Biology Notes

For CAPF/CDS/SSC/AFCAT/And Other Exams

This 2nd Edition Notes Includes :

Updated Tables
Transportation in Plants.
Disease Table
Details About Leaf
Revolutions And Relation & Crops.

Credits: Team Study Funda

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 BIOLOGY NOTES BY STUDY FUNDA
Five Kingdoms Classification : :
>British Roberty Hooke (1665) coined the term Cell,
when he saw honey comb like structures in the section of cork.
(1) Plantae (2) Fungi (3) Animalia (4) Protista (5) Monera. >A Cell consists of living (Protoplasm) and non- living (Duetoplasm)
matter.
>Protoplasm is called physical basis of life. The name protoplasm
given by Purkenje.

T U D Y
S
D A DA
N FUN
U Stupy
F

Cells are of two types >A cell also contains many membrane bound
structures called cell organelles. .
(1) Prokaryotic (which lacks nucleus and membrane bound organelles). >The most important cell organelle is nucleus
(2) Eukaryotic (which have nucleus and membrane bound organelles). which
controls all the activities of a cell. DNA is
mainly
found in nucleus in small amount. It is also
found in mitochondria and chloroplast.
>Protoplasm within the nucleus is called
nucleoplasm and outside the nucleus is called
cytoplasm.
stuffnDA
>Cell Wall, Plastids and big Vacuole are
present in
plant cell but absent in animal cell.

nucleus and membrane bound organelles) and

Eukaryotic (which have nucleus and membrane
bound organelles).

*Cell Organelle *
>Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.): Network of tubul like structure attached with nucleus and plasmas membrane. They are of two
types:
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) and
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER).
>Functions of E.R. :
1. It forms the supporting skeleton frame work for the cell.
2. It provides a pathway for distribution of nuclear material.
3. It provides surface for various enzymatic reactions.
>Ribosome : It synthesises protein, and ER “at these protein in various part of the cell. Whereas
SER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum)study tumor
helps in the manufacture of fats.
>Protein and fat (lipid) help in building the all membranes. This process is known as membranes biogenesis.
>Golgi apparatus : Discovered by Camilo Golgi, it is made up of group of Tubes, Vesicles and Watches
Functions:
1. Its functions include the storage, modifications
and packaging of products in vesicles.
2. It is also the organelle that builds Lysosomes (cells digestion machines).
>Lysosomes (suicidal bag). It Is a kind of waste >Plastids contain the pigment chlorophyll that
disposal system of the cull having, hydrolytic is known as chloroplast. It is the site of photo
enzymes. lysosomes also help in carcinogenesis. synthesis.
>Mitochondria (power house) is the respiratory
site of cellular respiration which synthesize ATP (Adenosine-Tri- >Vacuoles I It is a fluid filled spaces enclosed by
Phosphate) molecules. membranes called Tonoplast. Its size in animal is
>ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. small and in plant it is big. Amino acids and sugars
>Mitochondria arc strange organelles in the sense are stored in vacuoles.
that they have their own DNA and ribosomes, therefore >Granules : It is not bounded by any membranes. It
mitochondria are able to make their own protein.D Its inner A store fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
membrane has mains folds called
Cristae.
STUDY
fun >Nucleus :Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown.
It contains nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromatin
>Mitochondria is absent in Bacteria and the Red Blood Cells of
Mammals. material. Nucleus is the controlling centre of cell.
>Centrioles : Centrioles are concerned with cell division. It
initiates cell division. >Chromatin : When the cell is in resting state there
>Plastids: These are present only in plant cells and of three is something called chromatin in the nucleus.
types : Chromatin is made up of DNA, RNA and nucleus
1. Chloroplast (green plastits) protein. DNA and RNA are the nucleus acids
2. Chromoplast (colour plastids) impart colour to inside the cell. When the cell is going to divide,
flowers and fruits. the chromatin become very compact. It condenses
3. Leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids), it when the chromatin comes together we can see the
stores food in the form of starch, oils and protein chromosomes.
are stored. Chromosomes :Chromosomes are thread like structures. found
>Plastids are self replicating, i.e. they have the in nucleus and made up of DNA along with histone protein.
power to divide, as they contain DNA, RNA and Bead like structures found on Chromosomes are called as
Ribosome. Genes.

>Chromosomes are usually found in

pairs.

>Human Beings have 46

chromosomes (23 pairs) in
which 22 pairs are Autosomes and
one pair is Sex Chromosomes.
>Nucleolus : It is a dense spherical
granule contained within the
[Link] stores proteins.

STUDY FUNDA

*Nucleic Acids*
.The chromosomes or chromatin material is made up acidic substances called nucleic acids which contains all information about life in the form of codes (genetic codes).
These are of Mo types ". DNA & RNA.
.Both DNA & RNA are made up of long chains of units called Nucleotides, each of which contains a Nucleoside (i.e. nitrogenous base + deoxyribose (in DNA) or ribose
(in RNA) sugars) and a phosphate (PO4)group. The bonds of nucleic acids are called Phosphodiester bonds.
.DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) contains Deoxyribose Sugar and four nitrogenous bases as Adenine (A), Guanine (G). [Both Purines] and Cytosine (C), Thymine
(T) [Both Pyrimidines].
.DNA is responsible for carrying our characters from one generation to the other (genetic material).
.RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) helps in decoding the information of DNA for protein synthesis.
.RNA (Single Stranded Structure) also contains four nitrogenous bases Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Uracil (U) along with ribose sugar in the nucleotide.
.RNA found in Nucleus and Cytoplasm both.

*IMPORTANT POINTS* *IMPORTANT POINTS*

.Nerve cells in animals are the longest cells. .The lysosomal enzymes of the sperm cells digest the limiting
.Smallest human cell is red blood cell. membranes of the ovum (egg). Thus the Term is able to enter the
.Largest human cell is female mm. ovum.
.The single largest cell in the world is of an ostrich. .During the transformation of tadpole into a ma.;
The embryonic tissues like gills and tail are digesiiit. by the lysosome.
.The smallest cells are those of the mycoplasma.
.Mitochondria Schloroplast contain DNA, hence
.Every minute about 3 millions cells in our bodydie. capable of replication.
.The Red Blood Cell carries respiratory gases. .Matrix is a transparent, homogenous
.Sieve cells in plants transport nutrients in plants. substance. In its active state it remains saturated with water.
>The study of Algae is called Phycology and study of *STEM*
Fungi is called Mycology. Stem is ascending part of plant formed by elongation of plumule and
.Algae have chlorophyll and its body is like thallus goes towards light (positively phototrophic) and opposite to gravity
But mostly Fungi are parasitic. (negatively geotrophic).
.Chlorella is known as space algae because an .Stem modification :
astronaut can get protein, food, water and oxygen I. Tuber (eg. Potato); 2. Com (eg. Gladiolus, Saffron); 3. Bulb (eg.
by sowing the Chlorella in tank of aircraft. Onion, Garlic); 4. Rhizome (Turmeric, Ginger); 5. Stem Tendril (Grape);
.Nostoc, Anabaena are used as manure. 6. Stem Thorn (Lemon, roses); [Link] (eg. Ruscus); 8. Phylloclade
.Tincher iodine is prepared from Laminar,fucus,Echlonia (eg. Cactus).
etc.
. Cell wall of Fungi is made up of Chitin.
. Main Fungal Disease : White Rust of Crucifer, Loose
Smut of Wheat, Rust of Wheat, Early Blight of Potato,
Red Rot of Sugarcane, Tikka disease of groudnut, Wart
disease of potato, Brown Leaf Spot of Rice, Late Blight
of Ptato etc.
.Rhizopus is a fungi commonly known as 'bread mould'.

