Article title: Predictors for enjoyment of playing musical instruments: Focused on psychological factors: Pesonality

and psychological teait, and enjoyment of playing musical instruments

Authors: Weiyi Zhao[1], Alexander Park[2], Qian Zhang[3], Kyung Hyun Suh[4]
Affiliations: department of interdisciplinary arts, sahmyook university[1], smith college of liberal arts, sahmyook
university[2], department of art education, xianda college of economics and humanities, shanghai international studies
university[3], department of counseling psychology, sahmyook university[4]
Orcid ids: 0000-0002-0012-3786[4]
Contact e-mail: [email protected]
License information: This work has been published open access under Creative Commons Attribution License
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Conditions, terms of use and publishing policy can be found at
https://www.scienceopen.com/.
Preprint statement: This article is a preprint and has not been peer-reviewed, under consideration and submitted to
ScienceOpen Preprints for open peer review.
DOI: 10.14293/PR2199.001380.v1
Preprint first posted online: 01 January 2025
Keywords: musical instrument, enjoyment, personality, self-directedness, fun-seeking
Predictors for enjoyment of playing musical instruments: Focused
on psychological factors

Abstract
This study investigates the psychological factors related to the enjoyment of playing musical instruments, and
verifies the model that can predict enjoyment using psychological variables, demographic profiles, and variables
related to music to provide useful information and knowledge for further studies and interventions. The
participants were 416 male and female Chinese adults aged 20–68 years. The stepwise regression analysis revealed
that fun seeking accounted for the greatest variance in enjoyment of playing musical instruments. Fun-seeking,
agreeableness, openness, self-directedness, and conscientiousness accounted for approximately 27.2% of the
variance in enjoyment of playing musical instruments. The decision-tree model included enjoyment of the music
class in childhood, self-directedness, age, experience of playing musical instruments, experience of growing up in
a family that enjoys music, extraversion, and agreeableness. These findings suggest that psychological variables
such as fun seeking and agreeableness may play a more important role in enjoyment of playing musical instruments.

Keywords: musical instrument, enjoyment, personality, self-directedness, fun-seeking

