5.

Housing and Living Conditions

• Access to Affordable Housing: The proportion of income spent on
housing, as well as the quality and safety of housing conditions, which affects
the stability of livelihoods.
• Sanitation and Clean Water Access: Access to clean water and
sanitation facilities, which impacts health and productivity. Poor conditions can
lead to waterborne diseases that drain household resources and productivity.
• Crowding and Overcrowding: The number of people per household or
room, which can indicate living standards and the pressure on available
resources.

6. Social Protection and Welfare

• Social Safety Nets: Availability of government or community-based
support systems, such as unemployment benefits, food assistance, and
pensions, which help protect people from economic shocks.
• Access to Insurance: The availability of health, life, or agricultural
insurance that allows households to manage risks (e.g., illness, crop failure)
that could threaten their livelihoods.
• Retirement Security: Availability of pension plans or other savings
schemes that provide security for individuals and families as they age.
7. Cultural and Social Norms
• Cultural Practices and Traditions: How cultural values, customs, and
traditions impact livelihoods. For example, gender roles, family structures, or
community obligations may influence the economic activities and access to
resources.
• Social Mobility: The ability of individuals to improve their socio-
economic status, often influenced by factors like education, family background,
and access to networks. Low social mobility can perpetuate poverty and limit
livelihood improvements.

8. Migration and Urbanization

• Internal Migration: The movement of people from rural to urban areas
or within regions, often in search of better livelihood opportunities. This can
impact both rural and urban livelihood systems.
• International Migration and Remittances: Migration for work to other
countries can send remittances back home, contributing to household income.
However, migration can also lead to loss of labor in certain sectors.
• Urbanization and Livelihood Transitions: The shift from agriculture-
based to urban or industrial livelihoods as more people migrate to cities. This
often impacts both rural economies and urban infrastructures, affecting
livelihoods.

9. Security and Safety

 Crime and Violence: The level of violence, crime, and insecurity in a
community or region. These factors can destabilize livelihoods by
disrupting work, destroying assets, and increasing the cost of living.
 Conflict and Displacement: The impact of war, political instability, or
natural disasters, which can displace communities and disrupt their
livelihoods, leading to long-term economic hardship.

10. Political and Legal Environment

 Governance and Political Stability: The effectiveness of governance
structures, rule of law, and political stability, which can either promote
or hinder livelihood systems. Corruption, for example, can limit access
to resources and services.
 Property Rights: The security of land tenure and property rights, which
determine whether people can invest in land or housing and generate
wealth.
 Legal Protections for Workers: Availability of labour rights, minimum
wage laws, and workplace safety regulations, which can protect people’s
livelihoods from exploitation.

Environmental Indicators to Study Livelihood Systems: -

To study livelihood systems, environmental indicators are crucial for
understanding the interaction between people’s livelihoods and the
environment. These indicators help assess how environmental conditions and
resource availability influence economic activities, the sustainability of
livelihoods, and the resilience of communities. Environmental factors, such as
natural resource access, climate change, and ecosystem health, directly affect
people's ability to maintain and improve their livelihoods. Here are key
environmental indicators to consider:

1. Natural Resource Availability

 Land Use and Land Cover: The types of land use (agriculture, forests,
urban areas, etc.) and changes in land cover over time (deforestation,
urban expansion) are indicators of the pressure on natural resources and
the sustainability of livelihoods dependent on land-based activities.
 Water Availability: The quantity and quality of freshwater resources
available for irrigation, drinking, and industrial use. Water scarcity can
severely limit agricultural productivity and household well-being.
 Soil Quality and Fertility: Measures of soil health, including nutrient
levels, pH, and erosion, are vital for agriculture-based livelihoods.
Degraded soil can lead to lower crop yields and income for farming
households.
 Biodiversity: The diversity of species in an area, which can support food
security, medicine, and other resources. Loss of biodiversity, especially
in rural areas, can lead to decreased availability of resources critical for
livelihoods (e.g., non-timber forest products, fisheries).

2. Climate and Weather Patterns

 Temperature and Precipitation Trends: Long-term data on
temperature and rainfall patterns are key indicators of climate variability.
Changes in these patterns can directly affect agricultural productivity,
water availability, and the occurrence of extreme weather events (e.g.,
droughts or floods).
 Frequency of Extreme Weather Events: The occurrence of extreme
weather events such as floods, droughts, hurricanes, or heatwaves. These
events disrupt livelihoods, especially in rural and coastal areas, causing
damage to crops, homes, and infrastructure.
 Seasonality of Agriculture: Shifts in planting and harvesting seasons
due to climate change can affect the timing and yield of agricultural
production, impacting food security and income stability.
  Climate Change Vulnerability: The susceptibility of communities to
the impacts of climate change, including sea-level rise, changing rainfall
patterns, and temperature extremes, which can threaten livelihoods,
particularly in coastal and agricultural communities.