PARTS OF FLOWERING PLANT :

>Root develops from radiclc and absorbs water and
mineral salts from soil to the stem and ultimately
to leaves. It also keeps plants static.
>Root are positively geotrophic and negatively
phototrophic.
Types of root system:
(i) Tap root system: The tap root system develops
from radicle of the germinating seed. It is also
called the normal root system. The tap root
system is present in dicotyledonous plants.
(ii) Adventitious root system: The root system
that develops from any part of the plant body *Leaf*
other than the radicle is called the adventitious >Leaf is green part of plant having chlorophyll which help in
root system. It is mostly seen in synthesises of food through photosynthesis in presence of sunlight.
monocotyledonous plants. >Parts of Leaf :
(a) Base (Lowermost part of leaf); (b) Petiole (the Stalk of leaf that
connects the lamina with stem); (c) Lamina (terminal, flattened,
green part of leaf to manufacture food).
>In Cactus (Xerophyte plant) leaf are modified in Spines.

>The arrangement of flowers on a floral axis is called Inflorescence.

FONDA eg. Capitulum inf1oreacence (sunflower), Cyathium (Euphorbia),
STUDY Corymb (lberis), Hypanthodium (Ficus), Spikelet (Grasses),
Spike (Adhatoda).

>Modifications of Tap roots are :

l. Conical (eg. Carrot); 2. Napiform (eg. Thrnip, Beet);
3. Fusiform (eg. Radish).
>Pneumatophores root is found in salt water and for
respiratory activities, it undergoes towards negative
geotropism eg. Rhizophora.
>Mycorrhizal roots are mutualistic association of
fungus with root tissue.
*Flower* *Fruit*
>Flower is a modified shoot that consists of >Fruit is a ripened ovary of flower . The fruit may be True Fruit (formed from ovary
accessory whorls (Calyx and Corolla) and essential alone) eg. mango, maize, grape etc. or False fruit (developed from other part of
whorls (Androecium and Gynoecium).
flower except ovary) eg. Cashew-nut (from penduncle). Apple, Pear, Cucumber (from
>The plant which bears both male and female flower Thalamus), Mulberry (fused Perianth) etc. lack fruit and Pineapple are also false fruits
is called Monoecious while separate plants with one as they develop from the entire inflorescence.
type of flower are called dioecious.
*Photosynthesis*

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STUDY

>Androecium is male sex organ. Unit of androecium

is stamen. stamen consists of two parts ", a stalk
(filament), topped by an anther where pollen grains
is produced by meiosis. The filament supports the
anther.
>Gynoecium is female sex organ. Unit of gynoeciam
is Carpel. There are 3 parts of Carpel : (a) Ovary; (b)
Style; (c) Stigma. The Style is long tube that attaches
the stigma to the ovary. The sticky tip of pistil
(stigma) is the receptor of pollen.
>The ovary is at the end of the style where ovule or
egg is waiting to be fertilised.

*Pollinalion*
>Transfer of pollens from stamens to stigma is called
Pollination. it is of two types: (t) Self pollination; (2)
Cross-pollination

>Self pollination : Transfer of pollen grain from

anther to the stigma of same flower (Autogamy) or
different flower of same plant (Geitonogamy).
>Cross pollination : Transfer of pollen from anther of
one flower to the stigma of different flower.

>Cross pollination (Xenogamy) takes place with the

help of air (anemophily), water (hydrophily), insects
(entomophily), birds (ornithophily) or bat
(chiropteriophily).

*Fertilization*
>After pollination, a pollen grain germinates and a
pollen tube grows and penetrates the ovule through
a tiny pore called a micropyle. After that a male
nucleus fuse with egg cell and form a diploid zygote

>The fertilised ovule goes on to form a seed which

FUNDA
contains a food store and an embryo that will later
grow into a new plant.
>Male gametes are found inside tiny pollen grains
on the anthers of flower. STUDY
>Female gametes are found inside ovulcs of a flower.
>The ovary develops into a fruit to protect the seed.
The fertilised ovule develops into seeds.
*Parthertocarpy*
>In some plants fruits are developed from ovary
without fertilization. This type of fruit is called
parthenocarpy. Normally, these types of fruits are
seedless e.g. Banana, Orange, Grapes, Pineapple etc.
*Tissues*

>The determination of age of plant is done by counting annual rings of the xylem tissue, This method is called
Dendrochronology.

*Transpiration*
>Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plants through Stomata of leaves. It is measured by Potometer. Transpiration rates
depends on weather conditions such as temperature, humidity, sunlight, intensity, soil types etc.

>Surrounding each Stomata are two Guard Cells, which regulate the opening and closing of stomata to facilitate gas exchange and
control transpiration in plants.
>Guttation is the loss of water in the liquid form from the leaf or stem.
>The Cohesion-Tension theory explains how leaves pull water through the xylem.
>The science or branch of Biology deals with animals called Zoology.
> The primitive atmosphere contained hydrogen, methane, ammonia
and water vapour. In it, oxygen and ozone are absent.
> Homologous organs are similar in basic structure and origin but
different function cg. wings of bat, front foot of horse, human's hand
and wings of birds are homologous organs, These show Divergent
evolution.

*TISSUE*

*Important facts regarding animal tissue*

>Muscles contain special protein called contractile or myosin
protein.
>Fat storing adipose tissue is found below the skin and between
internal organs.
>No bones are connected to each other by a tissue called ligament.
This tissue is very elastic.
>The skin, the living of the mouth, the living blood vessels, kidney
tubules are all made up of epithelial tissue.
>Voluntary muscles and Cardiac muscles are richly supplied with
blood whereas Involuntary muscles are poorly supplied with blood.
>The Spleen serves as a reservoir for blood, and filters or parifies the
blood and lymph fluid that flows through it
>Antibodies: Antibodies are a type of protein molecule known as
immunoglobulins.
*Blood* *Blood Group*
>Blood is slightly alkaline in nature (pH = 7.4). >A, B,AB and O are the four blood groups :
>Its volume in adult is 5 litre. >Blood Group 'O' has no antigen but has both Anti-A
>Blood is a Connective tissue and composed of blood corpuscles, plasma (60%) and Anti-B antibodies. He can give blood to Group
and platelets,
O,A, B and AB and can receive blood only from group
>Most of the cells are faint yellow and without a nucleus.
O. Therefore”Group O” it is called Universal Donor.
> A dense accumulation of these cells is responsible for the red colour of the
>Blood Group 'A' has A-Antigen and Anti-B
blood.
>These cells are called 'Erythrocytes' or Red Blood Cells. antibodies. He can give blood to Group A and AB and
>There are also another two types of cells- the 'Leucocytes' or White Blood can receive blood from Group O & A.
Cells and 'Thrombocytes' or Platelets. >Blood Group 'B' has B-Antigen and Anti-A
antibodies. He can give blood to Group B and AB and
can receive blood from Group O & B.
>Blood group ' AB' has A & B Antigen but has no
Antibodies. He can give blood to Group AB and can
receive blood from Group 0, A, B, & AB. Therefore
Group AB is Universal Receptor.
>Blood Group was discovered by Landsteiner. For
this, he got nobel prize in 1930.

