Research report 1

Cannabidiol on aggression in betta fish (Betta splendens)

Mariangel Varelaa,b, Charlotte C. Gardc and Wiebke J. Boeingd

Cannabidiol (CBD) was first isolated in the 1940s and aggressive behaviors, CBD did not appear to reduce the
its drug structure was established in the 1960s. It has amount of time fish spent being aggressive compared to
risen significantly in popularity since then and has been aggressive fish that did not receive any CBD treatment.
observed to reduce inflammation and anxiety in patients. While the long-term effects of CBD still have to be
CBD is easy to obtain and consume, therefore, its examined, our study indicates that CBD might be effective
common use is rising and has spread to use in pets and in reducing aggression in Betta fish and potentially
children. Few studies have focused on the use of CBD as other pets. Behavioural Pharmacology XXX: XXXX–XXXX
a solution to aggression. In our study, we tested if CBD is Copyright © 2025 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights
effective in reducing aggression in Siamese fighting fish reserved.
(Betta splendens) induced by territorial interactions. Betta Behavioural Pharmacology XXX, XXX:XXXX–XXXX
fish were exposed to controls (water or acetone) and CBD
treatments ranging from low, medium, and high (2, 10, Keywords: aggressive behavior, betta fish, cannabidiol, territoriality

and 20 mg CBD/L, respectively), and their behaviors after Department of Animal and Range Sciences, New Mexico State University, Las
a

the visual introduction of an intruder fish were recorded. Cruces, New Mexico, bSchool of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences,
University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, cDepartment of Economics, Applied
CBD reduced the odds of aggressive behavior in treated Statistics, and International Business and dDepartment of Fish, Wildlife, and
fish. Seventy-five percent of all control fish exhibited Conservation Ecology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico,
USA
aggressive behaviors, while only 17% of CBD-treated
fish displayed aggression. Especially, the low CBD dose Correspondence to Wiebke J. Boeing, PhD, Department of Fish, Wildlife, and
Conservation Ecology, New Mexico State University, 2980, S. Espina, 132, Knox
seemed effective at preventing aggressive behaviors but Hall, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA
fish also appeared more lethargic than in any of the other E-mail: wboeing@[Link]
treatments. However, when CBD-treated fish displayed Received 13 August 2023 Accepted as revised 6 March 2025.

Introduction disorder (Holdman et al., 2022) and been successfully

Aggression is a common characteristic of many person- prescribed to patients who have shown resistance to
ality disorders including posttraumatic stress disorder other drugs (Reis et al., 2020).
(Hecker et al., 2015), autism spectrum disorder (Kanne
CBD was first isolated in the 1940s and has been of
and Mazurek, 2011), and bipolar disorder (Ballester
high interest since then (Adams et al., 1940). Its drug
et al., 2012). Aggression is defined as a hostile interac-
structure was identified in the 1960s (Carvalho et al.,
tion during which one individual tries to harm another
2020), and like other cannabinoids, including delta-9-
individual (Miczek et al., 2007). It may be triggered by
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), CBD has shown much
hormones or competitive interactions (De Almeida et al.,
promise in the biomedical field. Unlike THC, however,
2015). Medications like olanzapine, clozapine, and oth-
CBD has not been shown to produce the hallucinatory
ers have been shown to reduce the symptoms of psy-
effect that is associated with marijuana plants, even in
chotic disorders but may result in undesired side effects
high doses (Bergamaschi et al., 2011b). The potential for
(Maayan and Correll, 2011; Malhi et al., 2012). Because
CBD to reduce aggression has been considered but only
these side effects may impact both the emotional and
minimally tested (Ham and De Jong, 1974; Van Ree et al.,
physical state of an individual, alternative treatments are
1984; Mechoulam, 2002; Hartmann et al., 2019; Andaloussi
needed. Cannabidiol (CBD) has been shown to reduce
et al., 2021). While Ham and De Jong (1974) and Van Ree
inflammation in mouse models and in humans (Ruiz-
et al. (1984) observed no significant effects of CBD on
Valdepeñas et al., 2011; Burstein, 2015; Liu et al., 2022)
aggression in mice, Hartmann et al. (2019) saw a signifi-
and to lower patients’ anxiety (Bergamaschi et al., 2011a),
cant decrease in the aggressive behaviors of mice treated
pain induced by other diseases (Massi et al., 2012), and
with CBD. Similarly, Andaloussi et al. (2021) reported a
psychotic effects (Bhattacharyya et al., 2010). CBD has
mitigation of aggression in ethanol-induced rats because
also shown promise in treating some of the symptoms,
of CBD. To our knowledge, no studies have considered
including aggression, associated with autism spectrum
how CBD affects aggression in other model systems.
Betta fish (Betta splendens), also known as Siamese fight-
Supplemental Digital Content is available for this article. Direct URL citations ap-
pear in the printed text and are provided in the HTML and PDF versions of this ing fish, were domesticated for their aggressive territorial
article on the journal’s website, [Link]. behaviors, and years of selective breeding have resulted

