3 Gravitation

Contents:
1. Learning Outcomes

2. Definitions

3. Gravitational Field

4. Gravitational Force between Point Masses

5. Gravitational Field of a Point Mass

6. Gravitational Potential

7. Points to Note

Candidates should be able to:

Understand that a gravitational field is an example of a field of force and
define gravitational field as force per unit mass and represent a gravitational field
by means of field lines

Understand the concept of point mass

Recall and use Newton’s law of gravitation F = Gm1 m2 /r 2 applicable for

​ ​

point masses

Analyze circular orbits in gravitational fields

Understand the concept of geostationary satellites

Derive g = GM/r 2 for the gravitational field strength, recall and use g =
GM/r 2 
Understand why g is approximately constant for small changes in height near
the Earth’s surface

3 Gravitation 1
 Define gravitational potential and use ϕ = –GM/r for the gravitational
potential in the field due to a point mass

Understand the concept of gravitational potential energy and use EP ​ =

–GMm/r 

Definitions
The gravitational field strength at a point is
Gravitational field strength defined as the force per unit mass acting on
a small mass placed at that point.

Newton's second law of motion states that

“Force is equal to the rate of change of
Newton’s second law of motion
momentum. For a constant mass, force
equals mass times acceleration.

Point mass is the mass of a body that is said

to be concentrated at a singular point inside
Point Mass
said body. Hence, to study its motion, the
dimensions of the body are ignored.

Newton’s law of gravitation states that two

point masses attract each other with a force
Newton’s law of Gravitation that is proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the
square of their separation.

A line representing the path that a mass

Field Lines
would take when placed within the field.

The ratio of the squares of the periods

(years - time to orbit the Sun) of any two
Kepler’s third law of planetary motion
planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of
their average distance from the sun.

A force that acts on a body moving in a

Centripetal force circular path that acts to pull the revolving
body towards the centre of the circle.

A satellite that appears to be located at a

Geostationary Satellite fixed point in space when viewed from the
earth's surface.

3 Gravitation 2
 Equatorial orbit moves from west to east
Geostationary Orbit spinning with a time period of 24 hours / 1
day.

The time it takes to complete one full orbit

Orbital Period
around a celestial body.

Gravitational potential at a point in a

gravitational field is defined as the work
Gravitational Potential done per unit mass in bringing a small test
mass from an infinitely far location to that
point.

Gravitational potential energy is the energy

possessed or acquired by an object due to a
Gravitational Potential Energy
change in its position when it is present in a
gravitational field.

3.1 Gravitational Field

3.1.1 Gravitational Fields
A force field is an area in which an object experiences a non-contact force.

Force fields are formed during the interaction of masses, static charges or
moving charges.

Different types of fields are formed depending on which interaction takes place:

Gravitational fields - formed during the interaction of masses

Electric fields - formed during the interaction of charges

Magnetic fields affect permanent magnets and electric currents

A gravitational field is defined as a region of space where a mass experiences a

force due to the gravitational attraction of another mass.
There are two types of gravitational fields:

3 Gravitation 3
 Uniform field - exerts the same gravitational force on a mass everywhere in
the field

Radial field - the force exerted depends on the position of the object in the
field

3.1.2 Gravitational Field Lines

The direction of a gravitational field is represented by gravitational field lines.

The direction of the gravitational field is always towards the center of the
mass. Gravitational forces cannot be repulsive.

The distance between field lines represents the strength of the force exerted by
the field in that region.

The closer the lines, the stronger the gravitational field strength.

The Earth’s gravitational field is radial, however very close to the surface it is
almost completely uniform.

For any gravitational field:

The arrow on each line shows the direction of the gravitational force at that
point situated on the line.

The gravitational field lines are smooth curves which never touch or cross.

Some aspects of gravitational fields are illustrated in the figure below:

3 Gravitation 4
 Note that gravitational field strength is a vector quantity as its direction is towards
the object that causes the field.

So a higher density of gravitational field lines shows a region of stronger

gravitational field strength.