*Plasma*
>It is fluid which contains 90 percent water. The chief salt dissolved in plasma is
sodium chloride and constitute about 60% volume of blood.
>The salinity of plasma is one-third that of sea water. Fibrinogen is a protein
which is essential for cloning ofhlood and another protein globulins aid
in the defence mechanisms of the body is found in plasma.

*Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC)*

>Red Blood Corpuscles(RBC) are the most numerous of the blood cells, they
neither have a nucleus nor mitochondria. RBC are a reddish coloured
containing iron (Fe) pigment haemoglobin which is responsible tor red colour.
> The normal quantity of haemoglobin present in blood in 12-15 g in every
100ml of blood. A decrease in this quantity is called Anaemia',
>The average life span of a red blood cell is about tour months (120 days). They
are produced in the hollow of the bones (bone marrow). Its destruction takes
place in Liver and Spleen. Therefore Liver is called Grave of RBC,

*White Blood Corpusclos (WBC)*

>White Blood Corpuscles (WBC) differ from RBC in three aspects -
first, they have nuclei, secondly, they do not contain haemoglobin,
and are therefore nearly colourless. White cells engulf disease
causing bacteria. This process is called 'Phagocytoss'.
>Platelets (thrombocytes) are non-nucleated and formed in bone
marrow, it helps in blood
clotting. In dengue fever, number of platelets reduced.
>Rh factor discovered by Landsteiner and Winer in Rhesus monkey
which is responsible for
Erythroblastosis foetalis disease.
>Important component of blood clotting are fibrinogen (protein),
prothrombin, thromboplastin, calcium ions and vitamin K.
*The Circulatory System* *Blood Vessels*
>Human Heart : The human heart is an thick, muscular organ that Blood vessels are of three types :
pumps blood throughout the body via the Double Circulatory System,
>Arteries carry the blood away from the heart to various body
supplying
part. Usually these carry oxygenated blood in them, except the
oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and
other wastes. Pulmonary Artery which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
>The human heart has four Chambers (Double circuit). >Veins carry the blood from various body parts to the heart.
>The Chambers which receive the blood from body tissues are called Usually these carry deoxygenated blood in them except the
Auricles and the Chambers of heart which pump blood to body tissues Pulmonary Vein which carries oxygenated (pare) blood to the
are called Ventricles. heart.
>The Right Atrium and Right ventricle together make up the "Right
>Capillaries are thinnest blood vessels which connect arteries to
heart," the left atrium and left Ventricle make up the "Left heart."
>A wall of muscle called the Septum "seperates the two sides of the the veins. These help in the exchange of materials like the
heart. nutrients, gases, waste products etc. between blood and cells.
>Valves prevent backflow, keeping the blood in one direction through
the heart.

>Tricuspid Valve found between Right A and Right Ventricle while

Bicuspid Valve between Lelt Auricle and Left Ventricle.

>A double-walled sac called the Pericardium the heart, which serves to
protect the heart and anchor it inside the chest between the outer
layer
the parietal pericardium, and the inner layer, ii' serous pericardium,
runs pericardial fluid, which lubricates the heart during contractions
and movements of the lungs and diaphragm.
>The heart's outer wall consists of three layer:
. The outermost wall layer, or Pericardium,
. The middle layer, or Myocardiunt. Contains the muscle that contracts,
. The inner layer, or Endocardiurn, is the lining that contacts the blood.
The heart circulates blood through two pathways :
l. The Pulmonary Circuit
2. The Systemic Circuit
>In the Pulmonary Circuit, deoxygenated blood leaves the right
ventricle of the heart via the Pulmonary Artery and travels to the lungs,
then returns as oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart via the *Lymph*
Pulmonary Vein.
>In the Systemic Circuit, oxygenated blood leaves the body via the left >Lymph is yellow fluid flows only in one direction from tissue
ventricle to the aorta, and from there enters the arteries and capillaries towards heart.
where it supplies the body's tissues with oxygen. Deoxygenated blood >Lymphocytes present in lymph helps to prevent the body
returns via Veins to the vena cava, re-entering the heart's right atrium. from diseases by killing harmful bacteria. It helps in healing
>The cardiovascular system circulates blood from the heart to the
lungs and around the body via blood vessels. the wounds.
>The Pulmonary Artery carries deoxygenated blood to the
>Blockage of any artery can cause a heart attack, or damage to the lungs.
muscle of the heart, A heart attack is distinct from cardiac arrest, which >The Veins have valves that prevent backflow of blood.
is a sudden loss of heart function that usually occurs as a result of
electrical disturbances of the heart rhythm,
>The heart contains electrical "pacemaker" cells, which cause it to
contract — producing a heartbeat.
*Skeleton*
>The Aorta is the main artery leaving the heart. >The human skeleton is made up of 206 bones. At birth, new
born has more than 300 bones.
>Human heart is mygenic Le. contraction is initiated by a pulse
>The human skeleton performs six major functions Support,
produced by Sino Atrial Node (SA Node) located in right atrium. First
movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of
heart sound is Lub and second heart sound is dub. SA Node is natural
minerals and endocrine regulation.
pacemaker.
>The main bones of the human skeleton:
>Contraction of heart is called systole (120 mm Hg) while relaxation is
. The Skull : Cranium, Mandible and Maxilla
called Dinslole (80 mm Hg).
.Shoulder girdle: clavicle and Supula
>Blood Pressure of a normal person (120/80 mm Hg) is measured by
.Arm : Humerus. Radius and Ulna
Sphygmomanometer.
.Hand : Carpals, Metacarpals and Phalanges
>The normal rate of heart beat is 72/minute. Thyroxine and Arenaline
.Chest :Sternum and Ribs
hormones independently controls the heart beat.
.Spine : Cervical area (top 7 vertebrae),
>Mammals have Double Circulatory System Le, blood have to cross two
Thoracic (next 12), Lumbar (bottom 5
times from heart before circulating throughout the body.
vertebrae), Sacrum (5 iissed bones) and
Coccyx (the tiny bit at the bottom of the spine).
. Pelvic girdle : Ilium, Pubis and lschium
. Leg : Femur, Tibia and Fibula
. Ankle : Talus and Calcaneus
. Foot : Tarsals, Metatarsal: and Phalanges.
*BONES* *Brain*
>The Brain lies within the Skull and is shaped like a mushroom. Brain
>Bones are formed by the ossification of Cartilage. Calcium is is covered by membrane called Meninges. It is situated in a tiny box
needed for strong bone growth. called Cranium.
>A Joint is the point where two or more bones meet, There are >The brain consists of four principal parts : (1)Brain Stem; (2)
Cerebrum: (3) Cerebellum; (4) Diencephalon.
three main types of joints; Fibrous (immoveable); Cartilaginous
(partially moveable) and the Synovial (freely moveable) joint.
>Tendon joins the muscles and bones.
>Ligament; joins bone to bone. Ligaments are made up of
yellow fibres.
>The skeletal system in adult body is made up of 206 bones.