3. Ecosystem Health and Services

 Forest Cover and Deforestation: Monitoring forest area, deforestation
rates, and forest degradation provides insights into the sustainability of
livelihoods that depend on forests (e.g., for fuelwood, timber, and non-
timber products).
 Wetland Health: The status of wetlands, including the extent of
wetlands lost or degraded, is critical for communities that rely on
fishing, agriculture, and water resources.
 Coral Reef and Marine Ecosystem Health: The health of coral reefs
and marine ecosystems is vital for coastal livelihoods, particularly in
fishing and tourism undermine local economies.
 Pollution Levels: Environmental pollution, including air, water, and soil
pollution, can reduce the quality of life and economic productivity,
particularly in urban and industrial areas. It can affect health, agriculture,
and fisheries, threatening livelihoods.

4. Energy Availability and Use

 Access to Renewable Energy: The availability and access to clean
energy sources, such as solar, wind, or hydropower, which can improve
livelihoods by providing more reliable and sustainable energy for
household use, agriculture, and industry.
 Energy Consumption Patterns: The use of energy for cooking,
heating, and industrial activities, particularly in rural areas where
reliance on traditional biomass (wood, charcoal) can affect health and
sustainability.
 Energy Efficiency: The efficiency of energy use in households,
agriculture, and industries. Low energy efficiency can strain household
resources, leading to economic instability.

5. Agricultural and Livelihood Sustainability

  Crop Diversity: The range of crops grown within a community or
household, which can determine the resilience of agricultural systems to
pests, diseases, or climate shocks. High diversity can reduce
vulnerability and increase food security.
 Sustainable Agricultural Practices: The extent to which farmers adopt
sustainable practices (e.g., crop rotation, agroforestry, organic farming),
which improve soil health, water retention, and long-term productivity.
 Water Use Efficiency: Measures of how effectively water is used in
agriculture and other sectors. Efficient irrigation techniques, such as drip
irrigation, can reduce water waste and improve the sustainability of
water resources.

6. Land Degradation and Desertification

 Soil Erosion: The rate at which soil is eroded by wind or water, which
depletes land fertility and can reduce agricultural productivity, making
farming livelihoods unsustainable.
 Desertification: The process by which fertile land becomes desert, often
due to overgrazing, deforestation, or poor agricultural practices.
Desertification threatens
 Destructive Agricultural Practices: Indicators of unsustainable practices
such as monoculture farming, excessive use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, or overgrazing, which can lead to long-term environmental
degradation and reduced livelihood options.

7. Forest and Wildlife Resources

 Forest Biomass and Carbon Sequestration: The amount of carbon stored
in forests, which provides a measure of the role forests play in mitigating
climate change and their potential value in carbon markets. Forests also
support livelihoods through timber, fuelwood, and non-timber products.
 Wildlife Population Trends: The health of wildlife populations in areas
where wildlife-based livelihoods (such as tourism or hunting) are
important. Decreases in wildlife populations can lead to a loss of income
and cultural resources.
 Illegal Resource Exploitation: Rates of illegal logging, fishing, or
poaching, which can threaten both the sustainability of local ecosystems
and the livelihoods dependent on these resources.
8. Sustainability of Resource Management Systems
 Community-based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM): The
effectiveness of community-driven resource management systems that
help sustain livelihoods while protecting ecosystems. Indicators could
include participation levels, resource regeneration rates, and conflict
resolution effectiveness.
 Sustainable Fisheries Management: The sustainability of fish stocks and
fishing practices, particularly in coastal communities. Overfishing and
poor management can lead to a collapse of the fishing sector, impacting
local economies.
 Integrated Watershed Management: The effectiveness of integrated
approaches to managing water resources within a watershed to prevent
over-extraction, pollution, and degradation.
9. Ecosystem-Based Adaptation to Climate Change
 Coastal and Forest Buffers: The presence of natural barriers such as
mangroves, wetlands, and forests that protect communities from natural
disasters like floods, storms, and sea-level rise.
 Ecosystem Services Valuation: The economic value of ecosystem
services provided
 such as pollination, flood regulation, water purification, and soil fertility.
10. Environmental Policies and Governance
 Environmental Policy Implementation: The strength and effectiveness of
environmental policies aimed at conserving natural resources, reducing
pollution, and promoting sustainable practices.
 Environmental Awareness and Education: The level of public awareness
and education about environmental sustainability and its relationship to
livelihoods. Communities with higher environmental literacy are more
likely to adopt sustainable practices.