GEN BIO

GENBIO - General Biology​

1st Semester 1st Grading

ORGANELLES
CELL — subcellular structure that has one or more specific
— cells are the primary building blocks of life.
functions.
DISCOVERY OF CELLS
1.​ CELL MEMBRANE
●​ Rober Hooke (1665)
-​ first person to observe a cell under a
microscope
-​ published his book entitled
“Micrographia”.
-​ the one who coined the term “cells”
when describing the cork under a
microscope.
●​ Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek
-​ “Father of Bacteriology”
-​ observed “animalcules” using his
own practical microscope. — cell’s primary barrier, a semi-permeable organelle
-​ he put a piece of fabric under a that separates the cytoplasm from external
microscope he made called a “single environment.
lens microscope” and saw bacteria. — composed of lipid bilayer (phospholipid bilayer)
-​ another story is that he tested a gunk
leading to the discovery of bacteria. 2.​ CELL WALL

CELL THEORY
key contributor to the development of cell theory:
●​ Theodor Schwann
-​ animals are composed of cell
●​ Matthias Jakod Schleiden
-​ botanist, plants are composed of cells.
●​ Rudolf Virchow
-​ all cell came from preexisting cells.
CELL THEORY:
1.​ all organisms are made up of cells.
2.​ a cell is the basic structural and functional
unit of organisms. — found in plants.
3.​ all cells come from preexisting cells. — a rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane
and provides support to the cell
CELL - TISSUES - ORGAN - ORGAN SYSTEM -
ORGANISM 3.​ CYTOPLASM

EUKARYOTES & PROKARYOTES

★​ EUKARYOTES
-​ cells that have complex structures
(membrane-bound organelles) and nucleus
-​ can be multicellular or unicellular
★​ PROKARYOTES
-​ cells of organisms that lack a
membrane-bound nucleus and organelles.
-​ unicellular
— a jelly-like substance the cell organelles float in,
-​
composed of cytosol
GEN BIO
GENBIO - General Biology​
1st Semester 1st Grading

4.​ MITOCHONDRION
7.​ GOLGI BODIES/GOLGI APPARATUS

— is responsible for ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

synthesis through cellular respiration.
— “powerhouse of the cell” — package cellular materials and transport them
within the cell or out of the cell (package and sorting)
5.​ LYSOSOME — modify, store, and route products of the
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

8.​ CHLOROPLASTS

— the digestive system of cells, eats toxins and over

lipids.
— contain enzymes that degrade foreign bodies or
old organelles
— organelle found in plants
— It contains green pigment, which is used to
6.​ VACUOLES
produce food through photosynthesis.

9.​ ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

— stores food, water, waste, and other materials. — produce proteins for the rest of the cell to function
— smooth er (no ribosomes & produce lipids), rough
er (has ribosomes & produce proteins)
GEN BIO
GENBIO - General Biology​
1st Semester 1st Grading

10.​ RIBOSOMES 13.​ CENTRIOLES

— are sites where proteins are synthesized by

translation of mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid)

11.​ NUCLEUS
—
14.​ FLAGELLUM

— contains the cell’s genetic information in the form

of chromosome
— a tail-like structure used for propulsion
— The nucleolus is the site where the process of
— organelle for locomotion
mRNA happens

12.​ CYTOSKELETON

— gives a cell structural framework that is

responsible for maintaining the shape and
movement of the cell.
GEN BIO
GENBIO - General Biology​
1st Semester 1st Grading

EPITHELIAL TISSUES ●​ TRANSITIONAL

— are the ones lining our body cavities and organs.
-​ several layers of cells and is
— it functions in four major ways— protection,
designed to stretch and return to a
absorption, secretion, and excretion
normal state without damage
— are packed closely together allowing little or no
intercellular material between them

CHARACTERISTIC:
-​ has an apical surface which is free and has a
basal surface attached to the basement
membrane
-​ avascular (no blood vessels between tissue
cells)
-​ highly mitotic (divides rapidly)
-​ minimal neural connections

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SHAPE:

