Second Edition

Introduction to Cryptography
with Coding Theory

Wade Trappe
Wireless Information Network Laboratory
and the Electrica] and Computer Engineering Department
Rutgers University

Lawrence C. Washington
Department of Mathematics
University of Maryland

PEARSON
Prentice .
Hall

Pearson Education International

Contents

Preface xi

1 O v e r v i e w of C r y p t o g r a p h y a n d I t s A p p l i c a t i o n s 1
1.1 Secure Communications 2
1.2 Cryptographic Applications 9

2 Classical C r y p t o s y s t e m s 12
2.1 Shift Ciphers 13
2.2 Affine Ciphers 14
2.3 The Vigenere Cipher 16
2.4 Substitution Ciphers 24
2.5 Sherlock Holmes 27
2.6 The Playfair and A D F G X Ciphers 30
2.7 Block Ciphers 34
2.8 Binary Numbers and ASCII 38
2.9 One-Time Pads 39
2.10 Pseudo-random Bit Generation 41
2.11 L F S R Sequences 43
2.12 Enigma 50
2.13 Exercises 55
2.14 Computer Problems 59

3 Basic Number Theory 63

3.1 Basic Notions 63
3.2 Solving ax + by = d 69
3.3 Congruences 70
3.4 The Chinese Remainder Theorem 76
3.5 Modular Exponentiation 78
3.6 Fermat and Euler 79
3.7 Primitive Roots 83
3.8 Inverting Matriccs Mod n 85
3.9 Square Roots Mod n 86
3.10 Legendre and Jacobi Symbols 88
3.11 Finite Fields 93

v
 CONTENTS

JU£
3.12 Contimied Fractious
104
3.13 Exercises
3.14 Computer Problems H1
1 1 3
The Data Encryption Standard
113
4.1 Introduction
4.2 A Siniplified DES-Type Algorithm 114
4.3 Differential Cryptanalysis llg
123
4.4 DES
131
4.5 Modes of Operation
139
4.6 BreakingDES
143
4.7 Mcet-in-the-Middle Attacks
4.8 Password Secnrity I44
146
4.9 Exercises
149
4.1(3 Computer Problems

The Advanced Encryption Standard: Rijndael 151

5.1 T h e Basic Algorithm I52
154
5.2 The Layers
1 58
5.3 Decryption
54 Design Considerations 1"!
5.5 Exercises
1 6 4
The R S A Algorithm
164
6.1 The RSA Algorithm
169
6.2 Attaeks 011 RSA
176
6.3 Primality Testing
i si
L0L
6.4 Factoring
187
6.5 The RSA Challenge
6.6 Au Application to Treaty Veriücation 189
189
6.7 The Public Key Concept
192
6.8 Exercises
6.9 Computer Problems I97
2 0 1
Discrete Logarithms
901
7.1 Discrete Logarithms *ul
2Ü2
7.2 Computing Discrete Logs
209
7.3 Bit Commitment
7.4 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange 21°
7.5 The ElGamal Public Key Cryptosystem 212
7.6 Exercises
216
7.7 Computer Problems
CONTENTS vii

8 Hash Functions 218

8.1 Hash Functions 218
8.2 A Simple Hash Example 222
8.3 The Secure Hash Algorithm 224
8.4 Birthday Attacks 229
8.5 Multicollisions 232
8.6 The Random Oracle Model 235
8.7 Using Hash Functions to Encrypt 238
8.8 Exercises 239
8.9 Computer Problems 242

9 Digital Signatures 244

9.1 RSA Signatures 245
9.2 The ElGamal Signature Scheine 246
9.3 Hashing and Signing 249
9.4 Birthday Attacks on Signatures 250
9.5 The Digital Signature Algorithm 251
9.6 Exercises 252
9.7 Computer Problems 255

