Mechanics of Metal Working

Plasticity theory, which serves as a basis for metalforming processes, is a macroscopic, phenomenological theory based on
mathematically described, large scale behaviour of material continuum during plastic deformation.

The strains involved in the deformation processes are large hence it is usually possible to neglect elastic strains and consider
the plastic strains (plastic-rigid solid).

Strain hardening is often neglected. In hot working this may not be a serious assumption.

Usually the deformation of the metal between the dies is not uniform (e.g. Barrelling during compression).

Progress has been made by applying Finite element methods to determine the local stresses.

Slab Method

Assumes uniform deformation. A square grid placed in the deformation zone would be distorted uniformly into rectangular
elements.

This was the earliest approaches developed in the 1920s by von Karman, Hencky, Siebel, and later by Sachs.
Flow Stress Determination

σ0*g(f)*h(c)
p =ഥ

P=forming stress, or pressure in a particular metalworking process

σ
ഥ0= the flow resistance of the material for the appropriate stress state, i.e., uniaxial, plane strain, etc. It is a function of strain
temperature and strain rate.

g(f)=an expression for the friction at the tool workpiece interface

h(c)= a function of the geometry of the tooling and the geometry of the deformation. This term may or may not include a
contribution from redundant deformation.

Metal working processes involve large strains, it is desirable to measure the flow curve to a true strain of 2.0 to 4.0.

Strain rates involved in many of these processes are very high (100 s-1), which may not be obtained easily with ordinary testing
facilities.
Limitations of using tension test for determination of flow stresses
The true stress- true strain test is of limited usefulness because necking limits uniform deformation to true strains less than
0.5. This is particularly severe in hot working, where the low rate of strain hardening allows necking to occur at ε reaching
value of 0.1.

The true strain at which necking occurs in tensile test is εu=n.

The formation of necked region in the tension specimen introduces a complex stress state and locally raises the strain rate.

Effect of friction on flow stress determined using compression test

The compression test of a short cylinder between anvils is a much better test for measuring the flow stress in metalworking
processes. There is no problem with necking. The test can be carried out to strains in excess of 2.0 if the material is ductile.

Fig.1 Undeformed regions(shaded) due

to friction at the ends of Compression
test specimen
Frictional forces oppose the outward flow of the metal as the metal spreads over the compression anvils to increase its
diameter, i.e, part of the specimen that is in contact with anvil. This leads to a barreled specimen profile.

There is an increase in force for a given increment of deformation when these cone-shaped zones approach and overlap.

Fig.2 Load-displacement curves determined using

compression test.

Barreling can be reduced by using specimens with a low value of D0/h0. However, if D0/h0 < 0.5, buckling occurs.

The true flow stress in compression without friction can be obtained by plotting load versus D0/h0 curves for several values
of reduction and extrapolating each curve to D0/h0 = 0.
The friction at the specimen-platen interface can be minimised by (1)using smooth, hardened platens, (2)grooving the ends
of the specimen to retain the lubricant, (3)carrying out the test in increments so that the lubricant can be replaced at
intervals.

With these techniques, specimen can be deformed to a strain of 1.0 with only slight barreling.

At strain rates upto 10 s-1, a servocontrolled testing machine can be modified to maintain a constant true-strain rate.

Plane-Strain compression test for the determination of flow stresses

Narrow band across the width of a strip is compressed by narrow platens which are wider than the strip.

The constraints of the undeformed shoulders of material on each side of the platens prevent extension of the sheet in the
width dimension.

There is deformation in the direction of platen motion and in the direction along the length of the strip as occurs in the
rolling process.

Dead metal zone will form next to the face of the platens if good lubrication is not maintained. The test is usually carried
out incrementally measuring the sheet thickness after each increment and relubricating for the next higher load.
Advantages of Plane-Strain compression over other testing methods
(1). Suitable for estimating mechanical properties of thin sheets
(2). Simulates the stress state in rolling.
(3). Barrelling is not observed during deformation.
(4). As the area under platen is constant, the total deformation force does not rise as rapidly as in the compression.

Axial compressive stress is the ratio of applied load to contact area of the platen. This is true so long as t/b is in the range ¼
to ½.
Deformation of about 90 percent is possible by changing platens to maintain this t/b range.
An additional requirement to maintain the plane strain condition is that w/b must be >5.
 𝑃 𝑡
True stress in plane strain compression, p = 𝑤𝑏 True strain in plane strain compression, εpc = ln 𝑡0

3
True stress in uniaxial compression, σ0 = p
2
2
True strain in uniaxial compression, ε0 = ε
3 pc

Hot torsion test for determination of flow stresses

Fig.4. Torsion of solid bar

𝑅
Torque T = 2π‫׬‬0 τyzr2dr

Capable of producing very large strains of the order of 20.

