70 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

5 BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

Large, multicellular animals need a circulatory system to transport substances to and from the cells of the body. This
chapter looks at the structure and function of the circulatory systems of humans and other animals, the composition of
mammalian blood, and disorders associated with the heart and circulation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand why simple unicellular organisms can rely Understand the role of plasma in the transport of carbon
on diffusion for movement of substances in and out of dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat energy
the cell
Understand how the adaptations of red blood cells
Understand the need for a transport system in make them suitable for the transport of oxygen,
multicellular organisms including shape, the absence of a nucleus and the
presence of haemoglobin
Understand the general structure of the circulation
system, including the blood vessels to and from the Understand how the immune system responds
heart and lungs, liver and kidneys to infection using white blood cells, illustrated by
phagocytes ingesting pathogens and lymphocytes
Describe the structure of the heart and how it functions
releasing antibodies specific to the pathogen
Understand how factors may increase the risk of
BIOLOGY ONLY
developing coronary heart disease
Understand how vaccination results in the
Explain how the heart rate changes during exercise manufacture of memory cells, which enable future
and under the influence of adrenaline antibody production to the pathogen to occur sooner,
Understand how the structures of arteries, veins and faster and in greater quantity
capillaries relate to their functions Understand how platelets are involved in blood
Describe the composition of blood: red blood cells, clotting, which prevents blood loss and the entry of
white blood cells, platelets and plasma microorganisms

THE NEED FOR CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

Figure 5.1 shows the circulatory system of a mammal.

Blood is pumped around a closed circuit made up of the heart and blood
body, it collects materials from
vessels. As it travels around the some places
and unloads them in others. In mammals, blood transports:

oxygen from the lungs to all other parts of the body

carbon dioxide from all parts of the body to the lungs
nutrients from the gut to all parts of the body
urea from the liver to the kidneys.
Hormones, antibodies and many other substances are also transported by the
blood. It also distributes heat around the body.

Single-celled organisms, like the ones shown in Figure 5.2, do not have
circulatory systems.
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION 71

pulmonary
vein pulmonary
artery

heart

vena
aorta
cava

Amoeba Euglena

Paramecium

▲ Figure 5.2 Unicellular organisms do not have circulatory systems.

There is no circulatory system to carry materials around the very small 'bodies'
of these single-celled organisms. Materials can easily move around the cell
without a special system. There is no need for lungs or gills to obtain oxygen
from the environment either. Single-celled organisms obtain oxygen by
diffusion through the surface membrane of the cell. The rest of the cell then
uses the oxygen. The area of the cell's surface determines how much oxygen
oxygenated the organism can get (the supply rate), and the volume of the cell determines
blood
how much oxygen the organism uses (the demand rate).
deoxygenated
blood surface area
The ratio of supply to demand can be written as:
volume

Figure 5.1 The human circulatory system. This is called the 'surfacearea to volume ratio' and it is affected by the size of

an organism (see Chapter 1, Activity 5). Single-celled organisms have a high

surface area to volume ratio. Their cell surface membrane has a large enough
area to supply all the oxygen that their volume demands. In larger animals, the
surface area to volume ratio is lower.

Large animals cannot get all the oxygen they need through their surface (even
if the body surface would allow it to pass through) there just isn't enough
-

surface to supply all that volume. To overcome this problem, large organisms
have evolved special gas exchange organs and circulatory systems. The gills
of fish and the lungs of mammals are linked to a circulatory system that carries
oxygen to all parts of the body. The same idea applies to obtaining nutrients -

the gut obtains nutrients from food and the circulatory system distributes the
nutrients around the body.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS

One of the main functions of a circulatory system in animals is to transport

oxygen. Blood is pumped to a gas exchange organ to load oxygen. It is then
pumped to other parts of the body where it unloads the oxygen. There are two
main types of circulatory systems in animals.

In a single circulatory system the blood is pumped from the heart to the
gas exchange organ and then directly to the rest of the body.
In a double circulatory system the blood is pumped from the heart to the
gas exchange organ, back to the heart and then to the rest of the body.
Figure 5.3 shows the difference between these systems.
72 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

(a) capillaries in gills capillaries in other parts of body

gill cover

atrium
ventricle
capillaries in the
(b) head and neck

pulmonary artery

lung

pulmonary vein heart

aorta

vena cava

capillaries in organs
in thorax, abdomen
and limbs

Figure 5.3 (a) The single circulatory system of a fish. The blood passes through the heart only
once in a complete circuit of the body. (b) The double circulatory system of a human (and other
mammals). The blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circuit of the body.