*Structure of bones*
>The skeleton makes up about 30-40% of an adult's body mass.
The skeleton’s mass is made up of non-living bone matrix and
many tiny bone Cells.
>Roughly half of the bone matrix's mass is water, while the other
half is collagen protein and solid crystals of calcium carbonate and
calcium
phosphate.
>The brain weights approx, 1.3 to 1.4 kg (3 pounds). It has nerve cells
>Living bone cells are found on the edges of bones and in small
called neurons and supporting cells called the glia (Neuroglia).
cavities inside of the bone matrix >The 100 billion neurons of the brain form the main control center
>The bone cell allow bones to: (1) grow and develop; (2) Be repaired of the body.
following an injury or daily wear; (3) Be broken down to release >The Brain Stem is also known as the Medulla Oblongata. It is located
their stored minerals. between the pons and the spinal cord and is vital for life as it
>Long bones ' eg. Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Metatarsals and Phalanges. breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
>Short bones : eg. Carpal bones of wrist and Tarsal bones of foot. >The Cerebrum forms the bulk of the brain and is supported on the
brain stem. >The Cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres. Both
>Flat bones : eg. Frontal, Parietal and Occipital bones of the
hemisphere are connected by a thick band of nerve Fibres called the
Cranium. Corpus Callosum. Each hemisphere controls the activities of the side
>Irregular bones: eg. Vertebrae, Sacrum and Coccyx of the spine as of the body opposite that hemisphere.
well as the sphenoid, ethmoid and zygomatic bones of the skull. The Hemisphere are further divided into four lobes :
Sesamoid bones : eg. Patella and Pisiform bone of carpals. (l) Frontal lobe; (2) Temporal lobe; (3) Parietal lobe (4) Occipital lobe.
>Red Bone Marrow produces red and white blood
cells in a process known as hematopoiesis.
>Red bone marrow is found in the hollow space inside of bones
known " the medullary cavity. The amount of red bone marrow
drops off at the end of puberty, replaced by yellow bone marrow is
used to store energy in the form lipids.

>Bone cells also release Osteocalcin, a hormone that

helps regulate blood sugar and fat deposition.

*Nervous System*
>The nervous sytem is a complex network of nerves and cells that
carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various
parts of the body.
>The nervous system has two parts, called the Central Nervous
System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System due to their location in >Wisdom, memory, thought, voluntary movement, language,
the body. reasoning and perception are the major functions of the Cerebral
>The Central Nervous System is made up of the brain and spinal Cortex,
cord which is safely contained within the skull and vertebral column >The Cerebellum is located behind and below the Cerebrum.
>The major functions of the Cerebellum are maintainence of
of the spine and the Peripheral Nervous System is composed of
movement, balance and posture.
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System. >The Diencephalon is also known as the fore brain stem. It includes
the Thalamus and Hypothalamus.
>The Thalamus is where sensory and other impulses go and coalesce.
Thalamus works by integrating sensory information and motor

STUDY information.
>The Hypothalamus is pea sized organ part of the Diencephalon. It
regulates the body temperatures (thermostat), emotions and
hunger, thirst and

FUNDA
controls the circadian rhythms.
*Meningas* *Drugs that act on Nervous System*
. The meninges are three layers or membranes that cover the Brain >Caffeine inhibits the release at neurotransmitters by blocking
and the Spinal Cord. the action of adenosine.
. The outermost layer is the Duramater. The middle layer is the >Nicotine in Tobacco enhances the Acetylcholine and act as
Arachnoid and the innermost layer is the Piamater. stimulant.
>Thorazine drugs affect cognitive or thinking processes.
>Amphetamines are similar to noradrenaline and stimulate the
release at nor-adrenaline and dopamine in brain.
>Cocaine blocks the uptake of dopamine thus leads to
hallucinations.
>Methamphetamine acts similarly as cocaine.
>Marijuana (Cannabis sativa) acts on neurotransmitter
serotonin.
>Depressent effects are seen with tranquillizers like
barbiturates and benzodiazepines. These acts by action of the
inhibitory transmitter GABA.

**Diseases of Nervous System** :

1. Huntington's chorea;
o The meninges offer protection to the brain and the spinal cord by 2, Dementia;
acting as a barrier against bacteria and other microorganisms. 3. Alzheimer disease (memory loss);
. Nerves that exist from the Cranium are called Cranial nerves (12 4. Parkinson's disease (involves tremors of the limbs and
pairs). While those existing from the Spinal Cord tire called Spinal difficulty in maintaining balance along with muscle,
nerves (31 pairs).
rigidity due to lack of dopamine);
5. Epilepsy;
. Cranial nerves go from brain to eyes, mouth, ears and other parts of
6. Cerebral palsy;
head.
7. Depression (lack of serotonin/ nor-epinephrine);
. Central nerves are in brain and spinal cord.
8. Schizophrenia;
. Peripheral nerves go from Spinal Cord to arms, hands, legs and feet. 9. Phobias.
. Autonomic nerves go from Spinal Cord to lungs, hearts, stomach,
intestines bladder and sex organs.
*The Human Eye*
>The human eye is an organ which react to light and pressure and
*Neurons*
differentiate between about 10 million colors.
. The neuron is the basic unit in the nervous system.
.The eye is composed of the anterior segment an posterior segment.
.It is a specialized conductor cell that receives and transmits
>The anterior segment is made up ofthe Cornea, Iris and Lens.
electrochemical nerve impulses. There are many billions of nerve cells
>The cornea is transparent and more curved, comprised of the
(also called neuron) in the nervous system The brain alone has 100
vitreous, retina, choroid and the outer white shell called the sclera.
billions neurons in it.
>The eye is made up of three layers or coats. The outermost layer
.A typical Neuron has a cell body and long arms that conduct impulses
(fibrous tunic) is composed of the Cornea and Sclera.
from one body parts to another body parts.
.There are three different parts of the Neuron ',
(a) Cell body; (b) Dendrites; (c) Axon

>The middle layer (vascular tunic or uvea) consists of the

.The Cell body is with a nucleus or control center and mitochondria. Choroid, Ciliary Body, Pigmented Epithelium and Iris.
.The Cell body has several highly branched, thick >The innermost layer is the Retina, which gets its oxygenation
shorter extensions that appear like cables and are called Dendrites. from the blood vessels of the choroid and retinal vessels.
The exception is a sensory neuron that has a single, long dendrite >Sclera is a tough and thick white sheath that protects the
instead of many dendrites. inner parts of the eye.
The dendrite's function is to carry a nerve impulse > Conjunctiva is a thin transparent membrane that is spread
from other neurons into the cell body. across the sclera. It keeps the eyes moist and clear by secreting
.Axon is a long, thin process that carries impulses away from the cell small amount of mucus and tears.
body to another neuron or tissue.
 >Cornea is the transparent layer of skin that is spread over the pupil and *Defects of the Eye*
the iris. The function of the Cornea is to refract the light that enters the
>Myopia (near sightedness) is a defect of vision in
eyes.
which far objects or distant objects appear blurred
>Iris is coloured, pigmented part of the eye. It controls the amount of light
but near objects are seen clearly because image is
that enters the eye by changing the size of the pupil.
focussed infront of the retina.
>Pupil is small opening located at the middle of the Iris. It allows light to
come in.
>Myopia can be corrected by using concave lens that
>Lens : Transparent structure inside the eye that focuses light rays onto the helps to focus the image on the retina.
retina.
>Retina is light sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eye. it contains
millions of photo receptors (Rods and Cones) that detect dim and colored
lights and convert light rays into electrical impulses that are transmitted to
the brain via Optic Nerve. The image formed on the retina is real and
inverted.
Rods are highly sensitive to dim light, Eg. Owl’s eyes contains rod only,
Cones are sensitive to bright light Eg, Hens eyes
contains cones only.

