FLUID DYNAMICS Learning Objectives At the end of this chapter the students will be able to Understand that viscous forces in a fluid cause a retarding force on an object moving through it Use Stokes’ law to derive ay falling through a visco, Understand sion for terminal velocity of a spherical body nar conditions. @ Sufficienily high velocity, the flow of yg laminar to turbulence conditions. mpreciate the. equation of continuity Av = Constant for incompressible fluid. Appreciate that the equation of continuily is a form of the principle of conservation of mass. Understand that the pressure difference can arise from different rates of flow of a fluid (Bernoulli effect) Derive Bernoull’s equation in form P + %p¥ +pgh = constant. Explain how Bernoulli effect is applied in the filter pump, atomizers, in the flow of air over an aerofoil, Venturimeter and in blood physics, Give qualitative explanations fg ing of a spinning ball. low of an ideal and energy Is the basis of Bernoulli's equation. The equation of continuity and the Bernoulli's equation along with their applications in aeroplane and blood circulation are discussed in this chapter. 127{he frictional effect between different layers of a flowing fluid is described in terms of viscosity of the fluid, Viscosity measures, how much force is required to slide one layer of the liquid over another layer, Substances that do not flow easily, Such as thick tar and honey eic; have large Coefficients of viscosity, usually denoted by greek letter ‘7. Substances which flow easily, like water, have small Coefficients of viscosity. Since liquids and gases have non zero viscosity, a force is required if an object is to be moved through them. Even the small viscosity of the air causes @ large retarding force on a car as it travels at high Speed. If you stick out your hand out of the window of a fast moving car, you can easily recognize that considerable force has to be exerted on your hand ta move it through the air. These are typical examples of the following fact, Viscosiies of Liquids and Gases at 30°C 2 stoi ie 0.019 Acetone 0.285 oe: ae Even in the simplest cases the exact value of the drag Woter Gaui force is difficult to calculate. However, the case of a sphere Ethanol 4.000 ‘moving through a fluid is of great importance. Plasma 16 Sycern 029 The drag force F on a sphere of radius r moving slowly with "Speed v through a fluid of viscosity nis given by Stokes’ law as under. F=6mry (6.1) At high speeds tne force is no longer simply proportional to speed Consider a water droplet such as that of fog falling vertically, the air drag on the waler droplet increases with speed, The droplet accelerates rapidly under the over Powering force of gravily which pulls the droplet downward. However, the upward drag force on it increases as the speed of the droplet increases. The nel force on the droplet is 128Net force = Weight Drag forea@ tsi, (6.2) As the speed of the droplet continues to increase, the drag force eventually approaches the weight in the magnitude. Finally, when the magnitude of the drag force becomes equal to the weight, the net force acting on the droplet is zero. Then the croplet will fall with constant speed called terminal velocity. To find the terminal velocity v; in this case, we use Stokes Law for the drag force. Equating it to the weight of the drop, we have mg = 6 mry o we The mass of the droplet is pV, Where volume V= $ (ary ‘Substituting this value in the above equation, we get me onMe: Moving fu reat importance. To learn about the — behaviour of the fluid in motion, we consider their flow z through the pipes. When a fluid is in motion, its fow can be {6Y eposanen Caries area ee ain (0) Turbulent flow Fig. 6.1 In this case each particle of the fluid moves along a smooth Bath called a streamline as shown in Fig. 6.1 (a) The different streamlines can not cross each other This Under this condition the velocity of the fluid changes abruptly as shown in Fig.6.1 (b). In this case the exact path of the particles of the fluid can nat be predicted. We can understand many features of the fluid in motion by Sermuncug(ecnocasnavea considering the behaviour of a fluid which satlehes te sireamlined desig following conditions, 1. The fluid is non-viscous ie, there is no internal frictional force between adjacent layers of fluid. 2. The fluid is incompressible, ie., its density is constant, Doburstwe sveanmedsere, >- The fluid motion is steady, to aediet thie movernent water Consider a fit flowing through a pi form size. The particles in the fluid move along the streamlines ine steady state flow as shown in Fig. 6.3. 