There are two parts to a double circulatory system:

KEY POINT The pulmonary circulation. Deoxygenated blood leaves the heart
'Pulmonary' means 'relating to the through the pulmonary arteries, and is circulated through the lungs, where
lungs'. it becomes oxygenated. The oxygenated blood returns to the heart through
the pulmonary veins.
The systemic circulation. Oxygenated blood leaves the heart through the
DID YOU KNOW? aorta and is circulated through all other parts of the body, where it unloads
There are actually two vena its oxygen. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the vena cava.

cavae (the plural of vena cava). A double circulatory system is more efficient than a single circulatory system.
One brings blood back from the The heart pumps the blood twice, higher pressures can be maintained. The
so

head and arms and the other blood travels more quickly to organs. In the single circulatory system of a fish,
blood loses pressure as it passes through the gills. It then travels more slowly
returns blood from the rest of
to the other organs.
the body (see Figure 5.4). The human circulatory system comprises:
the heart - this is a pump
blood vessels - these carry the blood around the body; arteries carry
blood away from the heart and towards other organs, veins carry blood
towards the heart and away from other organs and capillaries carry blood
through organs, linking the arteries and veins

blood - the transport medium.

Figure 5.4 shows the main blood vessels in the human circulatory system.
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION 73

head and arms

aorta
pulmonary artery
pulmonary vein
vena cava

left atrium
right atrium
right ventricle left ventricle

lungs
pulmonary artery pulmonary vein

liver
hepatic vein hepatic artery

hepatic portal vein

digestive system

kidneys
renal vein renal artery

sex organs and legs

Figure 5.4 The main components of the human circulatory system

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE HUMAN HEART

The human heart is a pump (Figure 5.5). It pumps blood around the body at
DID YOU KNOW? different speeds and at different pressures according to the body's needs.
'Cardiac' means 'related to the
(a) (b)
heart'. aorta pulmonary
vena cava aorta vena
artery
(superior) pulmonary artery cava
pulmonary
pulmonary vein
vein
semi-
DID YOU KNOW? lunar left atrium left atrium

The bicuspid (mitral) valves

bicuspid
right
(mitral)
and tricuspid valves are right valve
atrium coronary
atrium arteries
both sometimes called
- left
tricuspid
atrioventricular valves, as each ventricle -left
valve
controls the passage of blood right ventricle
ventricle
from an atrium to a ventricle. vena cava right ventricle
(inferior)

Figure 5.5 The human heart: (a) vertical section; (b) external view
74 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

Blood is moved through the heart by a series of contractions and relaxations of

the muscle in the walls of the four chambers. These events form the cardiac
cycle. The main stages are illustrated in Figure 5.6.

2 The walls of the

atria contract.
1
This raises the
Blood enters the atria. 3 When the ventricles are full,
pressure of blood
It cannot yet pass they contract. This increases
in the atria which
into the ventricles the pressure of blood in the
forces open
because the bicuspid ventricles which closes the
the bicuspid and
(mitral) and tricuspid bicuspid and tricuspid valves
valves closed.
tricuspid valves.
are
again. Blood cannot return to
Blood passes
the atria.
through these
valves into the
ventricles.

Key
oxygenated blood
deoxygenated blood
5 As the ventricles

empty, higher pressure

in the aorta and

pulmonary artery
closes the valves in (4 The ventricles continue to
these blood vessels. contract and the pressure
The cycle then begins continues to increase. This
again as the atria start forces open the semi-lunar
to fill with blood. valves at the base of the
aorta and the pulmonary
artery. Blood is ejected into
these two arteries.
The pulmonary artery
carries blood to the lungs.
The aorta has branches
that carry blood to all
other parts of the body.
Figure 5.6 The cardiac cycle.

HINT The structure of the heart is adapted to its function in several ways:

Note that during the cardiac cycle both a right side by a wall of muscle called the
It is divided into a left side and
atria contract at the same time (and septum. The right ventricle pumps blood only to the lungs while the left
then relax). After this both ventricles ventricle pumps blood to all other parts of the body. This requires much
contract at the same time (and then
more pressure, which is why the wall of the left ventricle is much thicker
relax). Students are sometimes confused than that of the right ventricle.
about this, and think that one ventricle
contracts, followed by the other. Valves ensure that blood can flow only in one direction through the heart.