0955-8810 Copyright © 2025 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved. DOI: 10.1097/FBP.0000000000000822

Copyright © 2025 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
2 Behavioural Pharmacology XXX, Vol XXX No XXX

in very aggressive fish (Verbeek et al., 2007). Thus, they (B. splendens). These fish belong to the same species but
are well known in the literature as a model of aggression are considered different types.
(Hinde and Clayton, 1968; Clotfelter and Paolino, 2003;
After an acclimation period and before the beginning of
Verbeek et al., 2007). They have prominent aggressive
the experiment, all fish were observed for 20 min dur-
behaviors that are easily induced and identified. Betta
ing and after feeding to ensure fish health and normal
fish express robust signals of aggression like fin flaring
behavior. Each experimental fish was also screened for
and lateral swimming to show their size to their oppo-
aggressive signaling behaviors by placing the intruder
nent (Simpson, 1968). They will also produce a gill cover
crown-tail betta fish in a plastic tub near the tank of each
erection (GCE; also called gill flaring or opercular dis-
experimental fish. All experimental fish expressed aggres-
play), where betta fish push forward their operculum to
sive behaviors, including GCE, toward the intruder fish
threaten their opponent, thereby depriving themselves
and thus, were accepted for the experiment. The same
of the ability to push water over their gills and thus
crown-tail betta fish used in the screening process was
breathe. These types of signals can be classified as honest
also used as the intruder fish in the experiment.
signaling in animal behavior, where the signaler will send
reliable information to the receiver, thus, communicat-
ing the signaler’s true intentions. Dishonesty is unlikely Housing
because producing the signal requires an energetic cost Betta fish were housed in 19-L tanks with water temper-
(Higham, 2014; Chisausky et al., 2024). Abrahams et al. atures of 26.5 ± 0.5 °C. Tanks had rinsed black diamond
(2005) show that a GCE in betta fish is an honest signal blasting abrasive spread across the bottom and a polyvi-
of fish health. Displaying health in this way while flaring nyl chloride elbow pipe. Lights were scheduled on a 12 h
fins and performing lateral displays to intruder fish are on/off period. White magazine paper was used as dividers
tools that betta fish use to succeed in a fight for territory. between each tank to avoid aggressive behavior toward
other betta fish or their own reflection. Fish were fed five
Previous studies focusing on reducing aggression in betta fish pellets at the beginning of the day. The accli-
betta fish have used serotonin via injection (Clotfelter et mation period was 3 weeks. After about 1 week, all the
al., 2007). Studies of CBD effects on fish have focused fish had adopted their home tanks. This was confirmed
on behavior and immune gene expression in zebrafish through bubble nests at the edges of the water, healthy
(Danio rerio) (Jensen et al., 2018), the health and longev- curiosity around the tank, no hiding behaviors, and regu-
ity of D. rerio (Pandelides et al., 2020), and on response lar eating habits.
to stress of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) (Mortuza
et al., 2021). We were unable to find studies that tested
Doses
the effectiveness of CBD in reducing aggression in fish.
Fish were exposed to CBD isolate (99% pure CBD iso-
Here, we investigate how CBD impacts the aggression
late; Extract Labs, Lafayette, Colorado, USA, [Link]
of betta fish. The purpose of our research was to test the
[Link]/product/cbd-isolate/) that was first dis-
effects of CBD on aggression in a model system other
solved in 0.2 ml of acetone and then put into 199.8 ml of
than mice and rats and to determine if CBD has any sig-
well-water. In all treatments, the well water was oxygen-
nificant effects on territorial-induced aggression in betta
ated and warmed to 26.5 °C and stirred with a clean mixing
fish. This could more generally indicate the usefulness
rod before adding the fish. The control group was exposed
of CBD to mitigate aggressive behavior in the biomedi-
to 200 ml of well water, and the acetone control had
cal field. In addition, it indicates the potential to increase
0.2 ml of acetone mixed with 199.8 ml of well water. The
the ability to keep aggressive fish in the same aquaria for
low, medium, and high doses were 0.40 mg CBD/200 ml,
display, rearing, or transportation purposes, which could 2.0 mg CBD/200 ml, and 4.0 mg CBD/200 ml of well
have implications for the economy of the fish trade. water, respectively. These concentrations are equivalent
to 2, 10, and 20 mg CBD/L and are similar to the CBD
Methods concentration applied to zebrafish (D. rerio) (Jensen et al.,
Study subjects 2018). In their study, zebrafish were exposed to 40 mg
All animal care and experimental procedures were CBD/L although the CBD was dissolved in ethanol first,
approved by New Mexico State University’s Institutional while we chose acetone. In compliance with the approved
Animal Care and Use Committee (permit # 2021-005) to animal care protocol, our study had a total of 20 fish and
ensure the necessity of animal use and high standards of five treatments including two control groups. Fish were
humane treatment. Trained personnel used all necessary evenly distributed but randomly assigned to the treat-
measures to prevent, minimize, and alleviate distress to ments resulting in four fish per treatment.
the animals.
Male betta fish were purchased from a local pet store. Experimental procedure
Fish colors varied from blue to violet, to a red hue. All All CBD concentrations and designated betta treatments
experimental betta fish were veiltail betta fish (B. splen- were determined before the day of the experiment. CBD
dens). The intruder betta was a red crown-tail betta fish was first weighed and mixed with 0.2 ml of acetone then