>Hypertropia (farsightedness) is a defect of vision

>Aqueous humour is a watery fluid that is present in the area between the
in which there is difficulty with near vision but far
lens and the cornea. It is responsible for the nourishment of both the lens
objects can seen clearly because image is focussed
and the cornea.
behind the retina.
>Vitreous humour is a transparent semi solid,jelly like substances that fills
>Hypertropia can be corrected by using Convex lens
the interior of the eyes. Its role is to maintain the shape of the eye and
Astigmatism is a defect of vision in which the leil,
refraction of light before it reaches the retina.
is warped, causing images not to focus properly on
>Optic nerve located at the end of the eyes,behind the retina. The Optic
nerve is responsible for carrying all the nerve impulses from the
the retina.
photoreceptors to the brain, without which vision would not be Possible.
>Macula : Small central area in the retina that contains special light
sensitive cells and allow us to see fine details clearly.

*The Ear*
>Ear are meant for both balancing and hearing Hearing is controlled by
auditory area of temporal lobe of cerebral cortex.
>Mammalian ear is made up of three parts i.e. external, middle and inner
ear.

>Cylindrical glasses can correct this defect.

Cataracts is clouding of the lens, which prevent a
clear, sharp image being produced clouding results
in blurred vision.
>Glaucoma is a disease caused by Increased
Intraocular Pressure (IOP) usually resulting from a
malfunction to the eye's drainage system. [or can
cause irreversible damage to the optic nerve and
retinal fibres to permanent loss of vision).
>External ear includes a Pinna or Auricle (Cartilage covered by >The nephron produces urine and is the primary unit of
skin placed on opposite sides of the head), Auditory canal or ear homeostasis in the body. It is essentially the long tubule with
canal, and Tympanic membrane (ear drum). associated blood vessels.
>The external ear collects sounds. Sound travels through the >The renal pelvis lakes urine away from the Kidney via Ureter.
Auditory canal, a short tube that ends at the Ear drum. >Both of the Ureters lead the Urine into the body's only Urinary
bladder which expands and sends nerve impulses when full.
>Middle ear includes Ear drum, Tympanic cavity and Ear ossicles From there, Urine is expelled through the Urethra and out of the
[3 tiny bones r Malleus (Hammer), lncus (Anvil) and Stapes body Within the Bowman’s Capsule Is a coiled ball of
(Stirrup). capillaries known " Glomerulus which is made up at two types
>Stapes is the smallest bone in the body, at arterioles
>The Cochlea is filled with fluid and contains the Organ of Corti (a) Afferent arteriole which carries the blood to the glomerulas
(a structure that contains thousands of specialised sensory hair (b) Efferent arteriole by which the blood is taken out at the
cells with projections called cilia). The vibrations transmitted glomerulus.
from the middle ear cause tiny waves to form in the inner ear >The process of filtration otliquid into the cavity of Bowman's
fluid, which make the cilia vibrate. The hair cells then convert Capsule is called Ultrafiltration.
these vibrations into nerve impulse or signals which are sent >Human produce a hormone called Antidiuretic Hormone
through the Auditory Nerve to the brain where they are (ADH), also called as Vaspopressin, which is secreted by
interpreted as sound, The round window (fenestra cochlea) is a posterior lobe of the Pituitary gland, lt regulates the amount of
membrane that connects the cochlea to the middle ear, It helps urine by controlling the rate of water absorption in the nephron
dampen the vibrations in the cochlea, tubules.
>Low levels of ADH causes a disease called Diabetes Insipidus.

*The Excretory System*

>Excretion is the removal of harmful waste materials from the *Urine*
body fluids of organism so as to help maintain internal chemical >It is a pale yellow coloured due to presence of Urochrome
homeosta s and prevent damage to the body. Therefore excretion pigment.
> It has faint aromatic odour due to urinoid.
means the release of nitrogenous excretory substances like urea,
>Human urine contains about 95% water, 2% salts, 2.6% urea
ammonia, uric acid etc. and 0.3% uric acid.
>There are several parts of the body are involved in this process, >Haemodialysis is the process of removal of excess urea from
such as sweat glands, liver, lungs and the kidney system. the blood of patient using artificial kidney
>Every human has two kidney. Each kidney is made up of three >Kidney stone is generally calcium oxalate crystals.
sections : the renal cortex, the renal medulla and the renal pelvis. >Aquatic animals (like fishes, most invertebrates) generally
excrete ammonia.
>Ascaris, earthworm, cartilaginous amphibian and mammals
excrete urea.
>Desert animals, insects, reptiles and birds excrete uric acid.

>The blood arrives at the kidney via the renal artery, which splits
into many afferent arterioles.
>The functional and structural unit of the kidney is the nephron.
***REPRODUC VE SYSTEMS*** *Endocrine System*
*The Male Reproductive System* >The Endocrine System (ductless) is the collection of glands of an
organism that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory
>>The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped into
system to be carried towards distant target organs.
three categories :
>Thus hormone is a chemical messenger secreted by endocrine
1: The first category is sperm production and storage. Sperm
gland directly into the bloodstream where it travels to a target
production takes place in the Testes which are housed in the organs, where it exerts a specific effect.
temperature regulating Scrotum (it provides a temperature about >The major endocrine glands include the pineal gland, pituitary
3*C below normal body temperature), immature sperm then gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid
travel to the Epididymis for development and storage (where they gland and adrenal glands.
gain a tail and motility). >Endocrine glands are ductless (secretes its product directly into
2. The second category are ejaculatory fluid producing glands the bloodstream) in nature while Exocrine glands (such as salivary
which include the Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Glands and the Vas glands, sweat glands and glands within the gastrointestinal
Deferens. tract) tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow
lumen (secretes its products Into a duct)
3. The final category are those used for copulation and deposition
>Endocrine action is slow, prolonged and chemical in nature
of the spermatozoa (sperm) within the male, which include the while nerve action is fast, short lived and electrical in nature.
Penis, Urethra, Vas Deferens and Cowper's Gland.
>An Important sexual hormone of male is Androgen and >The Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland are neuroendocrine
particularly Testosterone. organs. Hypothalamus secretes hormones that controls the
secretions of pitituary.
*The Female Reproductive System* >Pituitary gland is also known as Master gland, located at the
>The human female reproductive system is a series of organs base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus.
primarily located inside of the body and around the pelvic region > The tiny pituitary is divided into two parts; the Anterior lobe
of a female that contribute towards the reproductive process. (adenohypophysis) and Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis).
>The human female reproductive system contains three main
parts: the Vagina, which leads from the Vulva, the vaginal opening,
to the Uterus, the Uterus which holds the developing fetus, and
the Ovaries which produce the female's ova.
>The Vagina meets the outside the vulva, which also includes the
labia, clitoris and urethra; during intercourse this area is lubricated
by mucus secreted by the Bartholin's glands.
>The Vagina is attached to the Uterus through the cervix, while
the Uterus is attached to the Ovaries via the Fallopian Tubes. Each
Ovary contains hundreds of egg cell or ova.
>Approximately every 28 days, the Pituitary gland releases a
hormone that stimulates some of the ova to develop and grow.
>One ovum is released and it passes through the Fallopian Tube
into the Uterus. The lining of the uterus called the Endometerium
and unfertilized ova are shed each cycle through the Process
menstruation. If the ovum is fertilized by sperm,it attaches to the
endometrium and the fetus develops.
>After the age of I3-14 years, the ovary ovum (egg cell) after every
28 days, This cycle of approximately 28 days is called menstruation
cycle.
>The fertilization of egg takes place in the fallopian Tube after
which the developing embryo becomes attached to the Uterus
(implantation).
>The connection between developing embryo in mother is called
Placenta. It supplies different materials like food, hormones,
dissolved oxygen to embryo.
>Birth of child is technically called parturition.
>In the absence of Insulin, glucose is removed from body and
excreted in the kidney, a condition called Diabetes mellitus (glucose in
urine, heavy urination, excessive thirst). Glucagon stimulates the
breakdown of glycogen to glucose in liver.