Strain rates vary from 10-5 to 103 s-1. Since the dimensions of the specimen do not change, the strain rate remains
constant for a constant rpm.

Chief difficulty with this test is the fact that stress and strain vary with radial distance in the specimen.
Usually the maximum values at the surface are reported but this may lead to problems in interpretation if the surface
strain-hardens more than the core.
The problem of non uniform stress and strain is largely eliminated by the using tubular specimen but short specimen may
undergo buckling when proper care is not taken.

Also, because of the excessive material reorientation that may occur at large strains the torsion test is not an accurate
simulation of the metal working processes.

The relation between stresses in uniaxial and torsional deformation and also between strains in the two deformation modes
is obtained by the use of von Mises’ criterion.

σ0
τ= ϒ= 3ε
3

In the cases where strain hardening is present, the best approach to selecting a flow stress for using in forming load
calculations is to use the mean flow stress as given by

1 εb
σഥ0 = ‫׬‬ σ dε
εb −εa εa 0
Temperature in Metal working

Temperature of the workpiece in metalworking depends on: (1)the initial temperature of the tools of the material, (2) heat
generation due to plastic deformation, (3) heat generated by friction at the die/material interface, and (4) heat transfer
between the deforming material and the dies and surrounding environment.

For a frictionless deformation process the maximum increase in the temperature is

U σഥ εഥβ
Td= ρ𝑐p = ρ𝑐

where Up= the work of plastic deformation per unit volume

ρ = the density of the workpiece
c = the specific heat of the workpiece
β = fraction of deformation work converted to heat. Typically β = 0.95. The remainder is stored in the material as
energy associated with the defect structure.

The temperature increase due to friction is given by

μ𝑝𝑣𝐴Δ𝑡
Tf = ρ𝑐𝑉
where μ is the friction coefficient at material/tool interface, p is the stress normal to the interface, v is the velocity at the
material/tool interface, A is the surface area at the material/tool interface, Δt is the time interval of consideration, and V is
the volume subjected to the temperature rise.
Usually, the temperature is highest at the material/ tool interface where friction generates the heat and it falls off toward
the inside of the workpiece and into the die.

The average instantaneous temperature of the deforming material at the interface is given by

−ℎ𝑡
T=T1+ (T0-T1)exp( )
ρ𝑐δ

where
T1 = Temperature of the die
T0 = Temperature of the workpiece
ℎ = heat transfer coefficient between the material and the dies
δ = material thickness between the dies

The temperature is highest at the material/tool interface where friction generates the heat and it falls off towards the
inside of the workpiece and into the die. The temperature gradient is neglected in the above expression. The deformed
material is assumed to be a thin that lies between workpiece and die.

The final average material temperature at t is given as

Tm = Td + Tf + T
Forming processes are commonly classified as hot-working and cold-working

Hotworking
Deformation at temperatures and strain rate such that recovery processes take place simultaneously with deformation.
Strain hardening and distorted grain structure produced by deformation are eliminated during recrystallization.

Recrystallization is the replacement of coldworked structure by new set of strain free grains.
Very large deformations are possible in hot-working because the recovery processes keep pace with the deformation.

Hot-working occurs at an essential constant flow stress, and because the flow stress decrease with increasing temperature,
the energy required for deformation is generally much less for hot working than for cold working.

The strain in hot-working is large (ε=2 to 4) compared with tension or creep tests. Usually carried out at temperatures above
0.6Tm and at high strain rates (0.5 to 500 s-1).

Extent of micro-segregation in the cast structure is minimised during hot working. Blowholes and porosity are eliminated by
the welding together of these cavities.

Lower temperature limit of hot working- Lowest temperature at which recrystallization is rapid enough to eliminate the strain
hardening in the time metal is at that temperature. Upper limit of hotworking – Temperature at which melting or excessive
oxidation occurs.

Hot shortness or Burning: Condition in which material breaks apart when grain boundary film of a lower melting constituent
melts when it is deformed at high temperature .
Drawbacks associated with hot-working process
[Link] reactions between metal and the furnace atmosphere like oxidation result in loss of metal. Ti is embrittled by
oxygen. Decarburization of steel occurs during hot working.
2. Rolled-in oxide makes it difficult to produce surface finishes.
[Link] tolerances for hot-worked mill products are greater than for cold rolled products.
4. Structure and properties of hot-worked metals are generally not so uniform over the cross section as in cold worked-
and annealed metals. Surface layers have recrystallized grains as the amount of deformation is higher there while interior
of large pieces have coarser grains due to grain growth.

