Chapter 1 Introduction to the

Atmosphere
This satellite image shows Hurricane Sandy, called Superstorm Sandy in the media, battering the
U.S. east coast on October 30, 2012. This view of the storm is looking south from Canada. Florida
is near the top of the image.
  Focus on Concepts

Each statement represents the primary learning objective for the

corresponding major heading within the chapter. After you complete the
chapter, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between weather and climate, name the basic

elements of weather and climate, and list several important

atmospheric hazards (1.1).

2. Discuss the nature of scientific inquiry, including the

construction of hypotheses and the development of theories

(1.2).

3. List and describe Earth’s four major spheres. Define system, and
explain why Earth is considered a system (1.3).

4. List the major gases composing Earth’s atmosphere and identify

the components that are most important meteorologically (1.4).

5. Interpret a graph that shows changes in air pressure from Earth’s

surface to the top of the atmosphere. Sketch and label a graph

that shows the thermal structure of the atmosphere (1.5).

Earth’s atmosphere is unique. No other planet in our solar system has an

atmosphere with the exact mixture of gases or the heat and moisture

conditions necessary to sustain life as we know it. The gases that make up

Earth’s atmosphere and the controls to which they are subject are vital to
our existence. In this chapter we begin our examination of the ocean of

air in which we all must live.

1.1 Focus on the Atmosphere
LO 1 Distinguish between weather and climate, name the basic
elements of weather and climate, and list several important
atmospheric hazards.

Weather influences our everyday activities, our jobs, and our health and
comfort. Many of us pay attention to the weather only when it
inconveniences us or when it adds to our enjoyment of outdoor activities.

Nevertheless, few other aspects of our physical environment affect our

lives more than the phenomena we collectively call the weather.
Weather in the United States
The United States occupies an area that stretches from the tropics to the
Arctic Circle. It has thousands of miles of coastline and extensive regions
far from the influence of the ocean. Some landscapes are mountainous,

and others are dominated by plains. Pacific storms strike the west coast,
while the eastern states are sometimes influenced by events in the
Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. The states in the center of the country

commonly experience weather events triggered when frigid southward-

bound Canadian air masses clash with northward-moving tropical air
masses from the Gulf of Mexico.

The United States likely has the greatest variety of weather of any country

in the world. Severe weather events such as tornadoes, flash floods, and
intense thunderstorms, as well as hurricanes and blizzards, are
collectively more frequent and more damaging in the United States than

in any other nation (Figure 1.1 ). Beyond its direct impact on the lives of
individuals, weather strongly affects the U.S. economy through its
influence on agriculture, energy use, water resources, and transportation.
Figure 1.1 An extraordinary winter

The winter of 2013–2014 brought record-breaking cold and snow to

much of the eastern half of the conterminous United States. Meanwhile,
Alaska and much of the West were much warmer and drier than usual.

Weather influences our lives a great deal. Yet it is also important to

realize that people influence the atmosphere and its behavior as well.

There are, and will continue to be, significant economic, political, and

scientific decisions to make involving these human impacts. Dealing with

the effects of and controlling air pollution is one example (Figure 1.2 ).

Another is the ongoing effort to assess and address global climate change.

There is clearly a need for increased awareness and understanding of our

atmosphere and its behavior.
Figure 1.2 People influence the atmosphere

China is plagued by air quality issues. Major contributors of air pollutants

in the region are coal-fired electricity generating plants.
Meteorology, Weather, and Climate
The subtitle of this book includes the word meteorology. Meteorology  is

the scientific study of the atmosphere and the phenomena that we usually

refer to as weather. Acted on by the combined effects of Earth’s motions

and energy from the Sun, our planet’s formless and invisible envelope of
air reacts by producing an infinite variety of weather, which in turn

creates the basic pattern of global climates. Although not identical,

weather and climate have much in common.

Weather  refers to the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place.

Weather is constantly changing, sometimes from hour to hour and at

other times from day to day. Whereas changes in the weather are

continuous and sometimes seemingly erratic, it is nevertheless possible to

arrive at a generalization of these variations. Such a description of

aggregate weather conditions is termed climate . It is based on

observations that have been accumulated over many decades. Climate is

often defined simply as “average weather,” but this definition is

inadequate. An accurate portrayal of an area’s climate must also include

variations and extremes, as well as the probabilities that such departures

from the norm will take place. For example, farmers need to know the

average temperature during their area’s growing season, but they must

also know the date in the spring when the last freezing temperatures are

most likely to occur.

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere at a given time

and place.

Maps like the one in Figure 1.3  are familiar to everyone who checks the

weather report from a website, a newspaper, or on television. In addition

to showing predicted high temperatures for the day, this type of map
shows other basic weather information about cloud cover, precipitation,

and the location of fronts.

Figure 1.3 Typical weather map for a day in late December

The colored bands show predicted high temperatures for the day.

Suppose you were planning a vacation trip to an unfamiliar place. You

would probably want to know what kind of weather to expect. Such

information would help you select which clothes to pack and could

influence what you decide to do during your stay. Unfortunately, weather

forecasts that go beyond a few days are not very dependable. Thus, it may
not be possible to get a reliable weather report about the conditions you

are likely to encounter during your vacation.

Instead, you might ask someone who is familiar with the area about what

kind of weather to expect. “Are thunderstorms common?” “Does it get

cold at night?” “Are the afternoons sunny?” What you are seeking is
information about the climate, the conditions that are typical for that

place. Another useful source of such information is the great variety of

climate tables, maps, and graphs that are available. For example, the
graph in Figure 1.4  shows average daily high and low temperatures for

each month, as well as extremes, for New York City.

Figure 1.4 New York City temperatures

In addition to the average maximum and minimum temperatures for each

month, extremes are also shown. The graph is based on data collected
during a 30-year span and shows that significant departures from the
average can occur.

Climate is the average of all weather data, including

extremes, that helps to describe the environment of a place
or region.
 You might have wondered . . .

Does meteorology have anything to do with meteors?

There is a connection. The term meteorology was coined in 340

BCE, when the Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a book titled

Meteorologica, which described atmospheric and astronomical

phenomena. In Aristotle’s day, anything that fell from or was seen

in the sky was called a meteor. Today, however, we distinguish

particles of ice or water in the atmosphere from extraterrestrial

objects—meteoroids, or meteors.

Such information could, no doubt, help as you planned your trip. But it is

important to realize that climate data cannot predict the weather. Although

the place may usually (climatically) be warm, sunny, and dry during the

time of your planned vacation, you may in fact experience cool, overcast,

and rainy weather. A well-known saying summarizes the distinction

between weather and climate: “Climate is what you expect, but weather is

what you get.”

The nature of both weather and climate is expressed in terms of the same

basic properties, or elements, that are measured regularly. The most

important are (1) the temperature of the air, (2) the humidity of the air, (3)

the type and amount of cloudiness, (4) the type and amount of

precipitation, (5) the pressure exerted by the air, and (6) the speed and

direction of the wind. These elements constitute the variables by which

weather patterns and climate types are depicted, and many of these are

shown as map symbols in Figure 1.3 . Although you will study these

elements separately at first, keep in mind that they are very much
interrelated. A change in one of the elements often produces changes in

the others.
Atmospheric Hazards
Natural hazards are a part of living on Earth. Every day they adversely

affect millions of people worldwide and are responsible for staggering

damages. Some, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, are geologic

in nature. Many others are related to the atmosphere.

For most people, severe weather events are far more fascinating than

ordinary weather phenomena. A spectacular lightning display generated

by a severe thunderstorm can elicit both awe and fear. Of course,

hurricanes and tornadoes attract a great deal of much-deserved attention.

A single tornado outbreak or hurricane can cause billions of dollars in

property damage, much human suffering, and many deaths. The chapter-

opening satellite image of Hurricane Sandy and the tornado damage

depicted in Figure 1.5  are good examples of such severe weather.