The walls of the atria are thin. They can be stretched to receive blood as

contract with enough force to push blood

it returns to the heart but can
KEY POINT
through the bicuspid and tricuspid valves into the ventricles.
Cardiac muscle is unlike any other
muscle in our bodies. It never gets Π The walls of the heart are made of cardiac muscle, which can contract
fatigued ('tired') like skeletal muscle. On and then relax continuously without becoming fatigued.
average, cardiac muscle fibres contract
and then relax again about 70 times a
The cardiac muscle has its own blood supply - the coronary circulation.
minute. In a lifetime of 70 years, this Blood reaches the muscle via coronary arteries. These carry blood to
special muscle willcontract over two capillaries that supply the heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients. Blood is
billion times without taking a rest!
-
returned to the right atrium via coronary veins.
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION 75

CORONARY HEART DISEASE

The coronary arteries are among the narrowest in the body. They are easily
blocked by a build-up of fatty substances (including cholesterol) in their walls.
This can cut off the blood supply to an area of cardiac muscle. The affected
muscle can no longer receive oxygen and glucose, so it cannot respire and
release energy. This means it is unable to contract, resulting in a heart attack.
This is called coronary heart disease (CHD). It can lead to severe health
problems and is often fatal.

- coronary arteries

coronary artery
blocked here

region deprived of oxygen

Figure 5.7 A blockage of a coronary artery cuts off the blood supply to part of the heart muscle.

A number of factors make coronary heart disease more likely:

heredity - some people inherit a tendency to develop coronary heart

disease

high blood pressure - puts more strain on the heart

diet - eating large amounts of saturated fat is likely to raise cholesterol

levels

smoking - raises blood pressure and makes blood clots more likely to form

stress - raises blood pressure

lack of exercise regular- exercise helps to reduce blood pressure and

strengthens the heart.

HEART RATE

Normally the heart beats about 70 times a minute, but this can change
according to the needs of the body. When we exercise, muscles must release
more energy. They need an increased supply of oxygen for aerobic respiration
(see Chapter 1). To deliver the extra oxygen, both the number of beats per
DID YOU KNOW? minute (heart rate) and the volume of blood pumped with each beat (called
Have you noticed a 'hollow' stroke volume) increase.

or 'fluttering' feeling in your When we are angry or afraid our heart rate again increases. The increased
stomach when you are anxious? output supplies extra blood to the muscles, enabling them to release extra
Ithappens because blood that energy through aerobic respiration. This allows us to fight or run away and is
called the 'fight or flight' response. It is triggered by secretion of the hormone
would normally flow to your adrenaline from the adrenal glands (see Chapter 7).
stomach and intestines has
When we sleep,
heart rate decreases as all our organs are working
our more
been diverted to the muscles
slowly. They need to release less energy and so need less oxygen.
to allow the 'fight or flight'
These changes in the heart rate are controlled by nerve impulses from
response.
a part of the brain called the medulla (Figure 5.8). When we start to
76 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

exercise, our muscles produce more carbon dioxide in aerobic respiration.

Receptors in the aorta and the carotid artery (the artery leading to the head)
detect this increase. They send electrical signals called nerve impulses through
the sensory nerve to the medulla. The medulla responds by sending nerve

impulses along the accelerator nerve. When carbon dioxide production returns
tonormal, the medulla receives fewer impulses. It responds by sending nerve
impulses along a decelerator nerve.
(not to scale)

KEY POINT

The precise region of the medulla that cardiac centre

controls heart functions is called the
cardiac centre.

medulla
accelerator and
decelerator nerves
sensors detecting
the level of sensory nerve
carbon dioxide
in the blood

location of

the 'pacemaker'

heart

adrenaline from

the adrenal gland

Figure 5.8 How the heart rate is controlled.

The accelerator nerve increases the heart rate. It also causes the heart to
beatwith more force and so increases blood pressure. The decelerator nerve
decreases the heart rate. It also reduces the force of the contractions. Blood
pressure then returns to normal.

These controls are both examples of reflex actions (see Chapter 6).

ARTERIES, VEINS AND CAPILLARIES

Arteries carry blood from the heart to the organs of the body. This arterial
blood is pumped out by the ventricles at a high pressure. Elastic tissue in the
walls of the arteries allows them to stretch and recoil (spring back into shape),
maintaining blood pressure. A thick muscular wall helps control the
the high
flow of blood by dilating (widening) or constricting (narrowing) the vessels.