The temperature and the stress dependence of the steady state-hot working rate is given by
ሶ
ε=A(sinhασ)n’e-Q/RT where A, α and n’ are experimentally determined constants.

Mechanisms responsible for softening in hot-working depend on the metal. Dynamic recovery is the softening
mechanism in aluminium and α iron. This occurs by the formation of well developed subgrain structure by cross slip and
climb as occurs in creep deformation.
The activation energy for hot working is equal to that for creep and for self diffusion.

Dynamic recrystallization is the softening mechanism in metals with lower stacking fault energy such as copper nickel and
austenitic stainless steel.

The activation energy for softening in hot-work is higher than that required for creep.

Cold working
Deformation carried out at conditions where recovery processes are not effective.

Strain hardening is not relieved in cold-working, hence the flow stress increases with deformation. The total deformation that is
possible without causing fracture is less for cold-working than for hot-working, unless the effects of cold working are relieved by
annealing.

The final deformation is to carried out by cold working if it is required that the finished product have a higher strength than the
fully annealed product.

Warm Working
Warm working is the plastic deformation of a metal at temperatures below the recrystallization temperature and above room
temperature.
When compared to cold working it offers the advantage of fewer deformation steps, reduced deformation loads, and energy
savings (due to elimination of in-process anneals). E.g., Warm working has been extensively used to the forging of steels.
When compared to hot working it offers the advantage of improved dimensional control, higher quality surfaces and lower
energy costs.
Strain-rate effects

Strain rate or deformation velocity has three principal effects in metal working
1. Flow stress of the metal increases with strain-rate.
2. The temperature of the work piece is increased because of adiabatic heating.
3. There is improved lubrication at the tool-metal interface, so long as the film can be maintained.

The strain rate of a cylinder upset in compression is

𝑑ε 1 𝑑ℎ 𝑣
εሶ = 𝑑𝑡 = ℎ 𝑑𝑡 = ℎ

Where h = the instantaneous height

v = the deformation velocity

1 𝐿
Mean strain rate is given by εതሶ x= ‫׬‬0 εdx
ሶ
𝐿
where L is the length of the contact between the tool and workpiece.

1 𝑡
Mean strain rate εതሶ t= 𝑡 ‫׬‬0 𝑓 εሶ dt
𝑓
where 𝑡𝑓 is the time for an element to travel through the die
According to Chandra and Jonas, the strain rate for strain-rate sensitive materials at large reductions (as in hot extrusion) is
1 ln 𝑅 ሶ m
εሶ rmp= [(ln 𝑅)‫׬‬0 (ε) dε]1/m

Where R = A0/A is the deformation ratio

m = strain rate sensitivity

σ = C(ε)ሶ m|ε,T

When forming velocities are combined with a situation in which the deformation zone is small, it is possible to produce very
high local strain rates. The drawing of a fine wire at speed of 40 ms-1 can result in a strain rate in excess of 105 s-1.
High energy rate forming (HERF)
Newer metalworking processes in which the deformation is carried out at velocities as high as 200 ms-1 . These processes are
known as high-energy-rate forming (HERF) since the energy of deformation is delivered at a much higher rate than in
conventional practice.

Some of the metal working processes in which deformations have been carried out at such velocities are forging, extrusion and
sheet forming. These high-velocity forming processes utilize the energy from exploding gas or a conventional explosive to
produce high particle velocities.

For many materials the elongation to fracture increases with strain rate beyond the usual metalworking range until a critical
strain rate is reached at which the ductility falls of sharply.

Useful for producing large parts in small numbers.

When the explosive charge is placed in direct contact with the metal, very high transient stresses are produced in the metal
and unusual hardening and structural changes may be produced depending on the metal.

No grain distortion or gross distortion of the workpiece occurs.

Superplasticity forming

Materials with high strain rate sensitivity (0.3 < m < 1.0) exhibit pronounced resistance to necking. Superplasticity is exhibited
by metals that have a fine grain size of order of 1 μm and at deformation temperatures above 0.4Tm.
For any superplastic material there is a limiting strain rate above which it is no longer superplastic.

Superplastic forming is done at strainrates below 0.01 s-1.

The chief advantage of superplasticity probably is the low flow stress, on the order of 5 to 30 MPa that exists at superplastic
conditions. This has been utilized in the forging of difficult to work super alloys.