130in a small time At, the fluid at the lower end of the tube moves a distance Ax;, with a velocity vy. If A; is the area of cross section of this end, then the mass of the fluid contained in the sheded region is: AM; = prArAXs = prAwy x At Where P, is the density of the fluid. Similarly the fiuid that moves with velocity v2 through the upper end of the pipe (area of cross section Az) in the same time At has a mass AMz = B2A2V2xAt if the fluid is incompressible and the flow is steady, the mass of the fluid is conserved. That is, the mass that flows into the bottom of the pipe through A; in a time At must be equal to mass of the liquid that flows out through A, in the ‘same time. Therefore, Am, = Amz or PAs = Pave This equation is called the equation of continuity. Since density is constant for the steady flow of incompressible fluid, the equation of continuity becomes (65) Aw, = Apv> Fig. 62 As the water falls. its speed Increases and so its orass sectional | decreaes a mandatod ig by theAs the fluid moves through a pipe of varying cross section and height, the pressure will change along the pipe. Bemoull’s equation is the fundamental equation in fluid dynamics that relates pressure to fluid speed and height. 'n deriving Bemouil’s equation, we assume that the fluid is incompressible, non viscous and flows in a steady state manner. Let us consider the flow of the fluid through the Pipe in time t, as shown in Fig. 6.3. Fig. 6:3. The force on the upperend of the fluid is P,A, where P, the Pressure and A, is the area of cross Section at the upper end. The work done on the fluid, by the fluid behind it, in moving it through a distance 4x;, will be Wes Fy ax, = PA; Axy 132‘Simitarty the work done on the fluid at the lower end is Wp =~ Fz Ax) = - PzAz Axe Where Pz is the preesure, Az is the area of cross section of lower end and Ax; is the distance moved by the fluid in the same time interval 1. The work W, is taken to be -ive as this work is done against the fluid force The net work done = W = W; + W.* or W=PAVAX:~ PoAZAK: a. (6.6) If vs and ve are the velocities at the upper and lower ends respectively, then ‘A atraam of a passing over a tine dipped in a liquid will cause the liquid W = PAs vit — PaAa vit to Feo in the tube as shown. This effec: is used in perfume boos and From equation of continuity (equation 6.5) Paint sprayers, Aw = Ase ‘ offluid Hence, Ary; X t= Av X f= V ices ee | W=(P,-P:) Vv es he Sescayy If mis the mass and p is the density then V= 7 So equation 6.7 becomes W=(P,-P2) 2 (6.8) Part of this work is utilized by the fluid in changing Its K.E. and a part is used in changing its gravitational P.E. 2 Change in KE.=A(KE)= 3 mg lime 8. 68) 2 Change in PE. = A(RE.) = mgh; —mgh; nee P(GMO) Where h; and hz are the heights of the upper and lower ends respectively. Applying, the law of conservation of energy to this, volume of the fluid, we get 133(PrP) B= Soni — Simv? + many = may rearranging the equation (6.11) (6.11) Prt evs + pgh, = Pitho 2 +pghe This is Bernoulli's equation and is often expressed as: P +t pv’ +pgh = constant (6.12) Meisel Asimple application of Bernoulli's equation is shown Figs Fig. 6.4. Suppose a large tank of fluid has two small orifices A and B on it, as shown in the figure. Let us find the speed with which the water flows from the orifice A. in Since the orifices are so small, the efflux speeds v; and vy will be much larger than the speed v; of the top surface of water. We can therefore, take v as approximately zero, Hence, Bemoulli’s equation can be written as; Prt pgin= Pit Spvd + gh, But P= Ps = atmospheric prassure Therefore, the above equation becomes Ve= Yai -hy) This is Torticelli’s theorem which states that; (6.13) Alter pump has a conetrition in the: ‘centre, so that ajet of water from the ap flows fesler here, This cause @ tube. The air and water together aro cosled ‘through the lower part cf Notice that pum. the speed of the efflux of liquid is the same as the speed of a ball that falls through a height (h, - fi). The . 134top level of the tank has moved down a little and the PE. has been transferred into K.E. of the efflux of fluid. if the orifice had been pointed upward as at B shown in Fig.6.4, this KE, would allow the liquid to rise to the level of water tank. In practice, viscous-energy losses would alter the result to some extent. Litre mela igi] A result of the Bernoulli's equation is that the pressure will be low where the speed of the fluid is high. Suppose that water flows through a pipe system as shown in Fig. 6.5. Glearly, the water will flow faster at B than it does at A or C. Assuming the flow speed at A to be 0.20 ms” and at B to be 2.0 ms’, we compare the pressure at B with that at A. n Speed and Pressure of the Applying Bernoulli's equation and noting that the average P.E. is the same at both places, We have, Pt Lov? =Pe+ 1p ees (6.14) 2 2 Substituting v,=0.20ms’ , vg = 2.0 ms? And P= 1000 kgm We get Py - Ps = 1980 Nm? This shows that the pressure in the narrow pipe where streamlines are closer together is much smalier than in the wider pipe. Thus, The lift on an aeroplane is due to this effect. The flow of air around an eeroplane wing s illustrated in Fig. 6.6. The wing is designed to deflect the air so that streamlines are closer together above the wing than below it. We have seen in Fig.6.6 that where the streamlines are forced closer together the speed Is faster. Thus, alr is travelling faster on the upper side of the wing than on the lower. The pressure will be lower at the top of the wing, and the wing willbe forced upward. Similarly, when a tennis ball is hit by a racket in such a way that it spins as well as moves forward, the velocity of the 135Seeene The carburetor of a car engine uses Venturi ductto feed the correct mix of air and petrol to the cyinders, Air 's drawn through the duct and 2 pipe to the cylinders. A tny inlet at the side of duct is fed with petrol. ‘The ar through the duet mavas very fast, creating low pressure in the uct, which draws petrol vapour inte the airstream, aed steerage, pene CO PAM 50M ingeMs = Bala, air on one side of the ball increases (Fig. 6.7) due to spin and air speed in the same direction as at B and hance, the Pressure decreases. This gives an extra curvature to the ball known as swing which deceives an opponent player. A 'f one of the pipes has a much smaller diameter than the other, as shown in Fig. 6.8, we write Bernoull’s equation in @ more convenient form. It is assumed thal the pipes are horizontal so thal pgh terms become equal and can therefore, be dropped. Then n wa) As the cross-sectional area Az is small as com pared to the area A,, then from equation of continuity v; = (4./A,) v, will be small as compared to vs. Thus far flow from a large pipe to a small pipe we can neglect v; on the right hand side of equation 6.15. Hence, (615) | Pye Pas Sout Hc 6.A6) This is known as Venturi relation, which is used in Venturi- Meter, a device used to measure speed of liquid flow. Example 6.3: Water flows down hill through a closed Vertical funnel. The flow speed at the top is 12.0 cms”. The flow speed at the bottom is twice the speed at the top. Ir the funnel is 40.0 cm long and the pressure at the top is 1.013 x10° Nm, what is the pressure at the bottom? Solution: Using Bernoulli's equation tea dee Pr+Pgh+, pvt = P2+ Pgha'+ 3 hve or P= P,+pgh+ 1 p(vi vi) where fh = h,- z= the length of the funnel Po = (1.013 x 10°Nm*) + (1000 kgm” x 9.6 ms? x0.4m) = i (1000kgm"*) x {(0.12 msf- (0.24 ms Fy = 1.05 x10°Nm* 1361=ifefots Mg tel Blood is an incompressible fluid having a density nearly equal to that of water. A high concentration (~50%) of red blood cells increases its viscosity from three to five times that of water. Blood vessels are nol rigid. They stretch like a rubber hose. Under normal circumstances the volume of the blood is sufficient to keep the vessels inflated at all times, even in the relaxed state between heart beats. This means there is tension in the walls of the blood vessels and consequently the pressure of blood inside is greater than the external atmospheric pressure. Fig. 6.9 shows the variation in blood pressure as the heart beats. The pressure varies from a high (systolic pressure) of 120 torr (1 torr = 133.3 Nm®) to 2 low diastolic pressure) of about 75-60 torr between beats in normal, healthy person..The numbers tend to increase with age, corresponding to the decrease in the flexibility of the vessel walls. The unit torr or mm of Hg is opted instead of SI unit of prossure because of its extensive use in medical equipments. ‘An instrument called a sphygmomanometer measures blood pressure dynamically (Fig. 6.10). Pressure (tor) a 8 & Fig. 6.10. An inflatable bag is wound around the arm of a patient and extemel pressure on the arm is increased by inflating the bag. The effect is to squeeze the arm and compress the blood vessels inside. When the extemal pressure applied becomes larger than the systolic pressure, the vessels collapse, cutting off the flow of the blood. Opering the release valve on the bag gradually decreases the external pres 137 Tima (8) Fig. 69A stethoscope detects the instant at which the external Pressure becomes equal to the systolic pressure. At this Point the first surges of blood flow through the narrow Stricture produces a high flow speed. As a result the flow is initially turbulent As the pressure drops, the extemal pressure eventually equals the diastolic pressure. From this point, the vessel no longer collapse during any portion of the flow cycle. The flow switches from turbulent to laminar, and the gurgie in the stethoscope disappears. This is the signal to