Severe storms are covered extensively in Chapters 10  and 11 .

Figure 1.5 Impacts of severe weather

Tornado damage to a grain elevator in Eureka, Kansas, July 8, 2016.

Other atmospheric hazards also adversely affect us. Some are storm
related, such as blizzards, hail, and freezing rain. Others are not direct

results of storms. Heat waves, cold waves, fog, wildfires, and drought are

important examples. In some years, the loss of human life due to

excessive heat or bitter cold exceeds that caused by all other weather

events combined. Although severe storms and floods usually generate

more attention, droughts can be just as devastating and carry an even

bigger price tag, while extreme heat is the number-one killer worldwide.

Between 2004 and 2016, the United States experienced 102 weather-

related disasters in which overall damages and costs reached or exceeded

$1 billion (Figure 1.6 ). In addition to taking more than 4100 lives, these

events exacted economic costs that exceeded $600 billion! Every day our
planet experiences an incredible assault by the atmosphere, so it is

important to develop an awareness and understanding of these significant

weather events.
Figure 1.6 Billion-dollar weather events

Between 2004 and 2016, the United States experienced 102 weather-
related disasters in which overall damages and costs reached or exceeded
$1 billion. The blue bar graph shows the number of events that occurred
each year, and the red bar graph shows damage amounts in billions of
dollars (adjusted to 2016 dollars). The total losses for these events
exceeded $600 billion!
(Data from NOAA)
Concept Checks 1.1

■ Define meteorology. Define and distinguish weather and

climate.

■ List the basic elements of weather and climate.

■ List five storm-related atmospheric hazards and three

atmospheric hazards that are not directly storm related.
1.2 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry
LO 2 Discuss the nature of scientific inquiry, including the
construction of hypotheses and the development of theories.

Developing an understanding of how science is done and how scientists

work is an important theme in this book. As members of a modern

society, we are constantly reminded of the benefits derived from science.
But what exactly is the nature of scientific inquiry? Science is a process of

producing knowledge. The process depends both on making careful

observations and on creating explanations that make sense of the

observations. The types of data that are collected often help to answer a

well-defined question about the natural world, such as “Why does fog
more often develop on cool clear nights, rather than warm overcast

nights?” or “What causes rain to form in one cloud type, but not in

another?”

All science is based on the assumption that the natural world behaves in a

consistent and predictable manner that is comprehensible through

careful, systematic study. The overall goal of science is to discover the

underlying patterns in nature and then to use the knowledge gained to

make predictions about what should or should not be expected, given
certain facts or circumstances. For example, by understanding the forces

that influence the movement of air, meteorologists can predict the

approximate time and place of the passage of a cold front, which causes
temperatures to drop.
Hypothesis
A scientific hypothesis  is a proposed explanation for a certain
phenomenon that occurs in the natural world. For such an explanation to
be considered a hypothesis, it must be testable. Therefore, before a

hypothesis can become an accepted part of scientific knowledge, it must

pass objective testing and analysis. This process requires that predictions
can be made based on the hypothesis being considered. Put another way,

hypotheses must fit observations other than those used to formulate them
in the first place. Hypotheses that fail rigorous testing are discarded. The
history of science is littered with discarded hypotheses. One of the best

known is the Earth-centered model of the universe—a proposal that was

supported by the apparent daily motion of the Sun, Moon, and stars

around Earth. More detailed astronomical observations disproved this

hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a certain

phenomenon that occurs in the natural world.
Theory
When a hypothesis has survived extensive scrutiny and when competing

hypotheses have been eliminated, it may be elevated to the status of a

scientific theory . In everyday language, we may say that something is

“only a theory.” But among the scientific community, a theory is a well-

tested and widely accepted view that best explains certain observable

facts.

Some theories that are extensively documented and extremely well

supported by data are comprehensive in scope. An example from the

Earth sciences is the theory of plate tectonics, which provides the

framework for understanding the origins of mountains, earthquakes, and

volcanic activity. It also explains the evolution of continents and ocean

basins through time. As you will see in Chapter 14 , this theory also

helps us understand some important aspects of climate change through

long spans of geologic time.

A scientific theory is a well-tested and widely accepted view

that the scientific community agrees best explains certain
observable facts.
Scientific Inquiry
The processes just described, in which scientists gather data through
observations and formulate scientific hypotheses and theories, is called

the scientific method. Contrary to popular belief, the scientific method is

not a standard recipe that scientists apply in a routine manner to unravel

the secrets of our natural world. Rather, it is an endeavor that involves

creativity and insight. Rutherford and Ahlgren put it this way: “Inventing

hypotheses or theories to imagine how the world works and then figuring

out how they can be put to the test of reality is as creative as writing

poetry, composing music, or designing skyscrapers.”*

Scientists have no fixed path that leads unerringly to scientific

knowledge. Nevertheless, most scientific investigations involve the

following:

A question is raised about the natural world.

Scientific data that relate to the question are collected (Figure 1.7 ).

Questions that relate to the data are posed, and one or more working

hypotheses that may answer these questions are proposed.

Observations, experiments, and models are developed to test the

hypotheses.

The hypotheses are accepted, modified, or rejected, based on

extensive testing.

Data and results are shared with the scientific community for critical

examination and further testing.

Figure 1.7 Observation and measurement are basic parts of
scientific inquiry

Automated observing systems, like the one shown, are designed to

measure cloud coverage; take temperature and dew-point measurements;
determine wind speed and direction; and even record present weather—
such as whether it is raining or snowing.

Some scientific discoveries result from purely theoretical ideas that stand
up to extensive examination. Some researchers use high-speed computers

to simulate what is happening in the “real” world. These models are

useful for dealing with natural processes that occur on very long time

scales or that take place in extreme or inaccessible locations. Still other

scientific advancements have been made when something totally

unexpected happened during an experiment. These serendipitous

discoveries are more than pure luck; as the nineteenth-century French

scientist Louis Pasteur said, “In the field of observation, chance favors

only the prepared mind.”**

Scientific knowledge is acquired through several avenues, so it might be

best to describe the nature of scientific inquiry as the methods of science

rather than the scientific method. In addition, it should always be

remembered that even the most compelling scientific theories are still

simplified explanations of the natural world.

You might have wondered . . .

How do a hypothesis and a theory differ from a scientific law?

A scientific law is a basic principle that describes a particular

behavior of nature that is generally narrow in scope and can be

stated briefly—often as a simple mathematical equation. Because

scientific laws have been shown time and time again to be

consistent with observations and measurements, they are rarely

discarded but may require modifications to fit new findings. For

example, Newton’s laws of motion are still useful for everyday

applications (NASA uses them to calculate satellite trajectories),

but they do not work at velocities approaching the speed of light.

Einstein’s theory of relativity is instead applied in these

circumstances.

Concept Checks 1.2

■ How is a scientific hypothesis different from a scientific

theory?

■ Summarize the basic steps followed in many scientific

investigations.
* F. James Rutherford and Andrew Ahlgren, Science for All Americans (New York: Oxford

University Press, 1990), p. 7.

** Louis Pasteur, quoted in Science, History and Social Activism, edited by Everett Mendelsohn,

Garland E. Allen, and Roy M. MacLeod (Dordrecht: Springer, 2001), p. 134.

1.3 Earth as a System
LO 3 List and describe Earth’s four major spheres. Define system,
and explain why Earth is considered a system.

Anyone who studies Earth soon learns that our planet is a dynamic body

with many separate but highly interactive parts, or spheres. The

atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere, along with all of
their components, can be studied separately. However, the parts are not

isolated. Each is related in many ways to the others, producing a complex

and continuously interacting whole that we call the Earth system.
Earth’s Spheres
The images in Figure 1.8  are classics because, for the first time, they let
humanity see Earth differently from ever before. These photos profoundly
altered our conceptualizations of Earth and remain powerful images

decades after they were first viewed. Seen from space, Earth is
breathtaking in its beauty and startling in its solitude. The images remind
us that our home is, after all, a planet—small, self-contained, and in some

ways even fragile. Bill Anders, the Apollo 8 astronaut who took the
“Earthrise” photo, expressed it this way: “We came all this way to explore
the Moon, and the most important thing is that we discovered the Earth.”