INTRODUCTION
Parents often teach their children to play musical instruments from an early age. The reasons are either that parents
desire their children to become musicians, or they want their children to be able to play at least one musical instrument
(Ho, 2009). Parents may want their children to learn to play musical instruments because of its many advantages.
Learning a musical instrument can have a positive impact on students' other school activities, increase academic
achievement, and improve their overall quality of school life (Baker et al., 2023; Shi, 2022).
Hille and Schupp (2015) found that students who were learning to play musical instruments showed better
cognitive abilities and academic achievement, and were more conscientious, open-minded, and ambitious than
students who did not learn to play musical instruments. Learning to play a musical instrument was found to be more
than twice as effective as learning sports, theater, or dance in improving cognitive abilities. Additionally, learning to
play a musical instrument may positively impact students’ self-concept (Serkan & Terzioglu, 2022).
Learning to play musical instruments can be beneficial for children and teenagers. Enjoying playing musical
instruments has benefits even in old age. For example, a systematic review and meta-analysis revealed that playing
musical instruments could prevent older adults from developing dementia (Arafa et al., 2022). This effect may occur
because learning to play a musical instrument increases verbal memory and the efficiency of the nervous system
(Guo et al., 2021). Shipman (2016) suggested that learning to play musical instruments not only improves cognitive
ability, but can also effectively reduce stress by alleviating pressure and creating a sense of stability in daily life. He
emphasized that prescribing playing musical instruments for mental health is necessary because it relieves negative
emotions such as anxiety and depression. In fact, music therapies using musical instruments have been utilized
clinically because of such proven effects (Miura et al., 2015). According to several studies, musical activities,
including playing musical instruments, may positively affect health and promote well-being (e.g. Dingle et al., 2021).
Summarizing previous studies, enjoying playing musical instruments not only has a therapeutic effect, but can also
enrich human life.
This study explored the psychological factors that can predict people's enjoyment of playing musical
instruments. First, this study assumed that an individual’s personality was related to the tendency to enjoy playing
musical instruments. Personality is a basic psychological variable that predicts human behavior and values. This
study selected, the Big-5 personality traits, which are the most stable personality factors, as predictors (Roccas et al.,
2002). The Big-5 personality factors are neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, and agreeableness
(Costa & McCrae, 1992). In a previous study (Suh & Park, 2011), extraversion, openness, and agreeableness were
positively correlated with music preference; however, emotional stability, in contrast to neuroticism, was negatively
correlated with pursuing the psychological effects of music. Waterman and Funder (2021) investigated the
relationship between preferences of playing a musical instrument and the Big-5 personality. Additionally, they found
that people who preferred to play melodic instruments such as guitar or piano had higher agreeableness and openness
than rhythm instruments, such as drums. They also found differences in extroversion depending on which instrument
or music genre individuals preferred. Additionally, this study aimed to verify whether the Big-5 personality could
predict the tendency to enjoy playing musical instrument.
This study also aimed to verify whether temperament or dispositional traits could predict the tendency to enjoy
playing musical instruments. Behavioral activation system (BAS) and behavioral inhibition system (BIS) were
selected as temperamental personalities (Fowles, 1980). BAS is related to the brain's dopamine pathway, sensitizing
it to clues related to what it wants and actively pursuing it. It is a motivational system that induces emotions such as
hope, excitement, happiness, and joy, creating individuals’ expectations that they can achieve what they want
(Urošević et al., 2008). BIS is related to the brain's septum, hippocampus, and serotonin pathway, which is sensitive
to cues of punishment and danger to stop behavior (Gray, 1990), and is correlated with negative emotions such as
anxiety (Wheeler et al., 1993). People with high BAS scores are more sensitive to the rewards provided by music
and participate more actively in musical activities (Loxton et al., 2016). In a previous study (Suh & Park, 2011), all
sub-variables of BAS, including BIS, were positively correlated with music preference; the Big-5 personality factors
accounted for approximately 7% of the variance in music preference, while the BAS and BIS accounted for 15% of
its variance.
Self-efficacy was selected as the psychological variable that could predict the tendency to enjoy playing musical
instruments. Self-efficacy is a concept introduced by Bandura (1982) and refers to an individual's positive evaluation
of their ability to complete a specific task well and achieve a goal. Self-efficacy is based on the perceived behavioral
control included in the theory of planned behavior, which can predict various behaviors (Ajzen, 2002). Self-efficacy
can predict various behaviors related to goal achievement (Livinƫi et al., 2021). According to Honicke and Broadbent
(2016), the influence of self-efficacy on academic achievement was also significant. As self-efficacy is important for
achieving music education or performance (Zelenak, 2019), there is also a concept called music self-efficacy (Zarza-
Alzugaraye et al., 2020). However, this study examined whether general self-efficacy, rather than musical self-
efficacy, could be a predictor of enjoyment in playing musical instruments.
Hardiness may affect a person’s ability to learn how to play instruments well. Psychological hardiness, as
introduced by Kobasa (1979), is an inner psychological trait that allows individuals to cope with difficult tasks.
People with high commitment, a hardiness factor, find meaning in work or interpersonal relationships and are
immersed in their lives (Kobasa, 1982). This study assumed that commitment would be related to enjoying playing
musical instruments. Leibowitz and Abel (1949) emphasized the importance of commitment of people engaged in
music. When performers concentrate on their performance, they can immerse themselves in their performance,
experience flow, play beautifully, and not feel anxious (Mahony et al., 2022). Self-directedness or control, a hardiness
factor, may play an important role in learning musical instruments (Leahy & Smith, 2021). Tenacity or challenge is
a hardiness trait that approaches adversity experienced in life not as a threat but as an opportunity, and approaches it
challengingly rather than defensively (Kobasa & Puccetti, 1983; Suh, 2022). Thus, it may be related to enjoying
playing musical instruments. Therefore, this study assumed that hardy people are more likely to learn musical
instruments, successfully acquire performance skills, and enjoy playing.
This study aimed to investigate the relationships between individuals’ personality, temperament, self-efficacy,
hardiness, and enjoyment of playing musical instruments and to verify models that can predict the enjoyment of
playing musical instruments. To achieve that purpose, the following research questions were verified: First, are there
significant relationships between the Big-5 personality, BAS/BIS, self-efficacy, hardiness, and enjoyment of playing
musical instruments among Chinese adults? Second, what is the appropriate stepwise regression model for
predicting Chinese adults’ enjoyment of playing musical instruments? Third, what is the appropriate decision-tree
model for predicting the enjoyment of playing musical instruments among Chinese adults?
If we can predict individuals’ tendency to enjoy playing musical instruments, it will be possible to select
candidates for musical instrument-playing training or increase the efficiency of playing musical instruments. For
this purpose, an attempt has been made to predict the behavior of taking music lessons, such as playing musical
instruments, based on parents' characteristics (Corrigall & Schellenberg, 2015). Furthermore, it will be possible
to evaluate whether individuals can improve their quality of life by learning to play and enjoy musical instruments.
Thus, parents or teachers will be able to avoid making mistakes in forcing someone who does not enjoy playing
an instrument to learn to play it. It will also provide useful information for determining who can benefit from
music therapy by playing musical instruments.

