle is the just reversal of haplontic type of life cycle.
 Life cycle is diphasic, but the prominent phase is sporophytic.
 Haploid gametophytic phase is represented only by gametes.
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  Gametes are produced in the gametangia by meiosis.
 Zygote does not undergo meiosis rather develop into the sporophytic
phase by mitosis. E.g. Sargassum, Fucus, Codium

DIPLO-HAPLONTIC LIFE CYLCE

 Haploid and diploid phases are equally prominent
 Gametophyte concerned with production of gametes, which fuse to
form diploid zygote
 Zygote germinates to form diploid sporophytic plant body, which is
concerned with the production of haploid spores.
 The haploid spores are known as meiospores and geminate again to
form gametophyte.
 In this type sporophytic (2n) phase alternates with gametophytic phase
equally.
 On the basis of morphological characters of gametophytic and
sporophytic plants, this life cycle is of two types:

i) Isomorphic type: When both gametophytic and sporophytic plant

bodies are morphologically similar but genetically different, this type of
diplo-haplontic life cycle is known as isomorphic or homologous life
cylce, e.g. Cladophora, Ulva, Dictyota etc.

ii) Heteromorphic type: when gametophytic and sporophytic plant

bodies differ morphologically as well as genetically. Genetically
sporophytic plant body is macroscopic and gametophytic plant body is
comparatively smaller, e.g. Laminaria, Desmaresita. In few cases this
process is vice-versa, e.g. Cutlaria, Urospora

DIPHASIC HAPLO-BIONTIC LIFE CYCLE

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 o Two haploid gametophytic plant bodies alternate with sporophytic
phase of short duration represented by zygote.
o Main plant body is free living gametophyte concerned with production
of gametes
o Gamete fuses to form zygote
o Zygote undergoes meiotic division and form small parasitic haploid
carposporophyte.
o Terminal cell of carposporophyte behave as carposporangia, which
produce haploid carpospores
o Carpospores germinates into haploid gametophytic plant body, e.g.
Primitive red algae such as Nemalion.

TRIPHASIC HAPLO-BIONTIC LIFE CYCLE

o Three prominent haploid gametophytic plant bodies alternates with
sporophytic phase of short duration
o Represented by zygote.
o Similar to diphasic haplo-biontic life cycle, except one additonal
haploid ‘Chatrantia stage’ after haploid carposporophyte.
o Carpospore geminate to produce haploid independent chatrantia
stage, which give rise to independent main gametophytic plant body
as lateral growth. e.g. Batrachospermum

DIPLOBIONTIC LIFE CYCLE

o Most complex and advance type of life cycle.
o Triphasic life cycle:
o Among three phases two will be diploid and one will be haploid.
o Diplobiontic life cycle is found in Rhodophycean members exept
Nemalionales.
o Polysiphonia is showing such Haplodiplontic life cycle:
 Carposporophyte ; diploid

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  Gametophyte; haploid
 Tetrasporophyte; diploid
o Diploid zygote develop mitotically into diploid
Carposporophyte
 Carposporophyte produce diploid carpospore.
 Carpospore germinate into diploid tetrasporophyte which in turn
produces haploid tetrsapore by meoisis.
 Tetraspore germinates into haploid gametophytic plant body which
produces haploid gametes.
 These gametes later on get fused to form zygote. Also known as Diplo-
diplohaplontic.

It is further of two types:

i) Isomorphic type: free living independent generations are
morphologically similar, e.g. Polysiphonia.
ii) Heteromorphic: When two free living generations are morphologically
dissimilar, also known as heteromorphic or heterologous.e.g order
Nemalionales.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE
o Fritsch’s Classification of Algae:
o F.E. Fritsch (1935, 1945) in his book “The Structure and Reproduction
of the Algae” proposed a system of classification of algae. He divided it
into 11 classes. His classification of algae is mainly based upon
characters of pigments, flagella and reserve food material.
o Eleven classes proposed by Fritsch are as follows:
1. Chlorophyceae
2. Xanthophyceae
3. Chrysophyceae
4. Bacillariophyceae

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5. Cryptophyceae
6. Dinophyceae
7. Chloromonadineae
8. Euglenineae
9. Phaeophyceae
10. Rhodophyceae
11. Myxophyceae(Blue green algae)

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