Figure 1.8 Two classic views of Earth from space

The closer view of Earth from space shown in Figure 1.8  helps us

appreciate why the physical environment is traditionally divided into

three major parts: Earth’s gaseous envelope, the atmosphere; the water

portion of our planet, the hydrosphere; and Earth’s solid outer layer, the

lithosphere. It should be emphasized that our environment is highly

integrated and is not dominated by air, water, or rock alone. Instead, the
biosphere, the life-forms on our planet, extends into each of the three
physical realms and is an equally integral part of the planet.

Moreover, the interactions among Earth’s four spheres are incalculable.

Figure 1.9  provides one easy-to-visualize example. The shoreline is an

obvious meeting place for rock, water, and air, and these spheres in turn

support life-forms in and near the water. In this scene, ocean waves
created by the drag of air moving across the water are breaking against

the rocky shore. The force of water, in turn, erodes the shoreline.

Figure 1.9 Interactions among Earth’s spheres

The shoreline is one obvious example of an interface—a common

boundary where different parts of a system interact. In this scene, ocean
waves (hydrosphere) that were created by the force of moving air
(atmosphere) break against a rocky shore (lithosphere).

The Earth can be divided into four spheres: the atmosphere

(air), the hydrosphere (water), the lithosphere (rock), and the
biosphere (life-forms).
The Atmosphere
Earth is surrounded by a life-giving gaseous envelope called the

atmosphere  (Figure 1.10 ). When we watch a high-flying jet plane

cross the sky, it seems that the atmosphere extends upward for a great

distance. However, when compared to the thickness (radius) of the solid

Earth, the atmosphere is a very shallow layer. This thin blanket of air is

nevertheless an integral part of the planet. It not only provides the air we

breathe, but also acts to protect us from the dangerous radiation emitted
by the Sun.
Figure 1.10 The atmosphere, an integral part of the planet
Furthermore, the energy exchanges that continually occur between the
atmosphere and Earth’s surface and between the atmosphere and space

produce the effects we call weather. If, like the Moon, Earth had no

atmosphere, our planet would not only be lifeless, but many of the

processes and interactions that make the surface such a dynamic place

could not operate.

The Hydrosphere
More than anything else, water makes Earth unique. The hydrosphere 

is a dynamic mass that is continually on the move, evaporating from the

oceans to the atmosphere, precipitating to the land, and running back to

the ocean again. The global ocean is certainly the most prominent feature
of the hydrosphere, blanketing nearly 71 percent of Earth’s surface

(Figure 1.11 ). The hydrosphere also includes the freshwater found in

clouds, streams, lakes, and glaciers, as well as that found underground.

Although these latter sources constitute only a tiny fraction of the total,

they are much more important than their meager percentage indicates.
Clouds, of course, play a vital role in many weather and climate

processes. In addition, clouds provide the rainfall so essential to life on

land.

Figure 1.11 Distribution of water in the hydrosphere

The Lithosphere
Beneath the atmosphere and the ocean is Earth’s rocky outer layer, called

the lithosphere . The surface of the lithosphere is very uneven and

contains high mountainous topography, as well as low areas such as

Death Valley—portions of which lie below sea level. Sometimes the

lithosphere is referred to as the geosphere, in which case scientists include

Earth’s mantle and core in its description.

Soil, the thin veneer of material at Earth’s surface that supports the

growth of plants, may be thought of as part of all four spheres. The solid

portion is a mixture of weathered rock debris (lithosphere) and organic

matter from decayed plant and animal life (biosphere). The decomposed

and disintegrated rock debris is the product of weathering processes that

require air (atmosphere) and water (hydrosphere). Air and water also

occupy the open spaces between the solid particles.

The Biosphere
The biosphere  includes all life on Earth, including the vast oceans

(Figure 1.12 ). Plants and animals depend on the physical environment

for the basics of life. However, organisms do more than just respond to

their physical environment. Through countless interactions, life-forms

help maintain and alter their physical environment. Without life, the

makeup and nature of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere

would be very different.

Figure 1.12 The biosphere includes all life-forms

The Earth System
Scientists have recognized that to more fully understand our planet, they

must learn how its individual components (air, water, land, and life-

forms) are interconnected. This endeavor aims to study Earth as a system.

A system  is a collection of numerous interacting parts, or subsystems,

that form a complex whole. Using an interdisciplinary approach, scientists

attempt to understand and address many of our global environmental

problems.

Most of us hear and use the term system frequently. We may service our

car’s cooling system, make use of the city’s transportation system, and

participate in the political system. A news report might inform us of an

approaching weather system. Further, we know that Earth is just a small

part of a larger system known as the solar system.

A system is a collection of interacting, or interdependent,

parts that form a complex whole.
Earth as a System
The Earth system has a nearly endless array of subsystems in which

matter is recycled over and over again. One familiar loop, or subsystem,

is the hydrologic cycle. It represents the unending circulation of Earth’s

water among the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere

(Figure 1.13 ). Water enters the atmosphere through evaporation from

Earth’s surface and transpiration from plants. Water vapor (water in the

gaseous state) condenses in the atmosphere to form clouds, which in turn

produce precipitation that falls back to Earth’s surface. Some of the rain

that falls onto the land infiltrates (soaks into the ground) and is later

taken up by plants or is stored as groundwater, while some flows across

the surface toward the ocean.

Figure 1.13 The hydrologic cycle

Water readily changes state from liquid, to gas (vapor), to solid at the
temperatures and pressures occurring on Earth. This cycle traces the
movements of water among Earth’s four spheres. It is one of many
subsystems that collectively make up the Earth system.

The parts of the Earth system are linked so that a change in one part can

produce changes in any or all of the other parts. For example, during
most winter seasons, moisture evaporates from the Pacific Ocean and

subsequently falls as rain in the hills of southern California. Sometimes

the rainfall is heavy enough to trigger destructive debris flows (Figure

1.14 ). The processes that move water from the hydrosphere to the

atmosphere and then to the lithosphere have a profound impact on the

physical environment and on the plants and animals (including humans)

that inhabit the affected regions.

Figure 1.14 Heavy rains trigger debris flow

Vehicles trapped by a mudslide on California Highway 58 near Mojave,

California, October 16, 2015, following torrential rains. This image
provides an example of interactions among different parts of the Earth
system.

Humans are part of the Earth system, a system in which the living and

nonliving components are profoundly interconnected. Therefore, our

actions in one sphere can produce changes in all the other spheres. When

we burn gasoline and coal, dispose of wastes, and clear the land, we

cause other parts of the system to respond, often in unforeseen ways.

Throughout this book, you will learn about some of Earth’s subsystems,
including the hydrologic system and the climate system. Remember that

these components and we humans are all part of the complex interacting

whole we call the Earth system.

What Powers the Earth System?

The Earth system is powered by energy from two sources. The Sun drives

external processes that occur in the atmosphere, in the hydrosphere, and

at Earth’s surface. Weather and climate, ocean circulation, and erosional

processes are driven by energy from the Sun. Earth’s interior is the

second source of energy. Heat remaining from the planet’s formation, as

well as heat that is continuously generated by radioactive decay, powers

the internal processes that produce volcanoes, earthquakes, and

mountains.

Concept Checks 1.3

■ List and briefly define the four spheres that constitute the

Earth system.

■ What is a system? List three examples.

■ What are the two sources of energy for the Earth system?
1.4 Composition of the Atmosphere
LO 4 List the major gases composing Earth’s atmosphere and
identify the components that are most important
meteorologically.

