CHAPTER 9 (B)

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Overview
Electric Components
1. Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing cells, batteries, power supplies, generators, potential
dividers, switches, resistors (fixed and variable), heaters, thermistors (NTC only), light-dependent resistors
(LDRs), lamps, motors, ammeters, voltmeters, magnetizing coils, transformers, fuses and relays, and know
how these components behave in the circuit.
2. Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and know how
these components behave in the circuit
Parallel and Series Circuit
1. Know that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same
2. Know how to construct and use series and parallel circuits
3. Calculate the combined e.m.f. of several sources in series
4. Calculate the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series
5. State that, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current in each branch
6. State that the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by itself
7. State the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a lighting circuit
8. Recall and use in calculations, the fact that:
(a) the sum of the currents entering a junction in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the currents that leave
the junction
(b) the total p.d. across the components in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual p.d.s across
each component
(c) the p.d. across an arrangement of parallel resistances is the same as the p.d. across one branch in the
arrangement of the parallel resistances
12. Explain that the sum of the currents into a junction is the same as the sum of the currents out of the
junction
13. Calculate the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel
Potential Divider
1. Know that the p.d. across an electrical conductor increases as its resistance increases for a constant
current
2. Describe the action of a variable potential divider
3. Recall and use the equation for two resistors used as a potential divider 𝑅1𝑅2=𝑉1𝑉2
Electric Hazards
1. State the hazards of:
(a) damaged insulation
(b) overheating cables
(c) damp conditions
(d) excess current from overloading of plugs, extension leads, single and multiple sockets when using a mains
supply
2. Know that a mains circuit consists of a live wire (line wire), a neutral wire and an earth wire and explain why
a switch must be connected to the live wire for the circuit to be switched off safely
3. Explain the use and operation of trip switches and fuses and choose appropriate fuse ratings and trip switch
settings
4. Explain why the outer casing of an electrical appliance must be either non conducting (double-insulated) or
earthed
5. State that a fuse without an earth wire protects the circuit and the cabling for a double-insulated appliance

Khizar Yousaf
[Email address]
 CHAPTER 9 (B) ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Standard Circuit Symbols

The diagram below shows the various circuit symbols that could be used in circuit
diagrams. You will be expected to know what each one is.

Diode Circuit Symbol

In addition to the above, you should be able to recognize and
draw the circuit symbol for a diode:
A diode is a component that only allows a current in one direction.
(Note: diodes are occasionally drawn with a horizontal line running through the
middle of them)

Khizar Yousaf/ Zeeshan Raza 1|Page

 CHAPTER 9 (B) ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Forward biased:
Forward bias is when the
positive pole (P-type) of the diode
is connected to the positive
terminal and the negative pole
(N-type) is connected to the
negative terminal of the power
supply. In forward bias current
flows as the resistance is very
low as the gap between the P-
type and N-type decreases.
Reversed biased:
Reverse bias is just the opposite. The
positive pole (P-type) is connected to
the negative terminal and the
negative pole (N-type) is connected to
the positive terminal of the power
supply. This restricts the flow of
current as the resistance is very high
due to the increase in the gap
between the P-type and N-type.

Series Circuits

• A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components,

connected end to end:
• In a series circuit the current has only one way to pass so it, is the
same at all points.

Khizar Yousaf/ Zeeshan Raza 2|Page

 CHAPTER 9 (B) ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Potential Difference in Series

When several cells are connected together in series, their combined E.m.f is equal
to the sum of their individual [Link]

• In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the

components is equal to the total EMF of the power supply.
• In a series circuit the components share the EMF of the power
supply.
Disadvantages of series circuit.
• As the voltage/Emf is divided through each lamp so brightness of each bulb
decreases.
• If one component in a series circuit fails, then all the components in the circuit
fail because the circuit has been broken.
• The more components there are in a series circuit, the greater the circuit’s
resistance.

Advantages of series combination:

• Cells connected in series give a greater resultant voltage than individual cells.
• Voltage increases if the number of cells increases.
• Series circuits do not overheat easily.
Resistors in Series:
When two or more components are connected in series:
“The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of
individual resistances.”

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉 ) = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑅𝑐 ) = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

• The combined resistance is always greater

than the individual resistance.

• When several components are connected in series, their combined resistance

is equal to the sum of their individual resistances.

Khizar Yousaf/ Zeeshan Raza 3|Page

 CHAPTER 9 (B) ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Parallel Circuits:
A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along
separate branches of the circuit.