record diastolic pressure, any An object moving through @ fluid experiences a telarding force known as drag force |t increases as the speed of object increases A sphere of radius r moving with speed v through a fluid of viscosity 1 experiences a viscous drag force F given by Stokes’ law F = 6 rnrv. The maximum and constant velocity of an object falling vertically downward is called terminal velocity. An ideal fluid is incompressible and has no viscosity. Both air and water at law speeds approximate to ideal fluid behaviour In laminar flow, layers of fluid slide ‘smoothly past each other. in turbulent flow there is. great disorder and a constantly changing flow pattern. Conservation of mass in an incompressible fund is expressed by the equation of continuity A,v;= Azv,. = constant Apolying the principles of conservation of mechanical energy to the steady flow of an idgal fluid leads to Bernoulli's equation, P+ ; pv?+pgh= constant {The effect of the decrease in pressure with the increase in speed of the fluid in a horizontal pipe is known as Venturi effect 1386.1 Explain what do you understand by the term viscosity? 6.2 What Is meant by drag force? What are the factors upon which drag force acting upon a small sphere of radius r, moving down through a liquid, depend? 6.3 Why fog droplets appear to be suspended in air? 64 Explain the difference between laminar flow and turbulent flow. 6.5 State Bernoulli's relation for a liquid in motion and describe some of its applications. 6.6 A person is standing near a fast moving train. Is there any danger that he will fall towards it? 6.7 Identify the correct answer. What do you infer from Bernoulli's theorem? ()) Where the speed of the fluid is high the prassure will be low. (i) Where the speed of the fluid is high the pressure is also high. (i), This theorem is valid only for turbulent flow of the liquid. 6.8 Two row boats moving parallel in the same direction are pulled towards each other. Explain. 69 aoe how the swing is produced in a fast moving cricket ball 6.10 Explain the working of a carburetor of a motorcar using by Bernoulli's principle. © 11 For which position will the maximum blood pressure in the body have the smallest value. (2) Standing up right (b) Sitting (c) Lying horizontally (c) Standing on one’s head? 6.12In an orbiting space station, would the blood pressure in major arteries in the leg ever be greater than the blood pressure in major arteries in the neck? NUMERICAL est SS) 6.4 Certain globular protein particle has a density of 1248 kg m’®. It falls through pure water (n=8.0 x 10%Nni8} with a terminal speed of 3.0 cm h". Find the radius of the particie (Ans: 1.6 «10%m) 5.2 Water flows through a hose, whose intérnal diameter is 1cm at a speed of 1ms” What should be the diameter of the nozzle if the water is to emerge at 21ms"'? (Ans: 0.2 cm) 139© 5 The pipe near the lower end of a large water storage tank develops a small leak and eaeam of waler shoots from it. The top of water in the tank is 45m above the point of leak. 8) With what speed does the water: Tush from the hole? 5) ‘the hole [Link] area of 0.060 cm?, how much water flows out in one second? (Ans: (a) 17 ms", (b) 102 cm?) 4 Water is flowing smoothly through @ closed pipe system. At one point the speed of water is 3.0 ms’! while at another point 3.0 m higher, the speed is 40 ms" It the Pressure is 60 kPa at the lower point, what is pressure at the upper point? (Ans: 47 kPa) An airplane wing is designed so that when the speed of the air across the top of the wing is 450 ms”, the spead of air below the wing is 410 ms”. What is the pressure difference between the top and bottom of the wings? (Density of air = 1.20kgm?) (Ans: 22 kPa) The radius of the aorta is about 1,0 om and the blood flowing through it has a speed of about 30 cms”. Calculate the ‘average speed of the blood in the capillaries using ‘he fact that although each capillary has a diameter of about 8 x 104 om, there are "erally millions of them so that their total cross section is about 2000cn (Ans: 5 x 10%ms') © 7 How large must a heating duct be if air moving 3.0 ms along it can replenish the air in room of 300 m’ volume every 15 min? Assume the air’s density remains constant. (Ans: Radius = 19 cm) ©8 An airplane design calls for a “lit” due to the net force of the Moving air on the wing of a a streamline flow. If the speed of flow past the lower wing surface is 160ms"', what is the required speed over the upper surface to give a “lit” of 1000Nm?2 The density af air Is 1.29 kgm™ and assume maximum thickness of wing to be one metre. (Ans: 165 ms") &9 What gauge pressure is required in the city mains for a stream from a fire hose connected to the mains to reach 2 vertical height of 15.0 m? (Ans: 1.47 x 10° Pa) 140