−𝑑𝐴 𝑃 1
= ( 𝐶 )1/m (A(1−m)/m )
𝑑𝑡

Necking is prevented by the presence of strain rate

hardening.
As long as m<1, the smaller the cross section , the
more rapidly the area is reduced.
Currently, superplastic forming is used to form complex shapes where only a small number of such shapes are required.

The experimentally demonstrated mechanism of superplasticity is GBS (Grain Boundary Sliding).

In GBS, two grains slide over each other due to resolved shear stresses.

The aspect ratio of grains of the grains do not vary much after extensive GBS.

During GBS material is transported by diffusion creep from the regions where grains tend to overlap and is deposited in the
regions where voids tend to form.

Fine structured material exhibits superplasticity under the following conditions.

𝜕 ln σ
(1). The material should have a high m-value at the deformation temperature (m is the strain rate sensitivity, m = ( 𝜕 ln εሶ )ε,T )
A high strain rate sensitivity minimizes the tensile neck formation in the absence of strain hardening.

(2). The testing temperature should be sufficiently high (>0.5 Tm (T in K)). This condition is necessary for the activation of
diffusion process which occur along with GBS.

(3). In most cases superplasticity occurs at very low strain rates (εሶ < 10-4-10-2 s-1)
Fig. Schematic relation of mDISM < mGBS Fig. Influence of grain size on the relation between stress and
strain rate for grain boundary sliding (GBS) and a dislocation
Db𝐺𝑏 σ n mechanism (DISM).
εሶ = A( 𝑘𝑇 )(𝐺 ) .

A and n are material constants, Db is the material

constant, b is the burgers vector and G is the
shear modulus.
With decrease in grain size the strain rate domain at which superplasticity can be be exhibited is extended

(4). The material is required to be fine grained.

(5). A finely distributed secondary phase with the length scale of grain size is required to prevent grain growth at imposed
low strain rates and high deformation temperatures. The strength of second phase should be similar to that of matrix
phase to avoid extensive internal cavity formation.
6. The grain boundaries should be high angle boundaries to promote sliding.

The most important are a number of eutectic alloys, some iron alloys, titanium alloys, ceramics and
several aluminium alloys. In the last series, one finds amongst others AlCuZralloys (Supral), the AA7475 alloy (AlZnMg) and
AlMg alloys such as AA5083 (Al4.5Mg0.7Mn) eventually alloyed with Cu.
Metallurgical Structure

(1)Cold worked structure exhibits strain hardening

e.g. the rate of strain hardening was not found to diminish in the stress strain curves of iron wire strained at ε > 6.0. The cold
worked structure consists of elongated grains and equiaxed dislocation cell structure. FCC metals have smaller strain
hardening ability when compared to BCC metals like Fe (at RT). The cell size remains stable in FCC metals while it decreases
with increase in plastic strain in BCC iron.
σ0 = a + md-1 , σ0 is the flow stress and d is the cellsize

(2)Development of Strong crystallographic texture

On a microscopic scale the structure of a cold worked structure is characterized by the development of a strong crystallographic
texture. Due to existence of preferred orientation, there is anisotropy of mechanical properties. The greatest improvement in
the drawability comes about by the control of crystallographic texture in the sheet that is to be drawn. The correct texture gives
the proper orientation of slip systems so that the strength in the thickness direction is higher than that in the plane of sheet.

(3)Development of Shear Bands and Deformation Bands

Deformation bands are regions of distortion where a portion of grain has rotated towards another orientation to accommodate
the applied strain. When these regions extend over many grains they are called shear bands. Exhaustive shear along these
regions is common type of failure in worked products.

Development of shear band is associated with plastic instability in compression. Plastic instability accompanies hot deformation
where some of the strengthening mechanisms become unstable and rate of flow softening exceeds the rate of increase in area
during compression.

In compression the deformation is stable as long as (ϒ +m ≤ 1) and unstable when ϒ +m ≥ 1

In compression greater the strain rate sensitivity, the sooner is the flow localization initiated.

1 𝑑σ 1 𝑑𝑙𝑛σ
ϒ= |
σ 𝑑ε εሶ,T
and m= |
σ 𝑑𝑙𝑛ε ε,T
Dynamic Recovery and Dynamic Recrystallization are the processes that occur during hot-working due to which the flow stress
required to cause deformation is lowered.

(4)Dynamic Recovery
Mechanism that leads to the annihilation of pairs of dislocations during straining.

The low dislocation densities associated with deformation are due to the ease of crossslip, climb and dislocation unpinning at
higher temperatures .