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 Cannabidiol on aggression in betta fish Varela et al. 3

Table 1 Four distinct response behaviors displayed aggressive behaviors used all three behavior
Response types [nose taps against the glass toward the intruder fish,
behavior category Description lateral displays, and GCE (Fig. 1, Table S1, Supplemental
Aggressive Taping nose against glass toward the intruder, lateral displays, Digital Content, [Link] we
and GCE, active swimming, often in combination with fin observed two instances where a fish tapped two (fish no.
flaring, directly looking at intruder fish, biting, tail beating
Casual Swimming normally around the tank with little to no interest
15, medium-dose CBD) or four (fish no. 9, acetone treat-
in the intruder fish, no fin flaring, no GCE, no hiding or ment) times against the glass and then ceased to display
swimming away, no frantic movements any aggression for the remaining 5 min. The nose tapping
Floating Remaining in a single spot without any movement or inter-
action with the intruder fish, no directional movement, no lasted less than 1 s and we classified these two fish and
tail or dorsal fin movement, minimal pectoral and pelvic fin ‘not aggressive’ in further analyses.
movement to stay in place
Evading Frantically swimming away from intruder fish, hiding in or behind We conducted a maximum of six experiments a day so as
PVC pipe, tapping against glass opposite from intruder to not over-exert the intruder crown-tail betta fish. After
GCE, gill cover erection; PVC, polyvinyl chloride. all experiments were completed, the 5-min footage was
viewed and aggressive behaviors (nose taps against the
0.8 ml of well-water in a microcentrifuge tube. Each tube glass toward the intruder, lateral displays to appear big-
was taken into the room where the experiment was con- ger, and GCE) were counted for each experimental fish
ducted. Four minutes before the fish were put into their without considering the time each behavior lasted (e.g.
treatments, the contents of the centrifuge tube were put we did not distinguish between a short and a long-lasting
into 199 ml of water. Each treatment was thoroughly GCE). We then reviewed the videos a second time and,
mixed using a glass stirring rod with oxygenated well for each individual fish, their behaviors were categorized
water previously warmed to 26.5 °C. Fish were put into into four very distinct responses: aggressive, casual, float-
their designated treatments for 15 min. Because of the ing, and evading (see Table 1 for a detailed description).
betta fish’s labyrinth bladder that allows them to breathe For each second (300 s total), a category was assigned
atmospheric oxygen, it was required to cover the tops of to the behavior displayed by the fish. All videos were
each treatment with a plastic sandwich bag to ensure that recorded, labeled, and assessed by the same observer
the fish were breathing in the oxygen from the water. (M.V.). Videos were only labeled with fish numbers and
This way, CBD was administered via bronchial diffu- not treatment type until after all fish were categorized to
sion. After 15 min, the fish were taken out of their desig- avoid bias.
nated treatments and then placed back into their home
tanks. Next to their home tank was another 19-L tank Data analysis
with the intruder fish as a visual cue. Initially, there was Segmented bar charts were used to display the num-
a division between the two tanks, and the experimental ber of times and types of aggressive behaviors a fish
home fish were left to acclimate in their home tanks for exhibited in the various treatments and the proportion
3 min after treatment (water control, acetone control, or of the total time that each fish exhibited each response
low, medium, or high CBD exposure). After 3 min, the behavior. Time was used to count their observed behav-
division between the home fish and the intruder fish ior because fish exhibited varying ranges of GCEs. This
was removed so that both fish were completely visible way, a fish exhibiting four or five bursts of GCEs would
to each other through the aquaria glass and the fish had not be considered as any more aggressive than a fish
an approximate distance of 30 cm from each other. The exhibiting a single but extended GCE. Furthermore,
home fish was recorded for 5 min and then the division for each response behavior, boxplots were generated
was replaced, and the video was turned off. The intruder to display the distribution of time fish in each group
crown-tail betta fish consistently expressed aggressive exhibited the behavior. Each fish is represented by
behaviors upon removal of the divider, except on two an individual point in the boxplot. We estimated the
occasions, when it did not. We still included the data odds of aggressive behavior for CBD-treated (low-dose,
since in both instances the experimental fish continued medium-dose, and high-dose CBD) versus untreated
to display aggression regardless (fish no. 5 and 8; see (water and acetone) fish and the 95% exact confidence
Table S1 and S2, Supplemental Digital Content, http:// interval for the odds ratio. Exact Kruskal–Wallis tests
[Link]/BPHARM/A120). If the experimental fish were used to compare the mean of the total number
did not express any aggressive signals, the intruder fish of aggressive behaviors displayed and the mean time
sometimes stopped acting aggressively. We did include spent aggressively across treatment groups. Exact tests
these data as well because the experimental fish were are appropriate for small or heavily tied datasets. All
exhibiting ‘floating’ behavior (described in Table 1) and analyses were performed using SAS version 9.4 (SAS
did not change their behavior after the intruder fish Institute, Cary, North Carolina, USA). Statistical signif-
reduced its aggressive advances (fish no. 11 and 14; see icance was determined based on an alpha level of 0.05.
Table S1 and S2, Supplemental Digital Content, http:// We used Microsoft Excel (2021) to generate the seg-
[Link]/BPHARM/A120). While most fish that mented bar charts and R version 4.2.2 (R Foundation