10 Security Protocols 256

10.1 Intruders-in-the-Middle and Impostors 257
10.2 Key Distribution 259
i0.3 Kerberos 266
10.4 Public Key Infrastructures (PKI) 270
10.5 X.509 Certificates 271
10.6 Pretty Good Privacy 277
10.7 SSL and TLS 280
10.8 Secure Electronic Transaction 283
10.9 Exercises 285

11 Digital Cash 287

11.1 Digital Cash 287
11.2 Exercises 294

12 Secret Sharing Schemes 296

12.1 Secret Splitting 296
12.2 Threshold Schemes 297
12.3 Exercises 303
12.4 Computer Problems 305
viii CONTENTS

13 G a m e s 307
13.1 Flipping Coins over the Telephone 307
13.2 Poker over the Telephone 309
13.3 Exercises 314

14 Z e r o - K n o w l e d g e T e c h n i q u e s 316
14.1 The Basic Setup 316
11.2 The Feige-Fiat-Sbamir Identification Scheine 319
14.3 Exercises 321

15 I n f o r m a t i o n T h e o r y 325
15.1 Probability Review 326
15.2 Entropy 328
15.3 Huffman Codes 333
15.4 Perfect Secrecy 335
15.5 The Entropy of English 338
15.6 Exercises 343

16 Elliptic C u r v e s 347
16.1 T h e Addition Law 347
16.2 Elliptic Curves Mod p 352
16.3 Factoring with Elliptic Curves 356
16.4 Elliptic Curves in Characteristic 2 360
16.5 Elliptic Curvc Cryptosystems 363
16.6 Identity-Based Encryption 366
16.7 Exercises 370
16.8 Computer Problems 374

17 L a t t i c e M e t h o d s 376
17.1 Latticcs 376
17.2 Lattice Reduction 377
17.3 An Attack on RSA 382
17.4 N T R U 385
17.5 Exercises 390

18 Error C o r r e c t i n g C o d e s 392
18.1 Introductioii 392
18.2 Error Correcting Codes 398
18.3 Bounds on General Codes 402
18.4 Linear Codes 408
18.5 Hamming Codes 416
18.6 Colay Codes 417
18.7 Cyclic Codes 426
18.8 BCH Codes 432
CONTENTS ix

18.9 Reed-Solomon Codes 440

18.10 The McEliece Cryptosystem 442
18.11 Other Topics 444
18.12 Exercises 445
18.13 Computer Problems 449

19 Q u a n t u m T e c h n i q u e s in C r y p t o g r a p h y 450
19.1 A Q u a n t u m Experiment 451
19.2 Q u a n t u m Key Distribution 454
19.3 Shor's Algorithm 45G
19.4 Exerciscs 466

A Mathematica® E x a m p l e s 467
A.l Getting Started with Mathematica 467
A.2 Some Commands 469
A.3 Examples f'or Cliapter 2 470
A.4 Examples f'or Chapter 3 477
A.5 Examples f'or Chapter 6 480
A.6 Examples f'or Chapter 8 487
A.7 Examples f'or Chapter 12 487
A.8 Examples for Chapter 13 488
A.9 Examples for Chapter 16 490

B Maple® E x a m p l e s 495
B.l Getting Started with Maple 495
B.2 Some Commands 496
B.3 Examples for Chapter 2 498
B.4 Examples for Chapter 3 505
B.5 Examples for Chapter 6 509
B.6 Examples for Chapter 8 517
B.7 Examples for Chapter 12 518
B.8 Examples for Chapter 13 519
B.9 Examples for Chapter 16 . 521

C MATLAB® Examples 527

C.l Getting Started with MATLAB 528
C.2 Examples for Chapter 2 533
C.3 Examples for Chapter 3 544
C.4 Examples for Chapter 6 548
C o Examples for Chapter 8 553
C.6 Examples for Chapter 12 553
C.7 Examples for Chapter 13 554
C.8 Examples for Chapter 16 556
X CONTENTS

D Suggestions for Fiirther Reading 564

Bibliography 565
Index 571