Exhibition Design that Provides High Value

and Engages Visitor Attention

by Stephen Bitgood

A
Stephen Bitgood is Professor ttention and value are at the core characteristics of attention for visitors
Emeritus of Psychology at of the visitor experience. Visitors include depth of processing, limited
Jacksonville State University. are more likely to pay attention capacity, selectiveness, and visual search.
He may be contacted at
to exhibition and program content if they
steveb@[Link].
perceive high value in the encounter. The Depth of mental processing: Depth of
current article describes a visitor model concentration can vary from broad,
If you would like to comment on that offers a set of design principles to unfocused, shallow mental processing
this article or others in this issue, capture and engage attention and to to narrow, highly focused and effortful,
please go to the NAME page on provide high value to visitor experiences. deep processing. In museums, think of
Facebook or send us a tweet The attention-value model (Bitgood, attention as a three-stage continuum:
@NAMExhibitions. 2010; 2011; 2013) applies current
psychological and economic theories to • Capture stage: attention is broad,
the findings of over 80 years of visitor and not narrowly focused on one
studies(e.g. Bitgood, 2000; 2002; 2011; thing, similar to “window shopping.”
Loomis, 1987; Melton, 1935; Robinson, In this stage, visitors respond in
1928; Screven, 1992; 1999; Serrell, 1998; two ways: goal-directed (looking for
Shettel, 1968). something of interest) and stimulus-
directed (responding to powerful
In this article, attention refers to both sensory attractors such as large
psychological processes such as visual objects, loud noises or movement).
search and depth of cognitive processing,
and measures or indicators of these • Focus stage: attention is briefly
processes such as approaching exhibits, narrowed and focused on an object
stopping to view exhibits, viewing time, or element of potential interest.
reading interpretive text. Value is defined During this stage the individual
in terms of behavioral economics: a ratio assesses whether an exhibit
of benefit divided by costs. In economic component (e.g., object, text panel)
terms, the satisfaction from “consuming” deserves the time and effort required
exhibits is balanced by the cost or for engagement.
investment in terms of money, time,
and effort. • Engagement stage: attention is deeply
focused with effortful processing
The Attention-Value Model of exhibit content. Visitors need to
The attention-value model argues that deeply engage if they are to learn,
the concepts of attention and value are but engaging visitors is more difficult
of fundamental importance to the to achieve than capturing and
visitor experience. focusing of attention because more
time and effort are required.
The characteristics of attention
The varied processes of attention are Limited capacity: Because of the
complex and of critical importance to limitations of attention, attempting to
the museum experience. Visitors must carry out two or more meaningful tasks at
engage their attention for any meaningful the same time is usually unsuccessful (e.g.,
experience to occur. The most relevant attempting to way-find and learn exhibit

EXHIBITIONIST SPRING '14

A three-dimensional object on the text panel is more likely capture visitor attention than a panel without
the object. Photo courtesy of Stephen Bitgood.

content) or even dangerous (e.g., texting to result in a more complete viewing

while driving). Capacity is also limited of exhibit components. Simultaneous
in that there are only a few items that search involves looking at the total
can be mentally processed at one time. complex of elements and waiting
Too often, visitors are overloaded with for something salient to “pop out” of
more information than they can the complex. Simultaneous processing
mentally process. is more stimulus driven and is likely
to result in the examination of fewer The attention-
Selectiveness: Visitors do not pay attention exhibit components and only partial
to all the objects and interpretive material understanding of the interpretive
value model
in exhibitions. Visitors generally select messages. argues that the
or choose to give attention to exhibit
components that both capture and have • Hierarchy of search: Three- concepts of
the potential to deliver a satisfying dimensional objects attract attention attention and
experience with minimal investment of first; second, concrete images such
time and effort. as photos or illustrations; and finally, value are of
visitors look for interpretive text fundamental
Visual search: Viewing exhibitions to complement the concrete, three-
requires shifting attention from one dimensional objects. importance
exhibit element to another in some sort
of order. Visual search problems in • Gestalt/perceptual principles also
to the visitor
exhibition settings are compounded by play a role in visual search. Items experience.
movement through the environment so that are closer together are more likely
that the visual landscape is continually to be viewed in sequence than items
changing. Visual search is influenced by: that are spaced far apart. Familiar-
shaped objects are more likely to
• Type of search (sequential versus attract attention than unfamiliar ones.
simultaneous): Sequential processing
examines one exhibit element after • Learned habits (e.g., reading): At least
another in an orderly pattern; it is in our culture, people read four blocks
usually more goal-driven and likely of text in the following sequence:
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Visitors rarely engage with this panel because it requires too much time and effort to decode and process. Photo courtesy of Stephen Bitgood.