>A deficiency of Growth Hormone (GH) (also known as somatotropin)

results in Dwarfism; an oversecretion results in Gigantism and
Acromegaly, Gonadotropins hormones, such as Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Melanocyte
Stimulating Hormone (MSH) are secreted by anterior lobe of
Pituitary Gland.
>FSH stimulates the development of a follicle which
contains the egg cell, in males stimulates sperm
production,LH (Luteinizing Hormone) in female completes the
maturation of follicle and stimulates the formation of Corpus Luteum,
which secretes female hormone (Estrogen), and in male, stimulates
the production of male hormones (Testosterone) in the testes.
MSH stimulates production of the pigment melanin.
>A deficiency of Iodine causes thyroid gland enlargement, a
condition called Goitre.
>An undersecretion of thyroxine during childhood results Cretinism
disease (dwarfism with abnormal body proportion and possible
mental retardation) and Goitre. ln adults, an undersecretion results
Myxederna (physical and mental sluggishness) and Plummer's disease.
>Thyroxine oversecretion results in high metabolic rates, Grave's
disease, bulging eyeballs, irritability etc.
*Biomolecules* *Fats*
. Biomnlecules are the substances that are essential . Fat is an ester of glycerol and fatty acid.
. l gram of glucose give 4.2 kilo calories energy
for living being to perform the basic function, eg.
while 1 gram fat gives 9.3 kilo calorie energy.
Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids etc. . Coconut oil and Palm oil are examples of saturated oil.
*Carbohydrates*
*Vitamins*
>Ratio of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen ls [Link] In >Vitamin was invented by Sir F.G. Hopkins. The
carbohydrates. term vitamin was coined by Funk.
>Carbohydrates are derivatives of polyhydroxy >Vitamins are essential nutrients that contribute to a healthy life. Although
alcohols. The end product carbohydrate digestion most people get all the vitamins they need from the foods they eat, millions
is glucose (blood sugar). It oxidises ln give energy of people worldwide take supplemental vitamins as part of their health
regimen.
along with Co2 & H20.
They are divided into two groups :
>Monosaccharides cg. ribose, Glucose, Fructose,
1. Fat soluble vitamin: Vitamin-A, D, E and K.
Galactose etc
STUDY FUNDA
>D-fructose is the sweetest of all sugars and is found
2. Water soluble vitamin : Vitamin B and C.
>Cobalt (Co) is found in Vitamin B12.
in fruit juice, honey etc. >Synthesis of Vitamin D and K takes place in our body. Vitamin D is
>Oligosaccharides eg, Maltese, Sucrose, Lactose. synthesised in our skin by ultraviolet rays In sunlight.
>Polysaccharides cg. Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Chitin etc, >Milk is not considered as complete food due to lack of Vitamin C and Iron.
>Sources of Carbohydrate '. Wheat, rice, maize,potato. >Deficiency of calcium and iron is generally found in pregnant women.
*Protein* >Na+ (Sodium) is important for contraction of muscles and transmission of
nerve impulse.
>Calcium (Ca) provides strength to bones and teeth with Vitamin, important
role in muscular contraction, help in clotting of blood and blood
formation.
>Phosphorus provides strength to bones and teeth.
>Iron is Important for formation of RBC and haemoglobin.
>Iodine is Important for synthesis of thyroxine hormone secreted by
>Lack of protein causes Kwashiorkor Marasmus disease.
Thyroid gland.

>Magnesium is important for muscular contraction and nervous system.

>Cobalt is important for synthesis of RBC and Vitamin B12.
 >Glycerol and fatty acids go into the lymphatic system.
*Digestive System*
Starch and Glycogen are broken down into maltose by
>The human digestive system is a coiled, muscular, twisting tube (6-9
small intestine enzymes.
metres) that runs from the mouth to the anus, plus the accessory organs
(like salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder). >Maltose, Sucrose, and Lactose are the main
carbohydrates present in the small intestine; they are
>The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken down by absorbed by the microvilli.
the process of chewing and the chemical action of saliva enzymes Amylase >Gluten enteropathy is the inability to absorb gluten,
and Lipase producud by the salivary glands. Amylase break down starches a protein found in wheat. Fat digestion is usually
into simple sugars of maltose and dextrose and Lipase work on breaking completed by the time the food reaches the ileum (lower
down fats. Saliva has an immunological role in supplying antibodies to the third) of the small intestine. Bile salts are in turn absorbed
system, such as immunoglobulin A. in the ileum and are recycled by the liver and gall bladder.
>After being chewed and swallowed. the food enters the Oesophagus. The
Oesophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach, it uses >After passing through small intestine, food passes into the
rhythmic. wave like muscle movement (called peristalsis) to force food from Large Intestine. In the Large Intestine, some water and
the throat (pharynx) into the stomach. electrolytes (like Sodium) are removed from food.
>The Stomach is a large, sac-like organ that mixes the food up with digestive
>Many microbes (bacteria like Lactobacillus acidophilus,
juices including the enzyme Pepsin which targets proteins and Lipase, which
Escherichia coli, Bacteroides Klebsiella) in the Large Intestine
works on fats Hydrochloric acid (HCI) secreted from Oxyntic cells or
help in the digestion process.
stomach helps to dissolve the stomach contents while killing harmful
>The first part of Large Intestine is called the Cecum (the
bacteria.
Appendix is connected to the Cecum). Food then travels
>Alter being in the stomach. food enters the Duodenum, the first part of the
upward in the ascending (right) Colon. The food travels
Small Intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the Ileum (the final part
across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back
of the Small Intestine). The Duodenum, produces large quantities of mucus
down the other side (left) of the body in the descending
to protect the intestinal lining from acid in the chyme and largely
colon and then
Responsible for continuing the process of breaking down food, with the
through the sigmoid colon.
jejunum and ileum being mainly responsible for the absoprtion of nutrients
>The Rectum is an 8 inch chamber that connects the Colon
into the blood stream.
to the Anus, solid waste or stool is stored in the Rectum (last
>In the Small Intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall
part of the large intestine). With the help of Sphincters
bladder), pancreatic enzymes and other digestive enzymes produced by the
muscles contract stool is excreted via the anus.
inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of fluid The Small
> The Anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It consists of
Intestine is where the major digestion and absorption of nutrients takes
the Pelvic floor muscles and the two Anal sphincters
place.
(internal and external) muscles. The anal sphincters muscles
>These nutrients are taken into the blood stream via millions of tiny, finger provide fine control of stool.
like projections called villi and transported to the liver.
>The six primary processes of the digestive system *Respiratory System*
includes: (1) Ingestion of food; (2) Secretion of fluids and
>The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking
digestive enzymes; (3) Mixing and movement of food and
wastes through the body; in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide.
(4) Digestion of food into smaller pieces; (5) >As we breathe, oxygen enters the nose or mouth and passes the sinuses,
Absorption of nutrients; (6) Excretion of wastes. which are hollow spaces in the skull. sinuses, help to regulate the
temperature and humidity of the air we breathe.
>Liver is the largest gland of human body and secretes bile
juice, which is stored in Gall Bladder. >Trachea (wind pipe) filters the air that is inhaled. lt branches into the
>It regulates the storage of glucose as glycogen Bronchi, which are two tubes that carry air into each lung.
in blood, destroy dead RBC, regulate body
temperature and converts excess of amino acid into
ammonia.