3.1.3 Gravitational Field Strength

Any object near the Earth’s surface is attracted toward the Earth with a force that
is dependent on the mass of the body. Similarly, an object near the Moon is
attracted towards the Moon’s surface but now the force is smaller (approximately
1/6th that of the Earth).

The reason for this is that the gravitational field strength is greater near the
Earth than it is near the Moon.

Recall the formula for force:

Force = mass × gravitational field strength

In symbols:

F = mg

You might remember g as the acceleration due to gravity or acceleration of free

fall but if you compare the formulae F = ma and F = mg, you can see that the
acceleration due to gravity and the gravitational field strength are the same thing.
The gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit mass
acting on a small mass placed at that point.

This value is constant in a uniform field but varies in a radial field.

3 Gravitation 5
 You can use the following formula to calculate the gravitational field strength:

g = F/m
Where

F = the force exerted (N)

m = the mass of the object in the field (kg)

The force per unit mass is also a measure of the acceleration of free fall (from
Newton’s second law of motion F = ma).

This means that the gravitational field strength at the Earth’s surface is about
9.81Nkg−1 since the acceleration of free fall is 9.81ms−2.

The unit Nkg−1 is equivalent to the unit of acceleration, ms−2.

3.2 Gravitational Force between Point

Masses
3.2.1 Point Masses
The gravitational field outside the spherical uniform mass is radial. That is, all the
lines of force appear to converge towards the centre of the uniform sphere.

This means that, from outside the sphere, the sphere acts as a point mass that
is situated at its centre.

Point mass is the mass of a body that is said to be concentrated at a singular

point inside said body. Hence, to study its motion, the dimensions of the body are
ignored.

The gravitational field of a uniform sphere compared to that of a point mass is

shown below.

3 Gravitation 6
 We do this to simplify derivations and equations for example - if an object is a
sphere and has mass m, to derive equations, we will suppose all mass acts at its
center of gravity point and consider it as a point mass.

3.2.2 Newton's Law of Gravitation

Newton used his ideas about mass and gravity to suggest a law of gravitation for
two point masses.

He showed that the Earth’s force of gravity extends into space, but weakens
with distance according to an inverse square law.

That is, the Earth’s force of gravity varies inversely with the square of the
distance from the centre of the Earth.

This is part of Newton’s law of gravitation.

Newton’s law of gravitation states that two point masses attract each other
with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their separation.

3 Gravitation 7
 This diagram shows that gravitational forces are always attractive – the Earth
cannot repel any objects.

It is not just large objects that attract each other — all masses have a
gravitational field.

This means that they attract other masses.

Two point masses of mass m1 and m2 separated by a distance r will attract each
other with a force given by the formula:
−Gm1 m2
F= r2
​


​

Where:
F = gravitational force between two masses (N)

G = Newton’s gravitational constant (6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 kg−2 )

m1 and m2 = two points masses (kg)

​ ​

r = distance between the centre of the two masses (m)

The minus sign in the equation shows the vector nature of the force.

Although it is slightly more complex for bodies of finite size, all the mass of any
object can be considered to act at a single point, which is called its centre of
mass.
This simplifies the math and in effect, the object is treated as a point mass.

The formula above assumes that planets (such as the Earth and the Moon) can be
treated as point objects due to their spherical shape.

3 Gravitation 8
3 Gravitation 9
 Skill Check 1

Two spheres of radius 0.50 cm and masses 150 g and 350 g are placed so
that their centres are 4.8 cm apart.

a) Calculate the force on the 150 g sphere.

b) Write down the force on the 350 g sphere.

Solution

a) 350 g = 0.35 kg, 150 g = 0.015 kg, 4.8 cm = 0.048 m

−Gm1 m2
F= r2
​


​

−6.67×10−11 ×0.35×0.015
F= 0.0482
​
= −1.5 × 10−9 N

b) In accordance with Newton’s third law, the magnitude of the force on

the 350g mass will also be −1.5 × 10−9 N but in the opposite direction.