The advantages of this kind of circuit are:

• The components can be individually controlled, using their own

switches.
• If one component stops working the others will continue to function
• In a parallel circuit, the current splits up - some of it going one way and the rest
going the other.
• This means that the current in each branch will be smaller than the current
from the power supply.

Determining Current in Parallel:

Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each

branch will equal the current from the power supply.

In a parallel circuit, the current splits up, dividing

between the various branches of the circuit.

• Note that the current does not always split equally –

often there will be more current in some branches than in others.
• The current in each branch will only be identical if the components along each
branch are identical (or at least have the same resistance)

Resistors in Parallel:

When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance decreases and is
less than the resistance of any of the individual components.

If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the combined

resistance will halve.

The above resistors will have a combined resistance of 2 Ω − half the value of each
resistor.

Khizar Yousaf/ Zeeshan Raza 4|Page

 CHAPTER 9 (B) ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Determining Resistance in Parallel:

More generally, to determine the combined resistance of any combination of two

resistors, you must use the equation:

1 1 1
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑅 1+𝑅2
1 2

For more than two resistors:

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Comparison of Series and Parallel Circuits:

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

• One pathway circuit • Two or more pathways

circuit
• Current (flow of electric • Current splits, passes
charge) same anywhere in through pathways, adds up
the circuit. again.
• Voltage (measure of • Voltage across each
strength of electric power) pathway equals supply
shared in ratio to voltage.
resistance

Khizar Yousaf/ Zeeshan Raza 5|Page

 CHAPTER 9 (B) ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Potential divider:

When two resistors are connected in series, the potential difference across the

power source is shared between them.

A potential divider splits the potential

difference of a power source between two
components.

The potential difference across each resistor

depends upon its resistance:

• The resistor with the largest resistance will have a greater potential difference
than the other one.
• If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it will get a greater share of
the potential difference, whilst the other resistor will get a smaller share.

Light-dependent resistor (LDR):

LDR is a special type of resistor whose resistance increases when light shines on it.
The bulb lights up when the LDR is put in the dark. The principle is used in lamps
which come ON automatically at night.

The LDR is a part of a potential divider. In daylight, the LDR has a

low resistance and a low share of battery voltage-too low to switch
the transistor on. In darkness, the resistance of the LDR rises considerably, and
does it share of battery voltage. Now, the voltage across the LDR is high enough to
switch the transistor on, so the bulb lights up.

Khizar Yousaf/ Zeeshan Raza 6|Page

 CHAPTER 9 (B) ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Hazards of Electricity

Mains electricity is potentially lethal – potential differences as small as 50 volts can

pose a serious hazard to individuals.

Common hazards include:

Damaged Insulation – if someone touches an

exposed piece of wire, they could be subjected to a
lethal shock.

Overheating of cables – Passing too much current

through too small a wire (or leaving a long length of
wire tightly coiled) can lead to the wire overheating.

This could cause a fire or melt the insulations,

Signs, like the above, warn
of the risk of electrocution.
exposing live wires

Damp conditions – If moisture comes into contact with live wires, the moisture
could conduct electricity either causing a short circuit within a device (which

could cause a fire) or posing an electrocution risk.

Fuses:

A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an

appliance if the current becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge)

• Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains a thin metal wire.
• If the current in the wire becomes too large:
o The wire heats up and melts.
o This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current.
• Fuses come in a variety of sizes (typically 3A, 5A and 13A) - in order to select
the right fuse for the job, you need to know how much current an appliance
needs.
• If you know the power of the appliance (along with mains voltage), the current
can be calculated using the equation:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

Khizar Yousaf/ Zeeshan Raza 7|Page

 CHAPTER 9 (B) ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the current
needed by the appliance, without being too high - always choose the next size up.

Example:

• Suppose an appliance uses 3.1 amps.

o A 3A use would be too small - the fuse would blow as soon as the

appliance was switched on.

o A 13A fuse would be too large - it would allow an extra 10 amps to pass through
the appliance before it finally blew.
o A 5A fuse would be an appropriate choice, as it is the next size up.

Earthing

• Many electrical appliances have metal cases.

• This poses a potential safety hazard:
o If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case, the case
would become electrified and anyone who touched in would risk electrocution.
• The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this risk.

A diagram showing the three wires going to a main powered appliance: live,
neutral and earth
If this happens:
The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth.
His causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the live wire
The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break.
This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it safe.

Khizar Yousaf/ Zeeshan Raza 8|Page