>Bile juice is responsible for emulisification of fats to ease out

attack of lipases (fat digesting enzyme). lt makes the medium
of food alkaline so that pancreating juice can Worked. It kills
harmful bacteria coming with food also.
>In case of obstruction in bile duct by gall stones,
jaundice occurs. If bile is absorbed into the blood
instead of going out the duodenum and cause yellowing of
eyes and skin (bilirubin spread throughout the body).
>Pancreas is the second largest gland of the human .
body and contains Islets of Langerhans. B-cells of Pancreas
secretes insulin and alpha-cell secrete glucagon hormone.
>Pancreas is both an endocrine gland and exocrine
gland.
STUDY FUND A
>Pancreas produces and releases digestive enzymes
>The bronchial tubes are lined with tiny hairs called cilia, Cilia move back
in the pancreating juice that it delivers to the duodenum.
and forth, carrying mucus up and out. Mucus, a sticky fluid, collects dust,
Pancreas enzymes which work on
germs and other matter that had invaded the lungs, We expel mucus when
Proteins are Trypsinogen and Chymotrypsinogen,
we sneeze, cough or swallow.
smaller amounts of lipase and amylase are also
secreted which act on fats and carbohydrates. >The bronchial tubes lead to the lobes of the lungs, The Right Lung has
>In mouth, salivary Amylase (Ptyalin) acts on starch three lobes; the Left Lung has two lobes.
and converts into maltose. >Lobes are filled with small, spongy sacs called Alveoli and the exchange of
>Pepsin of stomach digests protein and converts oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the Alveoli and is the main
them into peptones. function of respiratory system.
>Rennin of stomach converts milk (casein) to curd. >The alveolar walls are extremely thin and composed of a single layer of
tissues called epithelial cells and tiny blood vessels called pulmonary
>Trypsin of intestine acts upon proteins and breaks
capillaries.
them into polypeptides and amino acids.
>Blood passes through Capillaries. The Pulmonar yArtery carries blood
>Lactose of intestine converts lactose into glucose
containing carbondioxide to the air sacs, where the gas moves from the
and galactose.
blood to the air.
>Sucrose of intestine converts sucrose into glucose
>Oxygenated blood goes to the heart through Pulmonary Vein and the
and fructose.
heart pumps it throughout the body.
>Intestinal juice is alkaline in nature while pH of
>When breath taken (inhalation). Diaphragm flattens out and pulls
saliva, gastric juice and pancreatic juice are 6.8, 2.0 forward making more space for the lungs. During Exhalation, the
and 7.0. diaphragm expands and forces air out.
>The contraction and relaxation of diaphragm with the help ofintercoastal
*Tooth* muscles.
>The part of the tooth that is usually visible over the gums is
called the Crown and the part that is attached to the gum is
called Root.
>Enamel is the outer calcified tissue layer covering the crown of
the tooth. It is one of the hardest substances in the body.
>Dentine is the inner tissue layer that lies beneath the Enamel
or Cemetum.
>Humans, like other mammals are diphyodont. Humans have
usually 20 primary (deciduous) teeth and 32 permanent teeth.
>Humans have four types of teeth: Incisors (for cutting),
Canines (for tearing), Premolars (for sewing) and Molars (for
chewing and grinding).
>The roots of teeth are embedded in the maxilla
(upper jaw) or the mandible (lower jaw) and are
covered by gums.
 *Classification of Animals* *Viruses*
>Unicellular animals are kept in single phylum Protozoa whereas >Virus was discovered by Ivanovsky (1892).
Multicellular animals are divided in 9 Phylums. >They reproduce only inside the cells of the host organisms which
>Phylum Protozoa are unicellular or acellular animals, eg. Amoeba, may be bacterium, plants or animal. Virus are connecting link
Paramecium, Euglena etc. between non- living & living ,
>Mycoplasma : Smallest known prokaryotic cell causing
>Phylum Porifera have porous body and found in marine water, pleuropneumonia, It is also known as PPLO. Bacteriophages are
Their skeleton is made up of calcareous or siliceous spicules. eg. those virus which infect the bacteria, eg. Tobacco Mosaic Virus, T-2
Sycon. Sponge etc, phage. They kill the bacteria. DNA is found in them.
>Presence of water canal system: Numerous pores (Ostia) found on >Bacteria was discovered by Antony Von Leeuwenhoek of Holland.
body wall in Porifers animals. They are unicellular prokaryotic. Their cell wall is made up of
>Phylum Coelenterate are first proper multicellular animals and peptidoglycans and polysaccharides.
their body plan is called blind sac body plan eg. Hydra, jellyfish etc. >Dr. Stanley first isolated the virus causing mosaic disease in
>They have specialised Cnidoblast cell to help in catching the food. tobacco in the form of crystal.
>Hydra has a great tendency of regeneration of body organs.
>Phenomenon of polymorphism and metagenesis are associated
with Coelenterates. Around the mouth thread like structure called
*Friendly Micro Organisms,*
Tentacles are found for holding the food. >Making of curd and breed milk is turned into curd by bacteria, The
>Phylum Platyhelminthes are also called flat worms and exist as bacterium "lactobacilius" promotes the formation of curd.
parasitic eg. Planaria,Liver fluke, Tapeworm etc. >Yeast reproduces rapidly and produces CO, during respiration.
>Phylum Annelida : Their body is long, thin, soft and metamerically Bubbles of the gas fill the dough and increase its volume.
(truely) segmented. eg. Earthworm, Nereis, Leech etc. >Yeast is used for commercial production Of alcohol and wine.
> Blood (called haemolymph) is red due to iron rich haemoglobin. >Process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is known as
>Phylum Arthropoda is the largest [Link] leg and body is fermentation. Lewis Paster discovered fermentation
their main feature, eg. Cockroach, Prawn, Crab, Mosquito etc. ,pasteurization of milk and Vaccine of rabies.
>Body fluid (Haemolymph) found in Cockroach.
>Arthropods have hard exoskeleton made up of chitin. Body is
divided into Head, Thorax and Abdomen.
**Medical Use of Micro Organisms** :
>The medicine which kills or stops the growth of diseases causing
>Insects generally have six feets and four wings. Ant is social insect microorganism is called antibiotics. eg. Streptomycin. Tetracycline
which reflects division of labour. and Erythromycin are some of the commonly known antibiotics.
>The main excretory organ of insects are Malpighian tubules.
>Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin.
>Antibiotics are not effective against cold and flu as these are
Amphibia ; They have mucus glands in the skin and a three caused by virus.
chambered hearts. Respiration is through either gills skins or lungs.
>Harmful Microorganisms: Microbial diseases that can spread from
Eg. Frogs, Toads and Salamanders.
an infected person to a healthy person through air,water,food,or
physical contact are called communicable diseases, i.e.- Cholera,
Reptilia : These animals are cold blooded have scales and breathe Coomon Cold, Chicken POX and TB.
through lungs. Most of them have a three chamber heart while
Crocodile have four heart chambers. Eg, Snakes, Thrtles, Lizards >Another is female anopheles mosquito which carries the prasite
and Crocodiles. (Plasmodium) of Malaria.
>Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of Dengue virus.
German scientist Robert Koch discovered the bacteria Of cholera
>Cobra is the only snake which makes nests.
and T.B.
>Heloderrna is the only poisonous lizard.
>Sea Snake (Hydrophis Belchm) is world's most poisonous snake.
Methods:
>Aves: These are warm blooded animals and have a four chambered >Sodium benzoate and sodium meta-bisulphite are
heart. They lay eggs. They breath, through lungs, All birds fall in this preservatives. These are also used in James and squashes to
category, check their spoilage.
>Flightless birds are Kiwi and Emu. >Sugar reduces the moisture context Which inhibits the
>Smallest bird is Humming bird. growth Of bacteria Which spoil food.
>Largest alive bird is Ostrich, >Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles because
>Mammalian: They are warm blooded animals with four chambered bacteria cannot live in such an environment.
hearts. There is no nucleus in RBC of mammals (except in >Pasteurized milk : The milk is heated to about C 15 to 30
Camel and llama), seconds and then suddenly chilled and stored.
>They have mammary glands for the productirm of milk to nourish
their young. They produce live young ones,
>However a few of them like Platypus and the Echidna lay eggs.