Sometimes the term air  is used as if it were a specific gas, but it is not.
Rather, air is a mixture of many discrete gases, each with its own physical
properties, in which varying quantities of tiny solid and liquid particles

are suspended. The composition of air is not constant; it varies from time
to time and from place to place (Box 1.1 ). If the water vapor, dust, and

other variable components were removed from the atmosphere, we

would find that its makeup is very stable up to an altitude of about 80

kilometers (50 miles).

Air is a mixture of many gases, each with its own physical

properties, in which tiny solid and liquid particles are
suspended.
Box 1.1
Origin and Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere

The air we breathe is a stable mixture of mainly nitrogen and oxygen

along with small amounts of other gases, including argon, carbon
dioxide, and water vapor. However, our planet’s original atmosphere 4.6

billion years ago was substantially different.

Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere
Early in Earth’s formation, the planet’s atmosphere likely consisted of

gases most common in the early solar system: hydrogen, helium,

methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. The lightest of

these gases, hydrogen and helium, escaped into space because Earth’s

gravity was too weak to hold them. Most of the remaining gases were

probably largely scattered into space by strong solar winds (vast streams
of particles) from the young active Sun.

Earth’s first enduring atmosphere was generated by a process called

outgassing, through which gases trapped in the planet’s interior are

released. Outgassing from hundreds of active volcanoes remains an

important planetary function worldwide (Figure 1.A ). However, early in

Earth’s history, when the planet’s interior experienced massive heating

and fluid like motion, the gas output must have been immense. Our

understanding of modern volcanic eruptions indicates that Earth’s early

atmosphere probably consisted of mostly water vapor, carbon dioxide,

and sulfur dioxide, with minor amounts of other gases and minimal

nitrogen.
Figure 1.A Outgassing

Earth’s first enduring atmosphere was formed by a process called

outgassing, which continues today, from hundreds of active volcanoes
worldwide.

Watch Video: The Influence of Volcanic Ash

Equally important, molecular oxygen (O2) was not present in Earth’s

atmosphere in appreciable amounts for at least the first 2 billion years of

Earth history. Molecular oxygen is often called “free oxygen” because it

consists of oxygen atoms that are not bound to other elements, such as
hydrogen (in water molecules, H2O) or carbon (in carbon dioxide, CO2).
Oxygen in the Atmosphere
As Earth’s surface cooled, water vapor condensed to form clouds, and

torrential rains began to fill low-lying areas that eventually became the

oceans. In those oceans, nearly 3.5 billion years ago, primitive bacteria

known as cyanobacteria (once called blue-green algae) developed the

ability to carry out photosynthesis and began to release oxygen into the

water. Photosynthesis is the production of energy-rich molecules of

sugar from molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), using

sunlight as the energy source. The sugars (glucose and other sugars)

generated by photosynthesis are used in metabolic processes by living

things, and the by-product of photosynthesis is molecular oxygen.

Initially, the newly released oxygen was readily consumed by chemical

reactions with other atoms and molecules (particularly iron) in the ocean.

Once the available iron satisfied its need for oxygen and as the number
of oxygen-generating organisms increased, oxygen molecules began to

build up in the atmosphere. Chemical analyses of rocks suggest that a

significant amount of oxygen appeared in the atmosphere as early as 2.3

billion years ago. During the following billion years, oxygen levels in the

atmosphere probably fluctuated but remained below current levels.

Then, roughly 550 million years ago, the level of free oxygen in the
atmosphere began to increase once again. The availability of abundant

oxygen in the atmosphere contributed to the proliferation of aerobic life-

forms (oxygen-consuming organisms).

Another significant benefit of this “oxygen explosion” is that oxygen

molecules (O2) readily absorb ultraviolet radiation and rearrange

themselves to form ozone (O3). Today, ozone is concentrated above the

surface in a layer called the stratosphere, where it absorbs much of the

Sun’s ultraviolet radiation that strikes the upper atmosphere. For the first
time, Earth’s surface was protected from this type of solar radiation,

which is particularly harmful to DNA. Marine organisms had always been

shielded from ultraviolet radiation by the oceans, but the development of

the atmosphere’s protective ozone layer made the continents more

hospitable.

Apply What You Know

1. What was the source of the gases that composed Earth’s first

enduring atmosphere?

2. What was the source of the atmosphere’s first free oxygen?

Nonvariable Components
As you can see in Figure 1.15 , two gases—nitrogen and oxygen—make

up about 99 percent of the volume of clean, dry air. Although these gases

are the most plentiful components of the atmosphere and are of great

significance to life on Earth, they are of little or no importance in affecting

weather phenomena. The remaining 1 percent of dry air is mostly the

inert gas argon (0.93 percent) plus tiny quantities of other gases listed in

Figure 1.15 .

Figure 1.15 Composition of the atmosphere

Proportional volume of gases composing dry air. Nitrogen and oxygen

obviously dominate.

Two gases—nitrogen and oxygen—make up about 99 percent

of the volume of clean, dry air.
Variable Components
Many of the gases and particles that make up air vary significantly from

time to time and place to place. Important examples include carbon

dioxide, water vapor, aerosols, and ozone. Although usually present in

small percentages, they can significantly affect weather and climate.

Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide, a gas present in only minute amounts (0.0400 percent, or

400 parts per million [ppm]), is nevertheless an important constituent of

air. Carbon dioxide is of great interest to meteorologists because it is an

efficient absorber of energy and thus influences the heating of the

atmosphere. Although the proportion of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere is relatively uniform from place to place and at different

heights in the atmosphere, its percentage has been rising steadily for

more than a century. Figure 1.16  is a graph that shows the growth in

atmospheric CO2 since 1958. Much of this rise is attributed to the burning

of ever-increasing quantities of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil. Some of

this additional carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ocean or is used by

plants, but more than 40 percent remains in the air. Estimates project that

by sometime in the second half of the twenty-first century, atmospheric

carbon dioxide will be twice as high as pre-industrial levels.

Smartfigure 1.16 Monthly CO2 concentrations

Atmospheric CO2 has been measured at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii,

since 1958. There has been a consistent increase since monitoring began.
Watch SmartFigure: The Mauna Loa CO2 Record

Most atmospheric scientists agree that increased carbon dioxide

concentrations have contributed to a warming of Earth’s atmosphere over

the past several decades and will continue to do so in the decades to

come. The magnitude of such temperature changes is uncertain and

depends partly on the quantities of CO2 contributed by human activities

in the years ahead. The role of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and its

possible effects on climate are examined in more detail in Chapters 2 

and 14 .
Water Vapor
You are probably familiar with the term humidity from watching weather

reports on TV. Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor in the air. As

you will learn in Chapter 4 , there are several ways to express humidity.

The amount of water vapor in the air varies considerably, from practically

none to up to about 4 percent by volume. Why is such a small fraction of

the atmosphere so significant? The fact that water vapor is the source of

all clouds and precipitation would be enough to explain its importance.

However, water vapor has other roles. Like carbon dioxide, water vapor
absorbs heat given off by Earth as well as some solar energy. It is

therefore important when we examine the heating of the atmosphere and

the movement of energy on Earth.

When water changes from one state to another (see Figure 4.3 ), it

absorbs or releases heat. This energy is termed latent heat, which means

“hidden heat.” As we shall see in later chapters, water vapor in the

atmosphere transports this latent heat from one region to another, and it

is the energy source that helps drive many storms.

Aerosols
The movements of the atmosphere are sufficient to keep a large quantity

of solid and liquid particles suspended within it. These tiny solid and

liquid particles are collectively called aerosols . Although visible dust

sometimes obscures the sky, these relatively large particles are too heavy

to stay in the air very long. However, many particles are microscopic and

remain suspended for considerable periods of time. They may originate

from many sources, both natural and human made, and include sea salts

from breaking waves, fine soil blown into the air, smoke and soot from

fires, pollen and microorganisms lifted by the wind, ash and dust from

volcanic eruptions, and more (Figure 1.17 ).