Materials and Methods

Participants

In total, 416 Chinese adults participated in this study. The participants’ ages ranged from 20 to 68 years, with
mean age of 38.59 ± 13.15 years. Specific information on participants’ characteristics is presented in the Results.

Instruments

Enjoyment of playing musical instrument

The participants’ enjoyment of playing musical instruments was measured using the Enjoyment of Playing
Instruments Scale (EPIS) developed by Zhang (2022). This scale measures the following three aspects of
enjoyment derived from playing an instrument: learning and social bonds, achievement and pride, and cognitive
refreshment and stimulation. It consists of 16 items, and each item was rated on a five-point Likert scale (1: strongly
disagree to 5: strongly disagree). A scale-development study (Zhang, 2022) showed a stable factorial structure
and relatively good test–retest reliability, internal consistency, and criterion-related validity. In this study, the
Cronbach's αs were .92 for learning and social bonds, .93 for achievement and pride, .87 for cognitive refreshment
and stimulation, and .97 for all items.

Personality
Participants’ personality was measured using the Chinese Big Five Personality Inventory-15 (CBF-PI-15: Zhang
et al., 2019). This scale measures five personality factors based on the Big-5 personality concept: neuroticism,
extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, and agreeableness. The CBF-PI-15 consists of 15 items, two of which
are designed to be reverse scored. Each item was rated on a six-point Likert scale (1: strongly disagree to 6:
strongly agree). A scale-development study (Zhang et al., 2019) showed good reliability and validity. Although
some factors resulted in relatively low internal consistency, this was acceptable considering the nature of
Cronbach’s α, which is sensitive to the number of items. In this study, the Cronbach’s αs were .71 for
neuroticism, .66 for extraversion, .66 for conscientiousness, .55 for openness, and .68 for agreeableness.

BAS/BIS
BAS and BIS were measured using Carver and White’s (1994) BAS/BIS Scale. This study used the Chinese
version of the scale validated by Che et al. (2020). This scale consists of 18-items, three sub-scales, including
reward responsiveness (four items), drive (four items), fun seeking (five items), and, reflects behavioral activation
or incentive responsiveness; one scale (five items) reflects behavioral inhibition sensitivity or threat
responsiveness. Each item is rated from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). We reverse-scored all items
such that higher scores indicated higher BAS and BIS. The Cronbach's αs in this study were .77~.81 for the
subscales of BAS, and .79 for BIS.

Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy was measured using the Chinese version of the General Self-Efficacy Scale, developed by Zhang
and Schwarzer (1995). This scale consists of ten items that demonstrate self-efficacy, the feeling that individuals
can handle and solve difficulties they face in life. Examples of items include “I can always manage to solve
difficult problems if I try hard enough” and “I can usually handle whatever comes my way.” Each item is rated on
a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true). The Cronbach’s α of the items was .77
in this study.

Hardiness
Psychological hardiness was measured using the Brief Measure of Hardiness (BMH) developed by Suh (2002).
This scale consists of 12 items and three subscales: commitment (4 items), self-directedness (4 items), and tenacity
(4 items). Each item is rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 6 (very true), with higher
scores indicating a hardier person. Examples of items include, “When I open my eyes in the morning, I look
forward to the day,”, “My decisions shape my life,”, and “Adversity makes me grow.” In this study, the Cronbach's
αs of the items was .76 for commitment, .72 for self-directedness, .70 for tenacity, and .89 for all items.