Important Note
This shows how small the gravitational attraction between two
small objects is. It is only when we consider planet-sized
objects that the forces become significant.

3.2.3 Circular Orbits in Gravitational Fields

Most planets in the Solar System have orbits that are nearly circular.

We now bring together the idea of a gravitational force and that of a

centripetal force to derive a relation between the period and the radius of the
orbit of a planet describing a circular path about the Sun, or a satellite moving
around the Earth or another planet.

Consider a planet of mass m in circular orbit about the Sun, of mass M, as

shown in the figure below.

3 Gravitation 10
 If the radius of the orbit is r, the gravitational force Fgrav between the Sun and
the planet is, by Newton’s law of gravitation,

Fgrav = GMm/r 2 
​

It is this force that provides the centripetal force as the planet moves in its
orbit. Note that the planet is changing direction continuously and is, therefore,
not in equilibrium.

The gravitational force provides the accelerating force – the centripetal force.

The centripetal force Fcirc is given by

Fcirc = mv2 /r 
​

Where v is the linear speed of the planet.

As has just been stated,

Fgrav = Fcirc
​

The period T of the planet in its orbit is the time required for the planet to
travel a distance of 2πr. It is moving at speed v, so

3 Gravitation 11
 v = 2πr/T 
Putting this into the equation above, we have

GMm/r 2 = m(4π 2 r 2 /T 2 )/r 

Simplifying,
4π 2 r3
T2 = GM 
​

Since the quantities π, M and G are constants, a relation between T and r can be
established.

This equation shows that for planets or satellites describing circular orbits
about the same central body, the square of the period is proportional to the
cube of the radius of the orbit.

T 2 ∝ r 3 .
This relation is known as Kepler’s third law of planetary motion.

3.2.3 Geostationary Orbits

Many communication satellites are placed in what is called a geostationary orbit. A
geostationary orbit is a special type of orbit in which the satellite:

Has an orbital path directly above the equator

Orbits in the same direction as the Earth spins and remains over the same
point above the Earth’s surface.

Has an orbital period of 24 hours equal to that of the Earth’s single rotation.

Such satellites are called geostationary satellites.

3 Gravitation 12
 They are used for telecommunications (transmitting telephone messages around
the world) and for satellite television transmission.

A base station on Earth sends the TV signal up to the satellite, where it is

amplified and broadcast back to the ground.

Satellite receiver dishes are a familiar sight; you will have observed how, in a
neighborhood, they all point toward the same point in the sky. As the satellite
is in a geostationary orbit, the dish can be fixed.

Satellites in any other orbits move across the sky so a tracking system is
necessary to communicate with them.

3 Gravitation 13
 Skill Check 2

Calculate the height above the Earth that a satellite must be placed for it to
orbit in a geostationary manner.

(Mass of Earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg, radius of Earth = 6.4 × 106 m)
Solution

Time period required for a geostationary orbit is 24h = 86400s.

2π
ω= T
 ​

Equating the force of gravity to centripetal force,

GMm mv 2
r2 ​ = r ​

Which rearranges to give rv2 = GM where r is the distance from the

Earth’s centre to the satellite.

Since v = 2πr/T ,
2 GM T 2
r( 2πr
T ) =
​ GM and r 3 = 4π 2 
​

2
6.67×10−11 ×5.98×1024 ×(8.64×104 )
r3 = 4π 2
 ​

r 3 = 7.54 × 10 m  22 3

Taking the cube root, the radius r of the orbit is 4.23 × 107 m.

The distance above the Earth’s surface is (4.23 × 107 − 6.38 × 106 ) =
3.6 × 107 m.

3.3 Gravitational Field of a Point Mass

3.3.1 Equation of g
The gravitational field strength due to a point mass can be derived from
combining the equations for Newton’s law of gravitation and gravitational field

3 Gravitation 14
 strength.

For calculations involving gravitational forces, a spherical mass can be treated

as a point mass at the centre of the sphere.