Figure 1.17 Aerosols

A. The satellite image shows two examples of aerosols. First, a large dust
storm is blowing across northeastern China toward the Korean Peninsula.
Second, a dense haze toward the south (bottom center) is human-
generated air pollution. B. As the photo on the right shows, dust in the air
can cause sunsets to be especially colorful.

Aerosols are most numerous in the lower atmosphere near their primary

source, Earth’s surface. Nevertheless, the upper atmosphere is not free of

them: Some particles are carried to great heights by rising currents of air,

while others are contributed by meteoroids that disintegrate as they pass

through the atmosphere.

From a meteorological standpoint, these tiny, often invisible particles are

important. First, many act as surfaces on which water vapor may

condense, a critical function in the formation of clouds and fog. Second,

aerosols can absorb or reflect incoming solar radiation. Thus, when an air

pollution episode is occurring or when ash fills the sky following a

volcanic eruption, the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface can be

measurably reduced. Finally, aerosols contribute to an optical

phenomenon we have all observed—the varied hues of red and orange at

sunrise and sunset. The photo on the right in Figure 1.17  illustrates this

phenomenon.
Ozone
Another important component of the atmosphere is ozone . It is a form

of oxygen that contains three oxygen atoms in each molecule (O3), unlike

the oxygen we breathe, which has two atoms per molecule (O2). There is

very little ozone in the atmosphere; overall, it accounts for just 3 out of

every 10 million molecules. Moreover, its distribution is not uniform. It is

concentrated in a layer called the stratosphere, between 10 and 50

kilometers (6 and 31 miles) above the Earth’s surface.

In this altitude range, oxygen molecules (O2) are split into single atoms of

oxygen (O) when they absorb ultraviolet radiation emitted by the Sun.

Ozone is then created when a single atom of oxygen (O) and a molecule

of oxygen (O2) collide. This must happen in the presence of a third,

neutral molecule that acts as a catalyst by allowing the reaction to take

place without itself being consumed in the process. Ozone is

concentrated in the 10- to 50-kilometer height range because a crucial

balance exists there: The ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is sufficient to

produce single atoms of oxygen, and enough gas molecules are present to

bring about the required collisions.

The presence of this ozone layer in our atmosphere is essential to those of

us who are land dwellers. The reason is that ozone absorbs much of the

potentially harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. If ozone did

not filter a great deal of the ultraviolet radiation, land areas on our planet

would be uninhabitable for most life as we know it. Thus, anything that

reduces the amount of ozone in the atmosphere could affect the well-

being of life on Earth. Just such a problem is described in Box 1.2 .

Box 1.2
Ozone Depletion: A Global Issue

Although stratospheric ozone is concentrated high above Earth’s

surface, it is vulnerable to human activities. Manufactured chemicals

break up ozone molecules in the stratosphere, weakening our shield

against UV rays. Measurements over the past three decades confirm that

ozone depletion is occurring worldwide and is especially pronounced

above Earth’s poles. Figure 1.B  shows this effect over the South Pole.

Smartfigure 1.B Antarctic ozone hole

The two satellite images show ozone distribution in the Southern

Hemisphere on the days in September 1979 and 2016 when the ozone
hole was largest. The purple and blue colors are where there is the least
ozone, and the yellows and reds are where there is more ozone.
Watch SmartFigure: The Ozone Hole

Watch Animation: The Ozone Hole

Over the past 80 years, people have unintentionally placed the ozone

layer in jeopardy by polluting the atmosphere. The most significant of the

offending chemicals are known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Developed in the 1930s, CFCs were used as coolants for air-conditioning

and refrigeration equipment, cleaning solvents, and propellants for

aerosol sprays.
Because CFCs are practically inert (not chemically active) in the lower

atmosphere, some of these gases gradually make their way up to the

ozone layer, where sunlight separates the CFCs into their constituent

atoms. The release of a single chlorine atom, which acts as a catalyst,

can be responsible for destroying thousands of ozone molecules.

Because ozone filters out most of the UV radiation from the Sun, a

decrease in atmospheric ozone permits more of these harmful

wavelengths to reach Earth’s surface. UV radiation’s most serious threat

to human health is an increased risk of skin cancer. Increased UV

radiation can also impair the human immune system and promote

cataracts, a clouding of the eye lens that reduces vision and may cause

blindness if not treated.

In response to this problem, an international agreement known as the

Montreal Protocol was developed in 1987 to eliminate the production and

use of CFCs. More than 190 nations eventually ratified the treaty.

Although relatively strong action has been taken, CFC levels in the

atmosphere will not drop rapidly. Once CFC molecules are in the

atmosphere, they can take many years to reach the ozone layer, and

once there, they can remain active for decades. This does not promise a

near-term reprieve for the ozone layer. Nevertheless, the Montreal

Protocol represents a positive international response to solve this global

problem.

Apply What You Know

1. What are CFCs, and what is their connection to ozone depletion?

2. What is the Montreal Protocol, and what did it achieve?

You might have wondered . . .

Isn’t ozone some sort of pollutant?

■ Although the naturally occurring ozone in the stratosphere is

critical to life on Earth, it is considered a pollutant when

produced at ground level because it can damage vegetation and

harm human health. Ozone is a major component in a noxious

mixture of gases and particles called photochemical smog formed

from pollutants emitted by motor vehicles and industries.

Concept Checks 1.4

■ What are the two major components of clean, dry air? What

proportion does each represent?

■ Why is carbon dioxide an important component of Earth’s

atmosphere? Why are water vapor and aerosols important

atmospheric constituents?

■ What is ozone? Why is ozone important to life on Earth?

1.5 Vertical Structure of the
Atmosphere
LO 5 Interpret a graph that shows changes in air pressure from
Earth’s surface to the top of the atmosphere. Sketch and label a
graph that shows the thermal structure of the atmosphere.

When compared to the size of the solid Earth, the envelope of air
surrounding our planet is indeed very shallow. To say that the

atmosphere begins at Earth’s surface and extends upward is obvious.

However, where does the atmosphere end, and where does outer space
begin? There is no sharp boundary; the atmosphere rapidly thins as you

travel away from Earth, until there are too few gas molecules to detect.
Pressure Changes
To understand the vertical extent of the atmosphere, let us examine the
changes in atmospheric pressure with height. Atmospheric pressure is
simply the weight of the air above. To describe atmospheric pressure, the

National Weather Service uses a measure called the millibar (mb), which
will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6 . At sea level, the average
pressure is slightly more than 1000 millibars. This corresponds to a

weight of about 14.7 pounds per square inch. Obviously, the pressure at
higher altitudes is less because there is less air (fewer air molecules)
above these altitudes (Figure 1.18 ).

Figure 1.18 Air pressure changes with altitude

The rate of pressure decrease with an increase in altitude is not constant.

Pressure decreases rapidly near Earth’s surface and more gradually at
greater heights. Put another way, the figure shows that the vast bulk of
the gases making up the atmosphere is near Earth’s surface and that the
gases gradually merge with the emptiness of space.

Atmospheric pressure is simply the weight of the air above.

One-half of the atmosphere lies below an altitude of 5.6 kilometers (3.5
miles). At about 16 kilometers (10 miles), 90 percent of the atmosphere

has been traversed. At an altitude of 100 kilometers, the atmosphere is so

thin that the density of air is less than could be found in the most perfect
artificial vacuum at the surface. Nevertheless, the atmosphere continues

to even greater heights. In fact, traces of our atmosphere extend for

thousands of kilometers beyond Earth’s surface. Thus, to say where the

atmosphere ends and outer space begins is arbitrary and depends on

what phenomenon one is studying. It is apparent that there is no sharp

boundary.