Data Collection Procedures

Data were collected from the Wenjuanxing website (wjx.cn), an online survey platform in China. Prior to data
collection, approval was obtained from institutional review board (IRB). Written consent was obtained online
from all participants, and an attempt was made to ensure that the entire data collection process was conducted
ethically.
After participants had agreed to participate in the online survey, they were informed that they could withdraw
at any time if they felt discomfort while answering the survey. Additionally, they were informed that all data
would be used for research purposes only, and that all data would be stored in an encrypted computer for three
years and then destroyed.
We promoted the study using Internet bulletin boards and social network sites (SNSs) to encourage
participation in the survey. Additionally, we sought to secure a sufficient number of participants who were able
to play musical instruments by specifically inviting adults who were proficient in music.

Statistical Analysis

All data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows version 26. Prior
to performing a parametric statistical analysis, the skewness and kurtosis of the psychological variables were
checked to identify their normal distributions. Correlation and stepwise regression analyses were conducted as
parametric statistics and decision tree analysis was conducted as non-parametric statistics.
The chi-square automatic interaction detection (CHAID) technique was used for the decision-tree analysis.
Kass (1980) developed this technique, an algorithm that performs multiple separations based on the chi-square
(χ2) from cross-tabulations and the F-statistic from analysis of variance. The total expected score was selected as
the target variable, and since it is a continuous variable, the likelihood ratio χ2 statistic was used. In this study, the
maximum number of levels was set to three, and the minimum number of cases for the parent and child nodes was
set to 30 and 10, respectively.

Results

Characteristics of Participants

Of the participants, 203 (48.8%) were men and 213 (51.2%) were women (Table 1). Of these, 148 were in their
20s (35.6%), 58 in their 30s (13.9%), 113 in their 40s (27.2%), 58 in their 50s (13.9%), and 39 in their 60s (9.4%).
A total of 62 (14.9%) reported living alone.
Of the participants, 71 (17.1%) had majored or were majoring in music and 190 (45.7%) reported having an
instrument they were good at playing. Additionally, 87 (2.9%) reported growing up in a family that enjoyed music,
190 (45.7%) enjoyed music classes during childhood or adolescence, and 190 (45.7%) reported having experienced
playing musical instruments with their family.

Table 1. Characteristics of Participants (N = 416)

Variables Frequency Percent (%)
Man 203 48.8
Gender
Woman 213 51.2
 20s 148 35.6
30s 58 13.9
Age 50s 113 27.2
60s 58 13.9
70s 39 9.4

Living alone 62 14.9

Housing type
Living with other(s) 354 85.1

Yes 71 17.1
Majoring or majored in Music?
No 345 82.9

Yes 190 45.7

Can you play an instrument well?
No 226 54.3

Grown up in a family that enjoys Yes 87 2.9

music? No 329 79.1

Yes 186 44.7

Enjoyed music classes?
No 230 55.3

Yes 83 2.0
Played instrument(s) with family?
No 333 8.0

Relationships between Personality, BAS/BIS, Self-efficacy, Hardiness, and Enjoyment of

Playing Instruments

Table 2 shows the results of the correlation analysis of the Big-5 personality, BAS/BIS, self-efficacy, hardiness,
and enjoyment in playing instruments among Chinese adults. The absolute values of skewness and kurtosis of all
variables did not exceed 2.0; therefore, the variance of all variables did not significantly deviate from the normal
distribution, indicating that a parametric statistical analysis was possible (Kline, 2005).
The correlation analysis showed that extraversion (r = .16, p < .001), conscientiousness (r = .14, p < .01),
and agreeableness (r = .24, p < .001) were positively correlated with the enjoyment of playing musical instruments,
whereas neuroticism and openness were significantly correlated. Additionally, BAS (r = −.34, p < .001) and BIS
(r = −.31, p < .001) were positively correlated with enjoyment of playing musical instruments. All sub-factors of
BAS, namely reward responsiveness (r = −.29, p < .001), drive (r = −.31, p < .001), and fun-seeking (r = −.33, p
< .001), were significantly correlated with the enjoyment of playing musical instruments.
Additionally, hardiness was positively correlated with the enjoyment of playing instruments (r = .23, p < .001),
whereas self-efficacy was not significantly correlated with (r = .06, n.s.). All subfactors of hardiness, commitment (r
= .17, p < .001), self-directedness (r = .25, p < .001), and tenacity (r = .22, p < .001) were positively correlated with
the enjoyment of playing musical instruments.
Table 2. Correlational Matrix for Big-5 Personality, BAS/BIS, Self-efficacy, Hardiness, and Enjoyment of Playing Instruments (N=416)
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 6-1 6-2 6-3 7 8 9 9-1 9-2 9-3 10