Veins carry blood from organs back towards the heart. The pressure of this
venous blood is much lower than that in the arteries. It puts very little pressure
on the walls of the veins, so they can be thinner than those of arteries, and
contain less elastic tissue and muscle. Figure 5.9 shows the structure of a
typical artery and a typical vein with the same diameter.
 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION 77

EXTENSION WORK (a) (b)

thick wall with thin wall with little
Arterioles are small arteries. They carry muscle fibres muscle and
and elastic tissue elastic tissue
blood into organs from arteries. Their
structure is similar to the larger arteries,
but they have a larger proportion of
muscle fibres in their walls. They are
also supplied with nerve endings in lining
small lumen large lumen lining
their walls and so can be made to (endothelium) (central cavity)
(central cavity) (endothelium)
dilate (become wider) or constrict
(become narrower) to allow more or ▲ Figure 5.9 The structure of (a) an artery and (b) a vein as seen in cross section.
less blood into the organ.
Veins also have semilunar (half-moon shaped) valves, which prevent the
If all the arterioles constrict, it is harder
for blood to pass through them - there
backflow of blood. The action of these valves is explained in Figure 5.10.
is more resistance. This increases
vein in longitudinal section
blood pressure. Prolonged stress can
cause arterioles to constrict and so
increase blood pressure.
blood can flow blood cannot
in this direction flow backwards

KEY POINT

carry oxygenated blood

All arteries
(blood containing a lot of oxygen) prevent the
-valves
backflow of blood
except the pulmonary artery and the
umbilical artery of an unborn baby. All
veins carry deoxygenated blood (blood ▲ Figure 5.10 The action of semilunar valves in veins
containing less oxygen) except the
pulmonary vein and umbilical vein.
Capillaries carry blood through organs, bringing the blood close to every cell
in the organ. Substances are transferred between the blood in the capillary
and the cells. To do this, capillaries must be small enough to 'fit' between
cells, and allow materials to pass through their walls easily. Figure 5.11 shows
the structure of a capillary and how exchange of substances takes place
between the capillary and nearby cells. The walls of capillaries are one cell
thick, providing a short distance for diffusion of materials into and out of the
blood. Red blood cells just fit through the tiny diameter of capillaries, so they
are close to the capillary wall. This means that there is a short distance for

oxygen to diffuse. Figure 5.12 shows a photograph of a cross-section through

an artery and a vein.

cells near to

the capillary

oxygen
capillary wall
glucose,
(one cell thick) amino acids
and water

carbon dioxide,
red blood cell other waste
products and water
vein artery

Figure 5.11 How capillaries exchange materials with cells

Figure 5.12 The lumen of the artery is the same
size as the lumen of the veinbut note the
-

difference in the thickness of the walls of these

two vessels.
78 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

THE COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

Blood is a lot more than just a red liquid flowing through your arteries and

veins! In fact, blood is a complex tissue. Figure 5.13 illustrates the main types
of cells found in blood.

(a) phagocyte platelets (b)

red
blood
cells

lymphocyte
phagocyte

Figure 5.13 The different types of blood cells. (a) Diagram of the different cells. (b) A blood smear seen through a light microscope. The smear shows
many red blood cells and three different kinds of white blood cell.

The different parts of blood have different functions. These are described in
Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Functions of the different components of blood.

COMPONENT OF BLOOD DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENT FUNCTION OF COMPONENT

plasma liquid part of blood: mainly water carries the blood cells around the body; carries dissolved nutrients,
hormones, carbon dioxide and urea; also distributes heat around the body
red blood cells (erythrocytes) biconcave, disc-like cells with no transport of oxygen contain mainly haemoglobin, which loads oxygen in the
-

nucleus; millions in each mm³ of blood lungs and unloads it in other regions of the body

WHITE BLOOD CELLS:

lymphocytes about the same size as red cells with a produce antibodies to destroy microorganisms - some lymphocytes persist in
large spherical nucleus our blood after infection and give us immunity to specific diseases
phagocytes much larger than red cells, with a large digest and destroy bacteria and other microorganisms that have infected our
spherical or lobed nucleus bodies

platelets the smallest cells - are really fragments release chemicals to make blood clot when we cut ourselves
of other cells

RED BLOOD CELLS

The red blood cells or erythrocytes are highly specialised cells made in the
bone marrow. They have a limited life span of about 100 days after which time
they are destroyed in the spleen. They have only one function to transport -

oxygen. Several features enable them to carry out this function very efficiently.

Red blood cells contain haemoglobin. This is an iron-containing protein

that associates (combines) with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin when
 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION 79

there ishigh concentration of oxygen in the surroundings. We say that the

a

loading oxygen. When the concentration of oxygen is low,

red blood cell is
oxyhaemoglobin turns back into haemoglobin and the red blood cell unloads
its oxygen.