The graphic portrayal of pressure data in Figure 1.18  shows that the rate

of pressure decrease is not constant. Rather, air pressure falls at a

decreasing rate with an increase in altitude. Put another way, air is highly

compressible—that is, the gases that make up air expand with decreasing

pressure and become compressed with increasing pressure.

Eye on the Atmosphere 1.1
This jet is cruising at an altitude of 10 kilometers (6.2 miles).

Apply What You Know

1. Refer to the graph in Figure 1.18 . What is the

approximate air pressure where the jet is flying?

2. About what percentage of the atmosphere is below the

jet (assuming that the pressure at the surface is 1000

millibars)?
Temperature Changes
By the early twentieth century, scientists collecting data obtained from

balloons and kites found that the air temperature dropped with increasing

height above Earth’s surface. This phenomenon is felt by anyone who has

climbed a high mountain and is obvious in pictures of snow-capped

mountaintops rising above snow-free lowlands (Figure 1.19 ).

Figure 1.19 Temperature change in the troposphere

Snow-capped mountains and snow-free lowlands are a reminder that

temperatures decrease as we go higher in the troposphere.

Scientists once believed that the temperature continued to decrease with

height to a value of absolute zero (–273°C) at the outer edge of the

atmosphere. In 1902, however, French scientist Leon Philippe Teisserenc

de Bort refuted the notion that temperature decreases continuously with

an increase in altitude. In studying the results of more than 200 balloon

launchings, Teisserenc de Bort found that the temperature leveled off at

an altitude between 8 and 12 kilometers (5 and 7.5 miles). Later, the use

of balloons and rocket-sounding techniques revealed the temperature

structure of the atmosphere up to great heights. Based on these

temperature measurements, the atmosphere can be divided vertically into

four layers (Figure 1.20 ). The temperature profile shown in Figure
1.20  represents the average temperature change with altitude. However,

the actual temperature profile can be quite variable from one day to the

next—particularly in the lower atmosphere.

Figure 1.20 Thermal structure of the atmosphere

Earth’s atmosphere is traditionally divided into four layers, based on

temperature.
Troposphere
The bottom layer in which we live, where average temperatures decrease

with an increase in altitude, is the troposphere . The term was coined in

1908 by Teisserenc de Bort and literally means the region where air “turns

over,” a reference to the appreciable vertical mixing of air in this

lowermost zone.

The temperature decrease in the troposphere is called the environmental

lapse rate . Its average value is 6.5°C per kilometer (3.5°F per 1000 feet),

a figure known as the normal lapse rate. It should be emphasized,

however, that the environmental lapse rate is not a constant but rather

can be highly variable and must be regularly measured. Radiosondes are

used to measure the actual environmental lapse rate, as well as gather

information about vertical changes in air pressure, wind, and humidity. A

radiosonde  is an instrument package that is attached to a balloon and

transmits data by radio as it ascends through the atmosphere (Figure

1.21 ). The environmental lapse rate can vary over the course of a day as

a result of fluctuations in weather, as well as seasonally and from place to

place. Sometimes shallow layers where temperatures actually increase

with height are observed in the troposphere. Such reversals, called

temperature inversions , are described in greater detail in Chapter 13 .

Figure 1.21 Radiosonde

This lightweight package of instruments is carried aloft by a small

weather balloon. It transmits data on vertical changes in temperature,
pressure, and humidity in the troposphere. The troposphere is where
practically all weather phenomena occur, so it is very important to have
frequent measurements.

The temperature continues to decrease to an average height of about 12

kilometers (7.5 miles), which marks the top of the troposphere, called the

tropopause  (see Figure 1.20 ). Yet the thickness of the troposphere is

not the same everywhere. In the tropics, the tropopause reaches heights

in excess of 16 kilometers (10 miles), whereas in polar regions it is lower,

varying from about 7 to 8 kilometers (about 5 miles) (Figure 1.22 ).

Warm surface temperatures and highly developed thermal mixing as the

warmed air rises are responsible for the greater vertical extent of the

troposphere near the equator.

Figure 1.22 Differences in the height of the tropopause

The variation in the height of the tropopause, as shown on the small inset
diagram, is greatly exaggerated.

The troposphere is the chief focus of meteorologists because it is in this

layer that essentially all important weather phenomena occur. Almost all

clouds and certainly all precipitation, as well as all our violent storms, are

born in this lowermost layer of the atmosphere. This is why the

troposphere is often called the “weather sphere.”

The atmosphere is divided into four layers, based on

temperature—the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and
thermosphere.
Stratosphere
Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere . In the stratosphere, the

temperature at first remains nearly constant to a height of about 20

kilometers (12 miles) before it begins a sharp increase that continues until

the stratopause  is encountered at a height of about 50 kilometers (30

miles) above Earth’s surface (see Figure 1.20 ). The high concentration of
ozone in the stratosphere accounts for the rise in temperature observed in

this layer. Recall that ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun,

which in turn causes its temperature to rise.

Although the troposphere is dominated by large-scale turbulence and

mixing, very little vertical mixing occurs in the stratosphere. This is

because the stratosphere experiences a temperature inversion, where cold

air lies beneath warm air, in contrast to the opposite occurrence in the

troposphere.

Mesosphere
In the third layer, the mesosphere , temperatures decrease with height

until the mesopause , or top of the mesosphere, is reached (see Figure

1.20 ). This decrease in temperature with height leads to abundant

vertical mixing. The mesopause is located about 80 kilometers (50 miles)

above the surface, where the average temperature approaches a chilly

−90°C (−130°F)—the coldest temperatures anywhere in the atmosphere.

The mesosphere is one of the least explored regions of the atmosphere

because it cannot be reached by the highest-flying airplanes and research

balloons, nor is it accessible to the lowest-orbiting satellites. Recent

technical developments are just beginning to fill this knowledge gap.

Thermosphere
The fourth layer extends outward from the mesopause and has no well-

defined upper limit. It is the thermosphere , a layer that contains only a

tiny fraction of the atmosphere’s mass. In the extremely rarified air of this

outermost layer, temperatures again increase as oxygen and nitrogen

atoms absorb very shortwave, high-energy solar radiation (Figure 1.20 ).

Temperatures rise to extremely high values of more than 1000°C (1800°F)

in the thermosphere. But such temperatures are not comparable to those

experienced near Earth’s surface. Temperature  is defined in terms of

the average speed at which molecules move—the higher the speed, the

higher the temperature. Because the gases of the thermosphere are

moving at very high speeds, the temperature is very high. But the gases

are so sparse that collectively they possess only an insignificant quantity

of thermal energy (heat). For this reason, the temperature of a satellite

orbiting Earth in the thermosphere is determined chiefly by the amount of

solar radiation it absorbs, and not by the high temperature of the almost

nonexistent surrounding air. If an astronaut inside were to expose his or

her hand, the air in this layer would not feel hot.
The Ionosphere
In addition to the layers defined by vertical variations in temperature,

scientists recognize another layer in the atmosphere. Located between 80

and 400 kilometers (50 to 250 miles) above Earth’s surface, and thus

coinciding with the lower portion of the thermosphere, is an electrically

charged layer known as the ionosphere . Here molecules of nitrogen

and atoms of oxygen are readily ionized as they absorb high-energy

shortwave solar radiation. Ionization is a process in which the affected

molecule or atom loses one or more electrons and becomes a positively

charged ion, and the electrons set free then travel as electric currents.
 Eye on the Atmosphere 1.2
When this weather balloon was launched, the surface

temperature was 17°C. It is now at an altitude of 1 kilometer.

Apply What You Know

1. What term is applied to the instrument package being

carried aloft by the balloon?

2. In what layer of the atmosphere is the balloon?

3. If average conditions prevail, what air temperature is the

instrument package recording? How did you figure this

out?

As best we can tell, the ionosphere has little impact on our daily weather.