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4 Behavioural Pharmacology XXX, Vol XXX No XXX

Fig. 1

Nose Taps Lateral displays GCE

High
High
High
High

Med
Med
Med
Med

Low
Low
Low
Low

Acetone
Acetone
Acetone
Acetone

Water
Water
Water
Water
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Aggressive Behaviors (#)
Number and type of aggressive behaviors of betta fish in response to different CBD doses. ‘Water’ and ‘acetone’ represent controls (no CBD), ‘low’
corresponds to 2, ‘medium’ to 10, and ‘high’ to 20 mg CBD/L. CBD, cannabidiol. GCE, gill cover erection.

for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria) to generate Table 2 Number and percentage of fish in each group that
the boxplots. exhibited aggressive behavior
Exhibited Did not exhibit
aggressive behavior aggressive behavior
Results
Water 4 (100%) 0 (0%)
Most fish that displayed aggressive behaviors, used all Acetone 2 (50%) 2 (50%)
three behavior types (nose taps against the glass toward Low-dose CBD 0 (0%) 4 (100%)
Medium-dose CBD 1 (25%) 3 (75%)
the intruder fish, lateral displays, and GCE (Fig. 1, Table High-dose CBD 1 (25%) 3 (75%)
S1, Supplemental Digital Content, [Link]
BPHARM/A120). Two fish that only used a few nose taps CBD, cannabidiol.