1. Neuroticism 1

2. Extraversion .41*** 1

3. Conscientiousness .42*** .65*** 1

4. Openness −.55*** −.58*** −.59*** 1

5. Agreeableness .40*** .56*** .54*** −.51*** 1

6. BAS .06 .09 −.15** .19*** .13* 1

6-1. Reward responsiveness −.04 .06 −.11* .17*** .12* .02 1

6-2. Drive .07 .09 −.14** .16** .11* .90*** .75*** 1

6-3. Fun-seeking .12* .10 −.15** .18*** .12* .92*** .75*** .74*** 1

7. BIS .15** .14** −.16** .16** .13* .76*** .68*** .65*** .73*** 1

8. Self-efficacy .42*** .44*** .44*** −.43*** .45*** −.01 .03 −.03 .01 .05 1

9. Hardiness .38*** .57*** .63*** −.57*** .67*** −.01 .04 .01 .02 .12* .62*** 1

9-1. Commitment .34*** .51*** .56*** −.51*** .58*** −.07 −.08 −.06 −.04 .06 .57*** .91*** 1

9-2. Self-Directedness .34*** .50*** .58*** −.51*** .63*** .02 −.03 .04 .04 .13** .55*** .90*** .72*** 1

9-3. Tenacity .34*** .53*** .58*** −.52*** .60*** .04 .01 .06 .06 .13** .58*** .91*** .74*** .74*** 1

10. Enjoyment of playing instruments −.08 .16** .14** .08 .24*** −.34*** −.29*** −.31*** −.33*** −.31*** .06 .23*** .17*** .25*** .22*** 1

M 13.17 13.20 13.52 7.30 13.57 37.11 11.68 11.42 14.01 13.88 28.75 53.94 18.04 18.02 17.88 48.83

SD 3.06 2.84 2.74 2.63 2.84 8.18 2.94 2.82 3.22 3.30 4.60 9.86 3.74 3.61 3.33 17.05

Skewness −1.09 −.84 −.91 .88 −1.06 .71 .82 .63 −.61 .59 −.45 −1.05 −.92 −.88 −.77 .29

Kurtosis 1.60 1.29 1.82 1.44 1.82 −.32 −.18 −.35 −.26 −.28 .92 2.85 1.40 1.71 1.78 −1.45
* p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001
Predictive Models for Enjoyment of Playing Musical Instruments

This study verified the models that predicted the playing of musical instruments among Chinese adults. First, we
conducted a stepwise regression analysis with psychological variables or sub-factors, including a correlation analysis.
Multicollinearity problems occur when tolerance is less than .2, and variance inflation factor (VIF) is greater than
5.0 (West et al., 1995). Because the tolerance of predictors included in the stepwise regression model was .444~.586,
and the VIFs were 1.707~2.253, multicollinearity was not significant.
Table 3 shows that fun-seeking was the most prominent predictor of the enjoyment of playing musical
instruments (β = −.330, p < .001), followed by agreeableness (β = .280, p < .001), openness (β = .208, p < .001), self-
directedness (β = .250, p < .001), drive (β = −.186, p < .01), and conscientiousness (β = .143, p < .05), in this stepwise
regression model. Fun-seeking accounted for approximately 1.9% of the variance in the enjoyment of playing
musical instruments.
In addition to fun seeking, agreeableness accounted for approximately 7.7% of the variance in the enjoyment
of playing instruments. Openness accounts for approximately 3.0% of the variance. Self-directedness accounted for
an additional 3.4% of the variance in enjoyment of playing instruments, except for the effects of fun seeking,
agreeableness, and openness. Openness may positively affect the enjoyment of playing musical instruments in the
regression model, although there was no significant correlation between openness and the enjoyment of playing
instruments in the correlation analysis.