From Newton’s law of gravitation, the attractive force on a mass m caused by

another mass M, with a distance of r between their centres, is given by
−GMm
F= r2  ​

This means that the force per unit mass or gravitational field strength g is
given by
F −GM
g= m
​ = r2
​

The gravitational field strength at a point describes how strong or weak a

gravitational field is at that point.

Gravitational field strength, g, is a vector quantity and its direction is always

towards the centre of the body creating the gravitational field (the same direction
as the gravitational field lines).

The value of g on the Earth’s surface is 9.81 N kg, a constant, however, as we

move outside the Earth, it no longer stays constant.

There is an inverse square relationship between g and r.

g decreases as r increases by a factor of 1/r 2 .

The following figure shows the graph of g against distance from the centre of
Earth.

3 Gravitation 15
 Where R is the radius of Earth.
The graph has two parts:

When r < R, the radius of the planet, g is directly proportional to r.

When r > R, g is inversely proportional to r (this is an ‘L’ shaped curve and

shows that g decreases rapidly with increasing distance r).

3.3.2 The value of g on Earth

Sometimes, g is referred to as the ‘acceleration due to gravity’ with units of m s−2 .

If we assume that the Earth is a uniform sphere with approximately uniform

density, we can apply the equation at and beyond the Earth’s surface.

The radius r of Earth is approximately 6.4 × 103 km. If we move a few

kilometers h above the Earth’s surface, then the acceleration of free fall
becomes

3 Gravitation 16
 GM
g= (r+h)2

​

Now, h is much smaller than r and so

r 2 ≈ (r + h)2 and g ≈ gh

For small distances above the Earth’s surface, g is approximately constant and
is called the acceleration of free fall.

Skill Check 3

Calculate the gravitational field strength at the surface of Mars.

(Radius of Mars = 3.4 × 103 km, mass of Mars = 6.4 × 1023 kg).
Solution

3.4 × 103 km = 3.4 × 106 m

−GMm F
F= r2
and g = m
​ ​
−GM 6.67×10−11 ×6.4×1023
g= r 2 ​ = (3.4×106 )2

​

The magnitude of the gravitational field strength is 3.7Nkg−1 towards

the centre of Mars.

3.4 Gravitational Potential

3.4.1 Potential at a point
From earlier work you will be familiar with the idea that the gain in gravitational
potential energy of a body when it is lifted through a height h is given by the
formula:
ΔW = mgΔh

3 Gravitation 17
 This formula gives the change in gravitational potential energy.

At what point does a body have zero potential energy? It is up to physicists to

define the point at which a body has zero gravitational potential energy.

The point that is chosen is infinity — we say that the gravitational potential
energy at an infinite distance from any other body is zero.

This might seem a little difficult to start with; we know that a body loses
potential energy as it approaches the Earth or another large body — therefore
it has less than zero potential energy.

This means that it has negative potential energy when it is near another body
such as the Earth.

By considering the potential energy of a unit mass, we can assign each point
in space a specific gravitational potential. The gravitational potential is zero at
infinity (far from any mass), and decreases as a mass is approached.

Therefore, gravitational potential is defined as follows:

Gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is defined as the work
done per unit mass in bringing a small test mass from infinity to the point.

3 Gravitation 18
 3.4.2 Formula of Potential
The formula for calculating the gravitational potential at a point is:
−GM
φ= r  ​

Where

φ = gravitational potential (J kg−1 )

G = Newton’s gravitational constant

M = mass of the body producing the gravitational field (kg)

r = distance from the centre of the mass to the point mass (m)

Note that the gravitational potential is negative.

The gravitational potential at infinity is defined as zero.

The gravitational force is always attractive and so, as the test mass moves
from infinity, work can be done by the test mass and as a result its potential
decreases.

When a mass is closer to a planet, its gravitational potential becomes

smaller (more negative).

As a mass moves away from a planet, its gravitational potential becomes

larger (less negative) until it reaches 0 at infinity.

Gravitational Potential Energy

If you lift an object from the ground, you increase its gravitational potential energy
(g.p.e.).