1.​ SQUAMOUS (flattened cell)
-​ cell width is larger than the height

note: when cells of the tissues contain cilia, the term

ciliated is usually added
e.g. stratified ciliated columnar epithelium
(arrangement-ciliated/not-shape-epithelium)
2.​ CUBOIDAL (cube-like cell)
-​ cell width is equal to cell height CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTION:
●​ Mucous Membrane
-​ an epithelial tissue that secretes mucus.
-​ found lining many body cavities and tubular
organs including guts and respiratory
passages
3.​ COLUMNAR (column-like cells) ●​ Glandular Epithelium
-​ cell height is larger than the cell width -​ forms glands that produce and secrete
specific products
-​ glands are involutions of epithelial cells.
●​ Endothelium
-​ a simple squamous epithelium that lines the
interior of the circulatory vessels and heart.
●​ Mesothelium
-​ a simple squamous epithelium that lines the
peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities
and covers viscera (internal organs).
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ARRANGEMENT:
●​ SIMPLE
-​ one cell layer
●​ STRATIFIED
-​ several layers of cells
●​ PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
-​ It looks like it has several layers, but it
only has a single layer.
GEN BIO
GENBIO - General Biology​
1st Semester 1st Grading

CONNECTIVE TISSUES -​ transport of respiratory gases, nutrients,

— the second major type of tissue
wastes, and other substances.
— various functions such as protection, storage,
support, binding, and synthesis of blood
— mechanical support for other tissues and as an
avenue for communication and transport between
tissues

CHARACTERISTICS:
a.​ many types of cells are present and they are
widely spread unlike in the epithelial tissue
b.​ since cells are scattered, the intercellular
space is filled with materials called
extracellular matrix consisting mostly of
ground substances and fibers.
c.​ highly vascular (filled with blood vessels)
unlike the epithelial tissue.

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES MUSCLE TISSUES

1.​ Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue — the main function is for movement
-​ loose arrangement of fibers and cells — it can contract and relax.
2.​ Adipose Tissue — muscle contractility is due to the interaction of
-​ insulation, energy storage, and cushioning. proteins in the muscle cells; actin and myosin
storage for fat/lipids (muscle fibers)
3.​ Reticular Connective Tissue
-​ network of reticular fibers in a loose-ground TYPES:
substance 1.​ SKELETAL MUSCLE
4.​ Dense Regular Connective Tissue -​ are long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells with
-​ muscles to bone (tendons), bone to bone obvious striations (alternating light(actin)
(ligaments), withstands great tensile stress in and dark(myosin) bands)
one direction -​ has voluntary movements and is found
5.​ Dense Irregular Connective Tissue attached to the bone and occasionally to the
-​ can withstand tension from many directions, skin.
and provides structural strength. (skin -
dermis)
6.​ Elastic Connective Tissues
-​ allows tissues to recoil after stretching
7.​ Cartilage
-​ supports, reinforces, cushions, and resists
compression
-​ found in joints, rib cage, ear, nose, and
intervertebral discs.
8.​ Bone (Osseous Tissue)
-​ hard, calcified matrix, highly vascularized. 2.​ CARDIAC MUSCLE
-​ stores minerals, enables movement, site of -​ branching, striated, generally uninucleated
blood cell formation. cells that interdigitate at specialized
9.​ Blood junctions (intercalated disc)
-​ fluid connective tissue -​ as it contacts, it propels blood into the
circulation; and has involuntary control
GEN BIO
GENBIO - General Biology​
1st Semester 1st Grading

-​ can be seen in the walls of the heart HOW DOES A NEURON RECEIVE AND TRANSMIT NERVE
IMPULSES TO ANOTHER NEURON?

Dendrites -> Cell Body -> Axon -> Axon Terminal

3.​ SMOOTH MUSCLE

-​ spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no
striations, cells arranged closely to form
sheets
when nerve impulses reach the axon terminal, they
-​ propels substance/object along internal
will be converted into a chemical message by
passageways; involuntary control
releasing a chemical substance called
-​ can be mostly seen in the walls of hollow
neurotransmitter (this is due to the electrical nature
organs like the digestive tract, bladder,
of the nerve impulses).
arteries, and other internal organs.

the very small gap between the axon terminal and

the dendrite of the other neuron is called Synapse.

NERVOUS TISSUES
— is the main tissue component of the nervous
system which functions to control the body and
coordinate with body parts
— is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
— control responses of the organism to different
stimuli
●​ Neuron - one responsible for conducting
nerve impulses (electrical signals
transmitted along the nerve) throughout the
nervous system.
●​ Neuroglia - is a group of cells that provide
support and nourishment to the neurons
GEN BIO
GENBIO - General Biology​
1st Semester 1st Grading

CELLULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISM 2.​ ACTIVE TRANSPORT

TYPES:
-​ requires energy in the form of ATP
1.​ PASSIVE TRANSPORT
(adenosine triphosphate) as a transfer of
-​ transport does not require energy
substance.
-​ natural movement of a substance
TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
➢​ Diffusion
➢​ Primary Active Transport
-​ movement of substances from an area of
-​ transport that directly uses ATP for
high concentration to an area of low
energy. e.g. SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
concentration
-​ SDP binds three sodium ions and a
●​ Simple Diffusion - molecules
molecule of ATP and is then driven
move down their gradients
through the channel. The new shape of
through the membrane. small
the channel allows 2 potassium ions to
and non-polar. Ex. Oxygen
bind.
●​ Facilitated Diffusion - diffusion
DEPOLARISATION VS REPOLARISATION
that is helped by a membrane
●​ Depolarisation - cell's internal charge
transport channel/carriers. Ex.
becomes less negative.
Aquaporin
●​ Repolarisation - cell’s internal charge
becomes more negative. it is the return of
the internal charge to its original resting
state.