Table 3. Results of the Stepwise Regression Analysis of Enjoyment of Playing Instruments

Variables β t ∆R2 F

Fun seeking −.330 −7.12*** .109

Agreeableness .280 6.27*** .077

Openness .208 4.09*** .030

26.38***
Self-directedness .250 4.37*** .034

Drive −.186 −2.94** .013

Conscientiousness .143 2.47* .009

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

To examine the decision tree model that predicts the enjoyment of playing musical instruments among
Chinese adults, the variables or their sub-factors, including correlation analysis and demographic information,
both parametric and non-parametric variables, and variables related to experiences and the environment regarding
playing musical instruments, were entered as potential predictors.
The results revealed that the total number of nodes was 18, the number of terminal nodes was 11, and that
of depths was 3 (Figure 1). The risk estimate was 109.30 (SE = 1.39), and the average risk estimate of the 10-fold
cross-validation was 147.16 (SE = 14.34), indicating differences within the margin of error.
The average of the root nodes’ enjoyment of playing instruments was 48.83. Nine nodes (Nodes 1, 4, 5, 6,
9, 10, 11, 12, and 15) exceeded this average; Chinese adults belonging to this node showed higher scores on the
enjoyment for playing instruments (Figure 1). The order of gain nodes was 12 (9.4%), 10 (2.6%), 11 (15.1%), 9
(11.3%), 6 (7.9%), 15 (2.9%), 3 (6.3%), 13 (25.2%), 16 (6.3%), 14 (9.9%), and 17 (3.1%; Table 4).

Table 4. Gain summary for nodes

Nodes N % M

12 39 9.4 69.95
10 11 2.6 64.55
11 63 15.1 63.48
9 47 11.3 57.28
6 33 7.9 55.97
15 12 2.9 53.50
3 26 6.3 45.15
13 105 25.2 37.22
16 26 6.3 36.00
14 41 9.9 32.63
17 13 3.1 26.08
Growing method: CHAID

The first criterion used to classify the level of enjoyment in playing musical instruments was whether
participants enjoyed music classes in childhood (Figure 1). The average score for enjoyment of playing
instruments for the 186 participants who enjoyed music classes in childhood was relatively high at 6.77 (Node 1).
If the participants enjoyed music classes in childhood and their self-directedness score was over 18, the average
score for enjoyment of playing instruments was high at 65.95 (Node 5). Among them, those who reported that
they grew up in a family that enjoys music had the highest average score for enjoyment of playing a musical
instrument at 69.95 points (node 11).
Additionally, if the participants enjoyed music classes in childhood and their self-directedness scores were
over 13 and 18 or less, the average score for enjoyment of playing instruments was relatively high at 58.66 (Node
4). Among them, if the participants had experience playing a musical instrument with their family, the average
score for enjoyment of playing the instruments was high at 64.55 (Node 10).
The average score for enjoyment in playing instruments among the 230 participants who did not enjoy music
classes in childhood was low at 39.17 (Node 2). However, even if participants did not enjoy music classes in
childhood, if they were 31 years old or younger, the average score for enjoyment of playing instruments was
relatively high at 55.97 (Node 6).
The average score for enjoyment of playing instruments of the 158 participants who did not enjoy music
classes in childhood and were over 31 and 58 years or less, respectively, was low at 37.27 (Node 7). Their
agreeableness score was over 16, and the average score for enjoyment of playing instruments was relatively high
at 53.50 (Node 15).
The average score for enjoyment of playing instruments of the 39 participants who did not enjoy music classes
in childhood and were over 58 years old, was low at 32.69 (Node 8). Among them, the extraversion score was over
15, and the average score for enjoyment of playing instruments was the lowest at 26.08 (Node 17).
Figure 1. Decision-tree Model for Enjoyment of Playing Instruments
Discussion
This study explored variables that could predict the enjoyment of playing musical instruments among Chinese
adults to provide useful information and knowledge for future studies on music education or therapy.
Psychological factors such as personality, BAS/BIS, self-efficacy, and hardiness, which are associated with the
enjoyment of playing musical instruments, were investigated using a stepwise regression model. Additionally,
demographic profiles, including categorical data potentially linked enjoyment of playing musical instruments, were
incorporated into a decision-tree prediction model. The implications of these findings are as follows:

Personality and Enjoyment of Playing Instruments

In this study, the more agreeable Chinese adults were, the more likely they were to enjoy playing musical
instruments. Among the Big-5 personality traits, agreeableness had the highest accountability for enjoyment of
playing musical instruments, at 5.7% (r = .239). Agreeableness was the determinant predictor in the stepwise
regression model predicting Chinese adults’ enjoyment of playing musical instruments, and was also included in
the decision-tree model. In a previous study (Bamford & Davidson, 2019), agreeableness was significantly
correlated with trait empathy for rhythmic entrainment in a spontaneous movement to a music task. These results
suggest that agreeing to empathize with the emotions that performers feel when playing an instrument may be the
key to enjoying it.
The more extraverted Chinese adults were, the more likely they were to enjoy playing musical instruments.
Waterman and Funder (2021) found that extraverts prefer to listen to musical instruments, while the current study
found that extraverts prefer to play musical instruments themselves. Both amateur and professional
instrumentalists showed lower levels of extraversion than singers or vocalists (Kuckelkorn et al, 2021), and the
current results have educational and clinical implications. For example, it may be effective to teach extraverted
children or adolescents to play musical instruments professionally. It may also be effective if an extraverted adult
learns to play an instrument as a hobby. Additionally, the application of music therapy to extraverts may be
effective; however this needs to be verified in future studies.
The higher the conscientiousness of Chinese adults, the more likely they were to enjoy playing musical
instruments. Conscientiousness plays an important role in individuals' academic achievement and training
performance (Dollinger & Orf, 1991). Corrigall et al. (2013) believed that conscientiousness would affect
children’s and adults’ adaptability and achievement in musical instrument training or music lessons. As
conscientiousness is the personality trait of being responsible, diligent, dutiful, self-disciplined, and dependable
(Thompson, 2008), conscientious people tend to be efficient in most learning situations. Therefore, it can be
effective for teachers teaching musical instruments to provide instrumental lessons to people with high levels of
conscientiousness.
In this study, openness was found to have no significant relationship with enjoyment of playing musical
instruments in the correlation analysis, but was included in the stepwise regression model. In this model, openness
accounted for approximately 3% of the variance in the enjoyment of playing musical instruments, in addition to
fun-seeking and agreeableness. This result indicates that openness, if adjusted by fun-seeking and agreeableness,
can positively influence the enjoyment of playing musical instruments. In Kuckelkorn et al.’s (2021) study,
musicians showed higher openness than non-musicians, and current study suggests that people with high openness
are more likely to enjoy musical instruments, excluding elements of fun-seeking or agreeableness. However, in
this study openness itself was not significantly correlated with the enjoyment of playing musical instruments, and
the relationship between these two variables requires in-depth study.

BAS/BIS and Enjoyment of Playing Instruments

This study found that the higher the BAS and BIS scores of the Chinese adults, the more they enjoyed playing
musical instruments. Gray (1981) described BAS and BIS as playing a role in balancing whether to perform or
quit a behavior. However, in this study, both BAS and BIS showed negative relationships with the enjoyment of
playing musical instruments. Because BAS and BIS can both have positive and negative correlations with certain
psychological variables (Cooper et al., 2008; Muris et al., 2005), this result cannot be considered contradictory. A
stepwise regression model revealed that the more they sought fun, the fewer Chinese adults enjoyed playing
musical instruments. As people high in fun-seeking are more attracted to fun activities (Carver & White, 1994),
this result may indicate that they do not enjoy playing an instrument because they are attracted to something more
fun than playing it. Additionally, drive, a factor in BAS, was included in the stepwise regression model, suggesting
that people may not enjoy playing musical instruments if they are attracted to other fun things and have a strong
drive to perform them. Fun-seeking was the most decisive predictor in the stepwise regression model of Chinese
adults’ enjoyment in playing musical instruments. In particular, the effect size of fun-seeking on enjoyment in playing
musical instruments was relatively high at .109. This study suggests that individuals' tendencies to seek fun should
be considered educationally or therapeutically when teaching or utilizing musical instruments. For example, teaching
children or adolescents with high fun seeking to play musical instruments or music therapy using musical instruments
for individuals with high fun seeking may be ineffective.