that lasted less than 1 s were classified as nonaggressive

(see methods section for more details). The mean of the
the boxplots represent the medians), although differences
total number of aggressive behaviors differed signifi-
were not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Among fish
cantly across treatment groups (P < 0.025), with the num-
that exhibited aggressive behavior, the average amount
ber of fish displaying aggressive behaviors and the total
of time spent aggressively was 234 s (216 and 252 s)
number of aggressive behaviors displayed highest in fish
for the two CBD-treated fish that displayed aggressive
from control treatments (water and acetone; Fig. 1).
behaviors and 203.5 s (range: 25–300 s) for six fish that
Six of eight (75%) fish in the water and acetone groups displayed aggressive behaviors that were not treated with
exhibited aggressive behavior versus two of 12 (17%) CBD. One fish in the water treatment spent all 300 s of
CBD-treated fish (Table 2 and Fig. 2). None of the fish his time aggressively.
in the low-dose CBD group displayed aggressive behav-
Most fish spent some time expressing casual behavior
ior. CBD-treated fish had significantly lower odds of
(Figs. 2 and 4), and nine of 12 (75%) CBD-treated fish
exhibiting aggressive behavior than untreated fish (odds
exhibited floating behavior (Figs. 2 and 5) versus one
ratio = 0.07, 95% confidence interval = (0.004–0.84).
of eight (12.5%) fish in the water and acetone groups.
The mean time spent aggressively was lower for fish in Floating behavior was most common in the low CBD
the low-dose (0 s), medium-dose (54 s), and high-dose treatment. Three of four fish in that group exhibited only
(63 s) CBD groups than for fish in the water (186 s) and floating behavior. There were no fish in the water con-
acetone (119.25 s) groups (Fig. 3; note – the thick lines of trol group that expressed floating behavior, one fish in

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 Cannabidiol on aggression in betta fish Varela et al. 5

the acetone control group, and one fish in the medium Overall, we found that CBD reduced the odds of betta
CBD group. One fish in the high CBD treatment group fish exhibiting aggressive behaviors. While six out of
expressed floating behavior for more than half of its eight (75%) fish in the control groups displayed aggres-
recorded time (Fig. 5). sive behaviors, only two out of 12 (17%) CBD-treated fish
expressed aggression. Similarly, a study that tested CBD
Evading behavior was seen only among fish in the water
in children with autism spectrum disorder reported that
and acetone groups (Figs. 2 and 6). Two fish expressed
67.7% of children who were given a maximum dose of
evading behaviors, one from each control group.
16 mg/kg of CBD showed reduced self-injury and rage
attacks (Barchel et al., 2019). While CBD does not appear
Discussion to eliminate aggressive behaviors, it seems to have the
CBD was tested on fish with natural aggressive ten- potential to lower the likelihood of such behaviors. We
dencies to determine if CBD would reduce their did not find that fish typically changed their behavior
aggression. CBD is already used regularly by many over time; for example, started out aggressive and then
individuals (Mathur et al., 2020) and is administered to relaxed or became angrier as time went on. Fish that dis-
children and pets alike (Deabold et al., 2019; Failing played aggressive behaviors would be aggressive, take
et al., 2021; Shilo-Benjamini et al., 2022). CBD’s ten- a short break, and then go back to displaying aggres-
dency to reduce anxiety (Bergamaschi et al., 2011a) has sion. We also did not find that CBD reduced the overall
given it recreational use among many populations in amount of time a fish would spend aggressively. Both fish
the world, and it is now considered for use in individ- that displayed aggressive behaviors in the CBD treat-
uals with aggressive tendencies because of conditions ments spent large percentages of their time expressing
like posttraumatic stress disorder or autism spectrum aggression.
disorder (Barchel et al., 2019; Holdman et al., 2022). B.
splendens has well-established displays of aggression There were no fish in the low CBD treatment group that
that are easily induced through exposure to other fish expressed aggressive behaviors. However, these same fish
(Hinde and Clayton, 1968; Clotfelter and Paolino, 2003; expressed high levels of floating behavior and even when
Verbeek et al., 2007). prodded with a wooden stick would continue floating as

Fig. 2

Aggressive Casual Floating Evading

High
High
High
High

Med
Med
Med
Med

Low
Low
Low
Low

Acetone
Acetone
Acetone
Acetone

Water
Water
Water
Water
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Total Time (sec)

Betta fish aggression in response to different CBD doses. ‘Water’ and ‘acetone’ represent controls (no CBD), ‘low’ corresponds to 2, ‘med’ to 10,
and ‘high’ to 20 mg CBD/L. Bars across the graph all equal 300 s as the total time a specific behavior (aggressive, casual, floating, and evading)
was exhibited. CBD, cannabidiol.