The higher you lift it, the more work you do on it and so the greater its g.p.e.

The change in g.p.e. can be calculated as mgΔh, where Δh is the change in its
height.

This approach is satisfactory when we are considering objects close to the Earth’s
surface. However, we need a more general approach to calculating gravitational
energy, for two reasons:

If we use g.p.e. = mgΔh, we are assuming that an object’s g.p.e. is zero on the
Earth’s surface. This is fine for many practical purposes but not, for example,

3 Gravitation 19
 if we are considering objects moving through space, far from Earth. For these,
there is nothing special about the Earth’s surface.

If we lift an object to a great height, g decreases and we would need to take

this into account when calculating g.p.e.

Hence, for these reasons, we need to set up a different way of calculating

gravitational potential energy.

Gravitational potential is work done per unit mass. For an object of mass m, then
the gravitational potential energy of the object will be m times as large as for an
object of unit mass.
Gravitational potential energy = mass × gravitational potential

= mΦ = −GMm/r 
For two isolated point masses m1 and m2 situated a distance r apart in a vacuum,
then the gravitational potential energy Ep of the two masses is given by
−Gm1 m2
Ep =​

r
​


​

It is more useful to find the change in G.P.E e.g. a satellite lifted into space from
the Earth’s surface.

The change in G.P.E from for an object of mass m at a distance r from the centre
of mass M, to a distance of r further away is:

ΔG.P .E. = −GMm

r2 ​
​ − ( −GMm
r1
​
) = GMm( r11 −
​

​
​
1
r2​
) ​

3 Gravitation 20
 Skill Check 4

If a body is fired from the Earth’s surface with sufficient speed, it can escape
from the Earth’s gravitational field.

(a) Calculate the potential at the Earth’s surface.

(b) State and explain how much energy a body of unit mass would need to
be given to escape from the Earth’s field.

(c) Calculate the minimum speed at which the body must be fired to escape.

Solution
−GM
a) φ= r 
​

−6.67×10−11 ×6.4×1023
φ= 6.4×106
​
= −6.25 × 107 J kg−1 

b) 6.25 × 107 J , the energy required to reach infinity, zero potential

energy.

c) Ek = mv2 /2, which leads to:

​

2Ek 2×6.25×107
v= m
​

​ ​ = 1
​ ​
= 1.1 × 104 ms−1 

Points to Note
The force of gravity is an attractive force between any two objects due to their
masses.

Always label the arrows on the field lines! Gravitational forces are attractive
only. Remember:

For a radial field: it is towards the centre of the sphere or point charge

For a uniform field: towards the surface of the object e.g. Earth

3 Gravitation 21
 There is a force of attraction between all masses. On Earth, the force
attracting objects to the Earth is referred to as ‘force due to gravity’ and is
called weight.

The gravitational field strength g at a point is the gravitational force exerted

per unit mass on a small object placed at that point – that is:

g = F /m
The external field of a uniform spherical mass is the same as that of an equal
point mass at the centre of the sphere.

At the surface of the Earth, all objects have the same acceleration when falling
freely (no air resistance).

The equation for Newton’s law of gravitation is: F = GMm/r 2 .

The gravitational field strength at a point is the gravitational force exerted per
unit mass on a small object placed at that point: g = GM/r 2 .
On or near the surface of the Earth, the gravitational field is uniform, so the
value of g is approximately constant. Its value is equal to the acceleration of
free fall.

The gravitational potential of a point mass is given by: ϕ = −GM/r .

The orbital period can be found by equating the gravitational force GMm/r 2 to
the centripetal force mv2 /r .

The orbital speed of a planet or satellite can be determined using the equation:
v2 = GM/r .
Geostationary satellites have an orbital period of 24 hours and are used for
telecommunications transmissions and for television broadcasting.

Remember to keep the negative sign in your solution for gravitational potential.
However, if you’re asked for the ‘change in’ gravitational potential, no negative
sign should be included since you are finding a difference in values (between
0 at infinity and the gravitational potential from your calculation).

3 Gravitation 22