*Micro Organisms*
>Micro organisms are classified into four major
groups. These groups are bacteria, fungi, algae
and proton).
^ TYPES OF DISEASES^ ***Major Field of BIOLOGY***
>Anatomy : Structure and organisation of living things.
^Diseases caused by Viruses^ :
>Bacteriology : Study of Bacteria.
> Chicken pox - It is caused by Variola virus. >Biochemistry : Chemical processes and substances
>Small Pox - It is casued by Varicella virus. occurring in living things.
> Influenza - It is caused bu Influenza virus. >Biophysics : Applies tools and techniques of the physics in
>AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome ) - It is caused by the study of living things.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV ).
>Botany : Study of plants.
> Measles - It is caused by Rubella virus .
> Polio - It is caused by Polio virus . Polio virus effected nerve >Cryobiology : Analysis how extermely low temperatures
and throat backbone . affect living things.
> Rabies - It is caused by Rabies virus ( Rhabdo viridae family ). >Cytology : Structure, composition and function of cells.
Rabies effected nervous system . >Ecology : Relationships between living things and
> Meningitis : It is an inflammation of the brain .
environment.
^ Diseases caused by Protozoa^ : >Embryology : Formation and development of plants and
> Malaria caused by Plasmodium transmitted (carrier agent ) by
Female Anophelies mosquito . animals through fertilization until they become independent
> Pyrrohoea caused by Entamoeba gingivalis and effected part is organisms.
gums. >Entomology : Study of insects.
> Sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma and carrier agent is >Ethology : Animal behaviour under natural conditions.
Tse- Tse flies to effected brain.
> Kala ajar caused by Leismai donovani and carrier agent is Sand >Evolutionary biology : Study of evolution of organisms.
flies to effected bone marrow. >Ichthyology : Ichthyology is study of fish.
> Diarrhoea caused by Entamoeba histolytica to effected >Immunology : Study of body's defence mechanism against
intestine . diseases and foreign substances.
^ Diseases caused by Fungus^ : >Limnology : Bodies of fresh water and the organisms found

FUNDA
> Asthma ( Aspergillus fumigatus ), Athlete's foot Cracking of feet in them.
( Tenia Pedes ), Baldness (HAIR FALL), Ringworm (Trycophyton STUDY
>Marine biology : Investigates sea life.
Lerucosum ).
> Human Genetic Disorders >Medicine : Science and art of healing.
> Down's syndrome : Trisomy 21 ( extra chromosome number ) >Microbiology : Study of microscopic organisms.
> Edwad's syndrome : Trisomy 18 ( extra chromosome number ) >Molecular biology : Analysis of molecular process in cells.
> Patau's syndrome : Trisomy 13 ( extra chromosome number )
>SEX linked disease are Haemophilia, Colour blindness. Colour
>Neurobiology : Study of nervous system of animals.
Blindness lead to failure of distinguished Red and Green colour. >Ornithology : Study of birds.
Autosomal linked disease are Phenylketonuria , Sickle - cell >Palaentology : Study of fossils.
anaemia , Cystic fibrosis , Huntington's disease etc. >Pathology : Examines the changes in body leading to the
>Thalassemia are inherited blood disorders characterized by
disease or changes caused by the disease.
abnormal haemoglobin production.
>Physiology : Function of living things.
^ Diseases caused by Bacteria^ :
> Whooping Cough - It is caused by bacterium called Hemophillis
>Sociobiology : Focuses on biological basis for social
pertussis . behaviour in human beings and other animals.
> Diphtheria - It is caused by Coryne bacterium diphtheria. >Taxonomy (Systematics) : Scientific classification of plants
> Cholera - It is caused by Viberio cholerae . and animals.
> Leprosy - It is caused by Mycobacterium leprae.
>Virology : Deals with viruses and viral diseases.
> Pneumonia - It is caused by Diplococcus pneumoniae.
> Tetanus - It is caused by Clostridium tetani. >Zoology : Study of animals.
> Typhoid - It is caused by Salmonella typhi .
> Tuberculosis - It is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis .
> Plague - It is caused by Pesteurella pesties.
> Effected organ in Tetanus ( nervous system ), Cholera
(intestine) , Tuberculosis (lungs) , Plague (lungs ) , Pneumonia
(lungs), Leprosy (nervous system).
CDS