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6 Behavioural Pharmacology XXX, Vol XXX No XXX

Fig. 3 Fig. 4
300

300
250

250
Time spent Aggressive (sec)
200

200
Time spent Casual (sec)
150

150
100

100
50

50
0

0
Water Acetone Low CBD Medium CBD High CBD Water Acetone Low CBD Medium CBD High CBD
Treatment Treatment

Time spent ‘aggressive’ per treatment. ‘Water’ and ‘acetone’ represent Time spent ‘casual’ per treatment. ‘Water’ and ‘acetone’ represent con-
controls (no CBD), ‘low CBD’ corresponds to 2, ‘medium CBD’ to trols (no CBD), ‘low CBD’ corresponds to 2, ‘medium CBD’ to 10, and
10, and ‘high CBD’ to 20 mg CBD/L. The boxplots display the times ‘high CBD’ to 20 mg CBD/L. The boxplots display the times for individ-
for individual fish (solid circles), median (thick line), interquartile range ual fish (solid circles), median (thick line), interquartile range (box), and
(box), and maximum/minimum behavioral response (whiskers). CBD, maximum/ minimum behavioral response (whiskers). CBD, cannabidiol.
cannabidiol.

and we think that these fish may have been startled caus-
though sedated. Thus, we are introducing the possibility ing an initial short burst of the evading behavior.
of CBD having a lethargic effect in low doses. This may be
consistent with the tendency of CBD to produce a thresh- We used CBD concentrations similar to those applied
old above which its effectiveness in reducing aggression to zebrafish (D. rerio) in a previous study (Jensen et al.,
is reduced. Similarly, other studies have reported a bell- 2018). The authors dissolved the CBD in ethanol first.
shaped curved response to CBD, where the largest effect Hong and Zha (2019) did not find significant behavioral
was recorded at lower CBD concentrations (Moreira and changes between ethanol, acetone, and dimethyl sul-
Guimarães, 2005; Zanelati et al., 2010). While the underly- foxide in juvenile zebrafish (D. rerio), Japanese medaka
ing physiological mechanisms are unclear at this point, the (Oryzial latipes), or Chinese rare minnow (Gobiocypris
two previous studies speculated that it might be due to rams). However, when we used ethanol as a carrier solvent
CBD’s hinderance on locomotor movement at higher con- in a previous experiment (data not shown), we found that
centrations (Moreira and Guimarães, 2005; Zanelati et al., ethanol by itself had a large effect on betta fish. Fish were
2010). Thus, we consider that CBD may have a set dose desperately trying to break the plastic barrier and breathe
that is effective and any higher dose would have less con- atmospheric air. Once the experiment began, fish contin-
sistent results. While a lethargic floating behavior might ued to hang out at the surface, taking in atmospheric air,
not be the desired effect either, the long-term effects of seemingly trying to recover from the exposure to ethanol.
CBD need to be studied carefully before administering We terminated our attempt to conduct our experiment
them to betta fish or other pets. this way after observing a total of five fish.

The acetone control had one individual that expressed Further studies may be conducted where the same fish
floating behavior for almost the entirety of its recorded would be tested twice, once with no CBD treatment and
time. It is possible that this fish did not respond well to another with CBD treatment, and then their behavior
the handling for the experiment and responded with a compared. And more replicates may also be considered
‘shock floating behavior’ once placed back into his home especially in the medium and high treatments where 25%
tank. Thus, we suspect this fish to be an individual out- of the fish in each group expressed aggressive behaviors.
lier. Analogously, a single fish from each control group
expressed small amounts of time evading. This behavior Conclusion
was observed shortly after the divider between the tank In summary, CBD appears to reduce the chance of
of those fish and the tank of the invader fish was removed, fish known for their aggression, Siamese fighting fish

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 Cannabidiol on aggression in betta fish Varela et al. 7

Fig. 5 Fig. 6
300

300
250
250

Time spent Evading (sec)

Time spent Floating (sec)

200
200

150
150

100
100

50
50

0
0

Water Acetone Low CBD Medium CBD High CBD Water Acetone Low CBD Medium CBD High CBD
Treatment Treatment

Time spent ‘floating’ per treatment. ‘Water’ and ‘acetone’ represent Time spent ‘evading’ per treatment. ‘Water’ and ‘acetone’ represent
controls (no CBD), ‘low CBD’ corresponds to 2, ‘medium CBD’ to controls (no CBD), ‘low CBD’ corresponds to 2, ‘medium CBD’ to
10, and ‘high CBD’ to 20 mg CBD/L. The boxplots display the times 10, and ‘high CBD’ to 20 mg CBD/L. The boxplots display the times
for individual fish (solid circles), median (thick line), interquartile range for individual fish (solid circles), median (thick line), interquartile range
(box), and maximum/minimum behavioral response (whiskers). CBD, (box), and maximum/minimum behavioral response (whiskers). CBD,
cannabidiol. cannabidiol.

(B. splendens), to display aggressive behaviors. However, References

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