As red blood cells pass through the lungs, they load oxygen. As they pass
through active tissues they unload oxygen.
in the lungs
haemoglobin + oxygen oxyhaemoglobin
(a) in the tissues

3 bacterium Red blood cells do not contain a nucleus. It is lost during their development
in the bone marrow. This means that more haemoglobin can be packed into
each red blood cell so more oxygen can be transported. Their biconcave shape
allows efficientexchange of oxygen in and out of the cell. Each red blood cell
has high surface area to volume ratio, giving a large area for diffusion. The thin
a
shape of the cell results in a short diffusion distance to the centre of the cell.
pseudopodia
surround
bacterium WHITE BLOOD CELLS

There are several types of white blood cell. Their main role is to protect the
body against invasion by disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens), such
bacterium as bacteria and viruses. They do this in two main ways: phagocytosis and
enclosed in production of antibodies.
a vacuole
About 70% of white blood cells can ingest (take in) microorganisms such as
bacteria. This is called phagocytosis, and the cells are phagocytes. They do
this bychanging their shape, producing extensions of their cytoplasm, called
digestive enzymes
pseudopodia. The pseudopodia surround and enclose the microorganism in a
destroy bacterium vacuole. Once it is inside, the phagocyte secretes enzymes into the vacuole to
break the microorganism down (Figure 5.14). Phagocytosis means 'cell eating'
- you can see why it is called this.
Approximately 25% of white blood cells are lymphocytes. Their function
(b)
is to make chemicals called antibodies. Antibodies are soluble proteins that
pass into the plasma. Pathogens such as bacteria and viruses have chemical
'markers' on their surfaces, which the antibodies recognise. These markers are
called antigens. The antibodies stick to the surface antigens and destroy the
pathogen. They do this in a number of ways, for example by:
causing bacteria to stick together, so that phagocytes can ingest them more
easily
acting as a 'label' on the pathogen, so that it is more easily recognised by a

phagocyte
causing bacterial cells to burst open

neutralising poisons (toxins) produced by pathogens.

Figure 5.14 (a) Phagocytosis by a white blood
cell. (b) A phagocyte engulfing a pathogenic The production of antibodies following the first exposure to a foreign antigen is
microorganism (a species of yeast). called the primary immune response.

BIOLOGY ONLY

IMMUNITY
Some lymphocytes do not get involved in killing microorganisms straight away.
Instead, they develop into memory cells. These cells remain in the blood
for many years, sometimes a lifetime. If the same microorganism re-infects a
person, the memory lymphocytes start to reproduce and produce antibodies,
so that the pathogen can be quickly dealt with. This is known as immunity.
80 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

This secondary immune response is much faster and more effective than
the primary response. The number of antibodies in the blood quickly rises to
a high level, killing the microorganisms before they have time to multiply to a

point where they would cause disease. This is shown in Figure 5.15.

many years later, secondary immune response

infection by re-infectionby the
a microorganism same microorganism

level of antibodies in blood primary immune response

interval of
many years

Ο 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
time/days

Figure 5.15 The primary and secondary immune responses

A person can be given artificial immunity to a disease-causing organism without

ever actually contracting (having) the disease itself. This is done by vaccination.
A person is injected with an 'agent' that carries the same antigens as a specific
pathogen. Lymphocytes recognise the antigens and multiply exactly as if that
microorganism had entered the bloodstream. They produce memory cells and
make the person immune to the disease. If the person now comes into contact
with the'real' pathogen, they will experience a secondary immune response.
Antibody production will happen sooner, faster and in greater quantity than if
they had not been vaccinated, and may be enough to prevent the pathogen
reproducing in the body and causing the disease.
Some agents used as vaccines are:

a weakened strain of the actual microorganism, e.g. vaccines against polio,

tuberculosis (TB) and measles

dead microorganisms, e.g. typhoid and whooping cough vaccines

modified toxins of the bacteria, e.g. tetanus and diphtheria vaccines

just the antigens themselves, e.g. influenza vaccine

harmless bacteria, genetically engineered to carry the antigens of a different,

disease-causing microorganism, e.g. the vaccine against hepatitis B.

PLATELETS

Platelets are not whole cells, but fragments of large cells made in the bone
marrow. If the skin is cut, exposure to the air stimulates the platelets and
damaged tissue to produce a chemical. This chemical causes the soluble
plasma protein fibrinogen to change into insoluble fibres of another protein,
fibrin. The fibrin forms a network across the wound, in which red blood cells
become trapped (Figure 5.16) This forms a clot, which prevents further loss of
Figure 5.16 Red blood cells trapped in fibres blood and entry of microorganisms that may be pathogens. The clot develops
of fibrin, forming a blood clot. into a scab, which protects the damaged tissue while new skin grows.

END OF BIOLOGY ONLY