But this layer of the atmosphere is the site of one of nature’s most

interesting spectacles, the auroras  (Figure 1.23 ). The aurora borealis

(northern lights) and its Southern Hemisphere counterpart, the aurora

australis (southern lights), appear in a wide variety of forms. Sometimes

the displays consist of vertical streamers in which there can be

considerable movement. At other times, the auroras appear as a series of

luminous expanding arcs or as a quiet glow that has an almost foglike

quality.

Figure 1.23 The auroras

The aurora borealis (northern lights), as seen in Alaska. The same

phenomenon occurs toward the South Pole, where it is called the aurora
australis (southern lights).

Auroral displays are aligned with Earth’s magnetic poles and closely

correlated with large solar storms, such as solar flares. Solar flares are

massive magnetic storms on the Sun that emit enormous quantities of

fast-moving atomic particles. As these charged particles (ions) approach

Earth, they are captured by its magnetic field, which in turn guides them

toward the magnetic poles. Then, as the ions impinge on the ionosphere,

they energize the atoms of oxygen and molecules of nitrogen and cause

them to emit light—the glow of the auroras. Because the occurrence of

solar storms is closely associated with sunspot activity, auroral displays

increase conspicuously at times when sunspots are most numerous.

Concept Checks 1.5

■ Does air pressure increase or decrease with an increase in

altitude? Is the rate of change constant or variable? Explain.

■ The atmosphere is divided vertically into four layers based

on temperature. List these layers in order from lowest to

highest. In which layer does practically all weather occur?

■ What is the ionosphere? How is it related to the auroras?

Concepts in Review
1.1 Focus on the Atmosphere
LO 1 Distinguish between weather and climate, name the basic
elements of weather and climate, and list several important
atmospheric hazards.

Key Terms
meteorology 
weather 

climate 

Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere. Weather refers

to the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place. It is
constantly changing, sometimes from hour to hour. Climate refers to

the average weather conditions and the sum of all statistical weather
information that helps describe a place or region.
The most important elements of weather and climate are (1) air

temperature, (2) humidity, (3) type and amount of cloudiness, (4)

type and amount of precipitation, (5) air pressure, and (6) the speed

and direction of the wind.

Some atmospheric hazards are storm related, such as lightning,

blizzards, and hail. Others are not storm related, such as fog, heat

waves, and drought.

1.2 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry
LO 2 Discuss the nature of scientific inquiry, including the
construction of hypotheses and the development of theories.

Key Terms
hypothesis 

theory 

All science is based on the assumption that the natural world behaves

in a consistent and predictable manner. Scientists make careful

observations, construct tentative explanations for those observations

(hypotheses), and then test those hypotheses with field investigations

and laboratory work.

In science, a theory is a well-tested and widely accepted explanation

that the scientific community agrees best fits certain observable facts.
1.3 Earth as a System
LO 3 List and describe Earth’s four major spheres. Define system,
and explain why Earth is considered a system.

Key Terms
atmosphere 

hydrosphere 

lithosphere 

biosphere 

system 

Earth’s physical environment is traditionally divided into three major

parts: Earth’s gaseous envelope, called the atmosphere; the water

portion of our planet, called the hydrosphere; and the solid Earth,

called the lithosphere. A fourth Earth sphere is the biosphere, the

totality of life on Earth.

Although each of Earth’s four spheres can be studied separately, they

are all related in a complex and continuously interacting whole that is

called the Earth system.

Earth system science uses an interdisciplinary approach to integrate

the knowledge of several academic fields in the study of our planet

and its global environmental problems.

The two sources of energy that power the Earth system are (1) the
Sun, which drives the external processes that occur in the

atmosphere, hydrosphere, and at Earth’s surface, and (2) heat from

Earth’s interior that powers the internal processes that produce

volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountains.

 Hydrologic Cycle

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1.4 Composition of the Atmosphere
LO 4 List the major gases composing Earth’s atmosphere and
identify the components that are most important
meteorologically.

Key Terms
air 
aerosols 

ozone 

Air is a mixture of many discrete gases, and its composition varies

from time to time and place to place. Two nonvariable gases, nitrogen

and oxygen, make up 99 percent of the volume of the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide (CO2), a variable gas present in only minute amounts,

is an efficient absorber of energy emitted by Earth and thus influences

the heating of the atmosphere.

Water vapor is important because it is the source of all clouds and

precipitation. Like carbon dioxide, water vapor can absorb heat

emitted by Earth. In the atmosphere, water vapor transports latent

(“hidden”) heat from place to place and is the energy that helps to

drive many storms.

Aerosols are tiny solid and liquid particles that are important because

they may act as surfaces onto which water vapor can condense. They

also absorb and reflect incoming solar radiation.

Ozone, a form of oxygen that combines three oxygen atoms into each
molecule (O3), is a gas concentrated in the stratosphere. Ozone is

important to life because it can absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation

from the Sun. People have placed Earth’s ozone layer in jeopardy by

polluting the atmosphere with chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which

break apart the ozone.

1.5 Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
LO 5 Interpret a graph that shows changes in air pressure from
Earth’s surface to the top of the atmosphere. Sketch and label a
graph that shows the thermal structure of the atmosphere.

Key Terms
troposphere 

environmental lapse rate 

radiosonde 

temperature inversion 

tropopause 
stratosphere 

stratopause 

mesosphere 

mesopause 

thermosphere 

temperature 

ionosphere 

aurora 

Pressure is the weight of the air above a location. Because air is

compressible, pressure decreases at an increasing rate as you go up in

the atmosphere.

Based on temperature, the atmosphere is divided vertically into four

layers. The troposphere is the lowermost layer. In the troposphere,

temperature usually decreases with increasing altitude. Essentially, all

important weather phenomena occur in the troposphere.

Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which warms with altitude

because of absorption of UV radiation by ozone. In the mesosphere,

temperatures again decrease. Upward from the mesosphere is the

thermosphere, a layer with only a tiny fraction of the atmosphere’s

mass and no well-defined upper limit.

The ionosphere is an electrically charged layer of the atmosphere

where molecules of nitrogen and atoms of oxygen are readily ionized

as they absorb solar radiation.

Auroras (the northern and southern lights) occur within the

ionosphere. Auroras form as atomic particles ejected from the Sun

during solar flare activity enter the atmosphere near Earth’s magnetic

poles and energize the atoms of oxygen and molecules of nitrogen,

causing them to emit light.

Exercises and Online Activities

Mastering Meteorology™

For instructor-assigned homework, test prep

resources, and other learning materials, visit

Mastering Meteorology.
Review Questions
1. What is meteorology?

2. List some examples of how weather changes.

3. Explain how climate changes.

4. What are some examples of atmospheric hazards?

5. What is a hypothesis? How is a theory different from a

hypothesis?

6. Why is the scientific method useful?

7. List the four spheres of Earth, and describe their basic

characteristics.

8. How much of Earth’s surface is covered by oceans?

9. Briefly explain why is Earth considered a “system.”

10. Sketch and describe the hydrologic cycle.

11. List the components of Earth’s atmosphere, and indicate which

ones are variable.

12. In what ways is water vapor important in the atmosphere?

13. What are aerosols, and what role do they play in the atmosphere?

14. Why is ozone important in the atmosphere?

15. Define atmospheric pressure.

16. How does pressure change vertically in the atmosphere?

17. Sketch the typical vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere,

and label each layer. List their basic properties.

18. Explain why temperature increases in the stratosphere.

19. How is the ionosphere different from the atmosphere’s thermal

layers?

20. Explain how an aurora is formed.

Give It Some Thought
1. Determine which statements refer to weather, and which are

considered climate.
a. The baseball game was rained out today.

b. January is Chicago’s coldest month.

c. North Africa is a desert.

d. Light rain fell most of the afternoon.

e. Last evening a tornado ripped through central Oklahoma.

f. I am moving to southern Arizona because it is warm and

sunny.

g. Thursday’s low of −20°C is the coldest temperature ever

recorded for that city.

h. It is partly cloudy.