Self-efficacy and Enjoyment of Playing Instruments

Contrary to this hypothesis, in this study, general self-efficacy was not significantly correlated with enjoyment of
playing musical instruments among Chinese adults. In other words, general self-efficacy did not affect enjoyment
of playing musical instruments. This study suggests that to consider an individual’s self-efficacy is unnecessary
when teaching musical instruments or applying them to music therapy using instrument playing. However, these
implications are limited to general self-efficacy, and the efficacy of playing musical instruments may differ. Thus,
it is necessary to explore the relationship between the efficacy of playing musical instruments and enjoyment of
playing musical instruments in the future.

Hardiness and Enjoyment of Playing Instruments

In this study, the hardier the Chinese adults were, the more they enjoyed playing musical instruments. In particular,
self-directedness was included in both the stepwise regression and the decision-tree models to predict Chinese
adults' enjoyment of playing musical instruments. The more self-directed the Chinese adults were, the more they
enjoyed musical instruments. Self-directed learning is important for adults' music learning (Leahy & Smith, 2021).
This study suggests that self-directed tendencies may be decisive for adults' enjoyment of playing musical
instruments. This study demonstrates that teaching self-directed adults how to play musical instruments or
providing music therapy in playing musical instrument can be more effective.
The Decision-Tree Model for Enjoyment of Playing Instruments

Additionally, in the decision-tree model, whether Chinese adults enjoyed music classes during childhood was the
most decisive predictor of enjoyment of playing musical instruments. The importance of music education from
childhood has been emphasized, and many musicians have stated that they enjoyed music classes from childhood
(Smith, 2008), revealing that adults who enjoyed music classes from early ages were more likely to enjoy musical
instruments in adulthood. Family also plays an important role in adults' enjoyment of playing musical instruments.
It is known that the family plays an important role in music learning, including learning to play a musical
instrument (Bachowska, 2021; Zdzinski, 2021), the study found that adults who have grown up in a family that
enjoy music or playing musical instruments with their families may enjoy playing musical instruments. In this
study, the younger the age, the more likely they were to enjoy musical instruments, which may be related to the
characteristics of the participants. Therefore, this needs to be reconfirmed in further studies.

Limitations of the Study

This study has some limitations in interpreting and concluding its findings. First, those who participated in the
online survey were not representative of all Chinese adults. However, as the survey was conducted online, the
limitations of specific regions were overcome. Second, this study assumed and discussed cause-and-effect
relationships between variables based on previous studies and logical soundness, which cannot be concluded
based on the results of a correlational study without conducting experimental studies. Third, although decision-
tree analysis has various advantages over other parametric inferential statistical analyses, there are limitations in
using SPSS. Despite these limitations, this study may stimulate further research on the enjoyment of playing
musical instruments and provide useful information and knowledge for musical education and interventions with
music therapy using musical instrument playing.

Conclusions
This study found that extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, BAS, BIS, and hardiness were significantly
correlated with the enjoyment of playing musical instruments among Chinese adults. Additionally, fun-seeking,
agreeableness, openness, and self-directedness were notable predictors of adult’ enjoyment of playing musical
instruments. In the decision-tree model, enjoyment of music classes in childhood, self-directedness, age, experience
playing musical instruments with family, growing up in a family that enjoys music, agreeableness, and
extraversion were predictors of the enjoyment of playing musical instruments among Chinese adults. These findings
suggest that to increase the effectiveness of music lessons for playing instruments or music therapy using
instruments, music educators and music therapists should focus on people’s preferences for music in childhood,
the family atmosphere related to playing musical instruments, as well as their self-directedness and fun seeking
tendencies.
Acknowledgement
The datasets used and/or analyzed in this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request. The authors declare that this study was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial
relationships that could be construed as potential conflicts of interest.

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