These deformation mechanisms result in a microstructure consisting of elongated grains, inside of which is well developed fine-
subgrain structure, typically of the order of 1-10 μm.
Dynamic recovery occurs in metals having high stacking fault energy such as Al, αFe and most BCC metals.

The structure after dynamic recovery can be retained by cooling the metal rapidly from the hotworking temperature so that
static recrystallization is prevented. This process results in improves strength in Al-Mg alloys (Non heat treatable).

(5)Dynamic Recrystallization (DRX)

Dislocation annihilation occurs only when dislocation density reaches such critical levels that recrystallization occurs. The rate of
strain hardening is hence high until recrystallization begins.
The lowering of flow stress is accompanied by flow localization, and unstable flow is observed in the regions that are first to
recrystallize. Catastrophic strain localization occurs if dynamic recrystallization is followed by rise in temperature during
deformation.

There is increased susceptibility for the formation of cracks and cavities during deformation as the dislocation densities and
flow stresses are higher in the metals which exhibits dynamic recrystallization.

The process of grain boundary migration during deformation tends to isolate these cavities and prevent these from joining to
cause a catastrophic failure.

The DRX is the predominant softening mechanism in FCC metals except Al.
The structure after dynamic recrystallization cannot be retained by cooling rapidly from hot working temperature as the static
recrystallization occurs rapidly when the deformation is completed.

(6) Static Recovery

Static recovery which occurs between intervals of deformation leads to decrease in density of dislocations, but the decrease in
flow stress is relatively small. This process is responsible for the formation of recrystallisation nuclei which is a precursor to
softening by dyanamic recrystallization.

(7.1) Elimination of Compositional inhomogenities and (7.2) Occurrence of Spherodization

Diffusional processes are accelerated during hot working. Degree of spheroidization at 700 ⁰C achieved in 660 h of annealing
can be achieved in 210 s by deforming the metal at strain rate of 0.016 s-1.
(8) Fracture of the alloys during working
The presence of high volume fraction of hard uniformly dispersed particles, such as are found in many super alloys greatly
influences the flow stress and makes working difficult.
(a) If the second phase particles are hard and more massive they will tend to fracture on deformation with the softer matrix
extruding into the voids created by this fracturing.
(b)If the second phase particles are ductile, failure usually occurs by the matrix pulling apart between the particles.

(9)Elimination of Voids and porosities formed during solidification

Cavities which have clean surfaces may be closed shut by pressure welding during mechanical working. Cavity containing gas
may be closed if the gas is readily soluble in the metal at the working temperature.

(10)Mechanical fibering
(a)Second-phase particles or inclusions which are originally spheroidal will be distorted in the principal working direction an
ellipsoidal shape if those are softer and ductile than the matrix.

(b) Second-phase particles will be broken into fragments which will be oriented parallel in the working direction if those are
harder and stronger than the matrix.

Mechanical fibering- Orientation of second phase particles during hot or cold working and the preferred fragmentation of the
grains during cold working are responsible for the fibrous structure typical of the wrought products.

Mechanical properties will vary with orientation with respect to working direction.
(11). Cracking due to strain-induced precipitation

If a precipitation reaction occurs in a metal while it is being formed, it will produce an increase in flow stress and appreciable
decrease in ductility, which can result in cracking.
Brittleness due to precipitation is caused when working is carried out at a temperature just below the solvus line or from cold
working after the alloy had been heated to the same temperature region.
Precipitation induced cracking is more likely when forming is carried out at a slow speed at an elevated temperature.
Age hardenable Al alloys are frequently refrigerated just before forming in order to suppress the precipitation
reaction

(12)Cracking due to strain induced phase transformation

Austenite phase is unstable, i.e, it transforms to ferrite along the slip lines in certain austenitic steels when these steels are
cold worked. The stability of austenite phase in these steels depends on Cr:Ni rato. There will be abnormal increase in flow
stress due to this phase transformation for the amount of deformation received. Though the yield strength of the alloy
increases during cold rolling to this phase transformation, cracking can occur during cold rolling if the transformation occurs in
an extreme amount in regions of highly localized strain.

(13)Effect of processing parameters on the grain size

Fine grain size is obtained if the finishing temperature is low during hot working and the alloy is cooled rapidly from hot-
working temperature.
In steels which undergo structural transformation on cooling from austenite phase, a fine ferrite grain size is obtained if the
austenite grain size is fine. A fine austenite grain size is promoted by taking large reductions in the final pass and working at
the lowest temperature in the austenite field.