2. This map shows the mean percentage of sunshine received in the

month of November across the 48 contiguous United States.

a. Does this map relate more to weather or to climate?

b. If you were to visit Yuma, Arizona, on a day in

November, would you expect to experience a sunny day

or an overcast day?

c. Might what you actually experience during your visit

differ from what you expected? Explain.

3. Briefly explain this statement in your own words: “Climate is

what you expect; weather is what you get.”

4. After entering a dark room, you turn on a wall switch, but the

light does not come on. Suggest at least three hypotheses that

might explain this observation.

5. Where would you expect the thickness of the troposphere (that is,

the distance between Earth’s surface and the tropopause) to be

greater: over Hawaii or over Alaska? Why? Do you think it is

likely that the thickness of the troposphere over Alaska is

different in January from in July? If so, why?

6. Making accurate measurements and observations is a basic part

of scientific inquiry. The accompanying radar image, showing the

distribution and intensity of precipitation associated with a strong

winter storm, provides one example. Identify two additional

images in this chapter that illustrate ways in which scientific data

are gathered, and briefly describe each.

7. Determine which layer(s) of the atmosphere is/are best described

by each statement below. Some statements have more than one

answer!
a. This layer is a temperature inversion.

b. This layer contains most of the ozone.

c. This layer contains all of Earth’s weather.

d. This layer has lots of vertical mixing.

e. This layer has little or no vertical mixing.

8. The accompanying photo provides an example of interactions

among different parts of the Earth system. It is a view of a

landslide triggered by extraordinary rains in March 2014. Which

of Earth’s four “spheres” were involved in this natural disaster

that buried a 1-square-mile rural neighborhood near Oso,

Washington, and caused more than 40 fatalities? Describe how

each contributed to the mudflow.

By the Numbers
1. Refer to the weather map in Figure 1.3  to answer the following:

a. Estimate the predicted high temperatures in central New

York State and the northwestern corner of Arizona.

b. Where is the coldest area on the weather map? Where is

the warmest?

c. On this weather map, H stands for the center of a region

of high pressure. Does high pressure appear to be

associated with precipitation or with fair weather?

d. Which is warmer—central Texas or central Maine? Would

you normally expect this to be the case?

2. Refer to the graph in Figure 1.4  to answer the following

questions about temperatures in New York City:

a. What is the approximate average daily high temperature

in January? In July?

b. Approximately what are the highest and lowest

temperatures ever recorded?

3. Refer to the graph in Figure 1.6 . Which year had the greatest

number of billion-dollar weather disasters? How many events

occurred that year? In which year was the total damage amount
highest?

4. Refer to the graph in Figure 1.18  to answer the following:

a. Approximately how much does the air pressure drop (in

millibars) between the surface and 4 kilometers (2.5

miles)? (Use a surface pressure of 1000 millibars.)

b. How much does the pressure drop between 4 and 8

kilometers (2.5 and 5 miles)?

c. Based on your answers to parts a and b, select the correct

answer: With an increase in altitude, air pressure

decreases at a(n) (constant, increasing, decreasing) rate.

 d. If you were to climb to the top of Mount Everest, how

many breaths of air would you have to take at that

altitude to equal one breath at sea level?

e. If you are flying in a commercial jet at an altitude of 12

kilometers (7.5 miles), about what percentage of the

atmosphere’s mass is below you?

5. If the temperature at sea level were 23°C, what would the air

temperature be at a height of 2 kilometers, under average

conditions?

6. Use the graph of the atmosphere’s thermal structure (Figure

1.20 ) to answer the following:

a. What are the approximate height and temperature of the

stratopause?

b. At what altitude is the temperature lowest? What is the

temperature at that height?

7. Answer the following questions by examining the graph in Figure

1.22 :

a. In which one of the three regions (tropics, middle

latitudes, poles) is the surface temperature lowest?

b. In which region is the tropopause encountered at the

lowest altitude? The highest? What are the altitudes and

temperatures of the tropopause in those regions?

8. On a spring day, a middle-latitude city (about 40° north latitude)

has a surface (sea-level) temperature of 10°C.

a. If vertical soundings on this spring day reveal a nearly

constant environmental lapse rate of 6.5°C per kilometer

and a temperature at the tropopause of −55°C, what is the

height of the tropopause?

b. On the same spring day, a station near the equator has a

surface temperature of 25°C, which is 15°C higher than

the middle-latitude city mentioned in part a. Vertical

soundings reveal an environmental lapse rate of 6.5°C per

kilometer and indicate that the tropopause is encountered

at 16 kilometers. What is the air temperature at the

tropopause?
Beyond the Textbook
1. Exploring the Ideal Gas Law
The following definitions will assist you as you complete this exercise:

pressure = how much the molecules push on the sides of the box; volume

= the size of the box; density = how closely packed the molecules are; and

temperature = average speed of the molecules.

For this activity, there are two options. One is Flash-based (iPads and

iPhones won’t run Flash) and the other is Java-based (Chrome won’t run

Java, but the other browsers will). Choose whichever format works for

your technology.

To Run the Flash-Based Simulation:

Open the Gas Law Simulator located at [Link]

[Link]?target=gases/kmt/[Link], and click on the

picture.

Change volume by using the up and down arrows. You can keep the

volume constant by clicking on the lock icon.

Change temperature by clicking on either the heat knob or the cool

knob.

Add molecules by moving the pump handle on the bicycle pump. (Use

only one gas, A or B.)

Remove molecules by clicking on the yellow valve below the pressure

indicator.
To Run the Java-Based Simulation:
Go to [Link]

and download the Java program. You will need to give permission to run

the program. (Be sure your Java is up to date!)

Change volume by moving the person to the left of the box.

Change temperature by moving the heat control up or down.

Add molecules by moving the pump handle. (Use only one gas.)

Remove molecules by moving the lid on top of the box to the left and

right.

Activity A. First, you will explore how temperature and the number of

molecules determine the pressure when the volume is constant (in other

words, the size of the box does not change).

1. How does the pressure change when you increase the temperature?

2. How does the pressure change when you decrease the temperature?

3. How does the pressure change when you increase the number of

molecules?

4. How does the pressure change when you decrease the number of

molecules?

Activity B. Next, you will explore how temperature and the number of

molecules determine the volume when you have a fixed pressure.

Remember, for this experiment you are keeping the pressure constant. In

other words, for each variable you change, you must modify the volume

to put pressure back to its original value. (Use only one “pump” of

molecules for questions 5 and 6.)

5. How does the volume need to change when you increase the

temperature to get pressure back to its original value?

 6. How does the volume have to change when you decrease the

temperature to get pressure back to its original value?

For questions 7 and 8: If you are using the Java-based simulation, you will

need to click the radial button next to temperature in the Constant

Parameter section at the top right-hand corner of the window.

7. How does the volume need to change when you increase the

number of molecules to 2 “pumps” to get pressure back to its

original value?

8. How does the volume have to change when you decrease the

number of molecules to get pressure back to its original value?

2. Exploring a Temperature Profile
The accompanying diagram shows a simplified temperature profile of a

portion of the atmosphere. (Temperature profiles are usually obtained

twice each day from radiosondes at numerous locations around the

world.) Use this diagram to answer the following questions.

1. What is the temperature (solid red line) at the surface (pressure =

1000 millibars)?
2. What is the temperature at the 600-mb pressure level?

3. What is the temperature at the 250-mb pressure level?

4. Circle each of the inversions on the temperature profile. Recall

that a temperature inversion is a region where temperature

increases with height.

5. Does this graph look like the average temperature profile shown

in Figure 1.20  in your textbook? How is it different?

6. What layer of Earth’s atmospheric is shown on this graph?

 100

200

300

Pressure levels (millibars)

400

500

600

700

800
006

1000 0
-80 -70 -60 -50 -40-30 -20-10 10 20 30 40
Temperature (°C)