●​ Osmosis - movement of solvent

particles in a semi-permeable
membrane into a region of higher
solute concentration.
note: Solute is the substance being dissolved, the e.g. Sodium-Potassium Pump: 3 sodium ions

solvent is the one dissolving it, and a solution is a enter the cytoplasm and in exchange, 2

combination of both. potassium ions go to the extracellular (outside

the cell).

Tonicity of Solutions:
-​ Hypertonic: higher concentration of ➢​ Secondary Active Transport

solute, resulting in the cell being flaccid -​ moves multiple molecules across the

(shrink/wrinkle) this is due to loss of water membrane, powring the uphill movement

and in extreme cases, the cell will be of one molecule(s) (A) with the downhill

plasmolyzed or die of dehydration. movement of the others (B)

-​ Isotonic: equal concentration across and -​ Antiport: transportation of 2 different

there are no changes molecules/ions passing through a

-​ Hypotonic: lower concentration of solute; membrane in the opposite direction

resulting in bursting of cells.

GEN BIO
GENBIO - General Biology​
1st Semester 1st Grading

-​ Symport: movement of 2 molecules in the

same direction across the membrane.
-​ Uniport: when a particular type of
molecule moves across a membrane,
independent of other molecule.

3.​ Vesicle Mediated Transport

-​ transported substances are moved in
membrane-bounded vesicles.
➢​ Endocytosis: transport towards inside the
MITOSIS
cell using ATP to move large molecules
— 2n daughter cells
-​ Phagocytosis (“cell eating”) — produces two genetically identical diploid
-​ Pinocytosis (“cell drinking”) daughter cells.
➢​ Exocytosis: transport towards outside the — somatic cells
cell to transport the molecules/ions
PHASES: (PMAT)
across the membrane
1.​ PROPHASE
-​ dna strands are duplicated and condensed
into chromosomes.
-​ nuclear envelope dissolves
-​ mitotic spindle forms and spindle fibers bind
CELL CYCLE to kinetochore
— series of events that lead to cell reproduction 2.​ METAPHASE
— it is to replace, repair, and grow the cells -​ each duplicate chromosomes (sister
chromatids) attach to spindle poles
●​ GAP 1 (G1 PHASE) -​ sister chromatids line up at the equatorial
-​ cells grow in size and copy organelles. plane
-​ G1 checkpoint - checks for cell size, nutrients, 3.​ ANAPHASE
growth factors, and DNA damage. -​ spindle fibers attach to centromeres and
●​ S PHASE chromatids are pulled apart to each side of
-​ cell synthesizes a copy of its DNA (DNA the cell
replication). -​ chromatids are now independent
●​ GAP 2 (G2 PHASE) chromosomes
-​ cells continue to grow 4.​ TELOPHASE
-​ G2 checkpoint - checks for cell size and DNA -​ chromosomes de-condense
replication. -​ nuclear envelope forms around the
●​ M Phase chromosomes
-​ involves either meiosis/mitosis. -​ CYTOKINESIS - division of the cell’s cytoplasm
-​ sex cells/gametes undergo meiosis including its components.
-​ somatic cells/non-sex cells undergo mitosis
●​ SPINDLE ASSEMBLY CHECKPOINT MEIOSIS
-​ checks for chromosome attachment to — n daughter cells
spindle. — division in germ cells to produce genetically unique
●​ G0 haploid gametes
-​ resting state/phase — gametes/sex cells
GEN BIO
GENBIO - General Biology​
1st Semester 1st Grading

PHASES:

●​ P53 GENE
-​ tumor suppressor protein that helps in
preventing cancer

BINARY FISSION
CELL CYCLE REGULATORS — cell division in unicellular organisms
— cell grows to roughly double its size and then
●​ CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES (CDK) divides to form two cells.
-​ key role in regulating the cell cycle,
transcription, and other cellular processes
— G1 CYCLINS, G1/S CYCLINS, S CYCLINS, and M
CYCLINS