(continued from page 7)

Upper left, lower left, upper right, number of words in a text panel, place
lower right. If the sequence of reading the interpretation panel closer to the
different blocks of interpretive text is object it describes) than to increase the
important, then the blocks need to utility (e.g., find higher interest content/
Visitors generally be sequenced in a way that conforms objects, develop more provocative
to reading habits. exhibit elements).
select or choose
Value as a Motivational Force • The available-alternative theorem
to give attention Value, defined as a benefit-cost ratio, suggests that the decision of what to
to exhibit emphasizes that we must consider both give attention depends upon the choices
the payoff obtained when a choice is available at any moment. When given
components made and the cost incurred by the choice. a choice, visitors engage with exhibit
that both Behavioral economic approaches (e.g., components that are perceived as higher
temporal discounting, optimal foraging value than the alternatives available.
capture and have theory) use a value ratio to explain how
the potential individuals use this combination of benefit • Value is relative, not absolute. Choice
and cost to make choices (e.g., Bitgood, depends upon the relative value of
to deliver 2011b; 2011c). When value and attention alternatives, not on the absolute value of
are combined into a ratio of benefit/ any alternative. A high quality-long text
a satisfying cost and applied to museums, several label may not fare well when competing
experience important implications are revealed with a medium quality-short text label
(Bitgood, 2011a; 2013a): (Bitgood, 2011c). On the other hand, a
with minimal medium quality-long text label may lose
investment of • The value ratio: Attempting to improve the battle against a low-quality-short
only the benefits (e.g., select high text label.
time and effort. interest content, use provocative design)
is likely to fail if the cost of time and Selected Exhibition Design Principles
effort is too high. In this section design principles are
organized according to the concepts of
• The small-cost theorem: It is generally the attention-value model. Note that
easier to reduce cost (e.g., decrease the visitor evaluation of exhibitions and
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The tubes act as focusing devices by directing visitor attention to relevant objects (e.g., bird’s nest). Photo courtesy of
Stephen Bitgood.

programs is the only way to ensure • Line-of-sight placement: Place References:

that the principles are being applied exhibit elements so that they fall Bitgood, S. (2000). The role of
attention in the design of effective
and working effectively. Each stage of easily within a visitor’s line of sight interpretive labels. Journal of
attention has a unique set of variables as they move through the exhibition Interpretation Research, 5(2),
that influence attention and a unique set spaces. 31-45.
of measures or indicators of attention.
In addition, some of the variables appear • Visual search sequence: Make the Bitgood, S. (2002). Environmental
psychology in museums, zoos,
in more than one attention stage. [See intended search sequence obvious and other exhibition centers. In
Bitgood (2010; 2011; 2013) for a more to the visitor by the layout of exhibit R. Bechtel & A. Churchman (eds.)
detailed description of the attention-value elements and by explicit cues (e.g., Handbook of environmental
model, the evidence for it, and design numbering, layout of components). psychology (pp.461-480). New
principles that follow from it.] York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

• Powerful distractors: Minimize Bitgood, S. (2010). An attention-

The Attention Capture Stage competing sights and sounds from value model of museum visitors.
The most important factors associated powerful attractors. Once you loose Center for the Advancement of
with attracting power (how attention is the visitor’s attention, it’s difficult to Informal Science Education.
get it back to an exhibit component. Washington: ASTC.
captured) include:
Eliminate overly powerful signs Bitgood, S. (2011a). Social design
• Isolation: To obtain the maximum and sounds that demand too much in museums: The psychology of
attention, visually isolate an exhibit attention. visitor studies, (Vols. 1 and 2).
object, display or component from Edinburg, UK: MuseumsEtc.

others. The fewer alternatives • Contrast with background: Ensure

Bitgood, S. (2011b). The concept
available to compete, the more that an exhibit component “stands of value ratio and its role in
likely an object or exhibit element out” from the background rather visitor attention. In Social design
will receive attention. than blends into it. in museums: The psychology of
visitor studies (Vol. 1, pp.284-
• Visual competition: Minimize visual 295). Edinburg, UK: MuseumsEtc
• Relative size: Scale objects, relative
to the surrounding objects—the competition among exhibit elements
larger the object relative to others, by: minimizing the number of
the more likely it will attract elements visually available at any
attention. moment; designing the elements so
that elements do not complete with
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 To appreciate the way attention and value work together it is
necessary to have sufficient knowledge of the visitor studies
literature and of how the concepts of attention and value are
applied to museum settings.

(continued from page 9) one another (spacing, position of that facilitate focusing. If attention is
elements, and/or sequencing cues focused on an exhibit element, and
References continued: such as numbers). if it promises high value, visitors are
Bitgood, S. (2011c). Behavioral
more likely to engage.
economics and the value ratio in
visitor studies. In Social design
• Object satiation: Reduce object
in museums: The psychology satiation by designing variety in The Attention Engagement Stage
of visitor studies (Vol. 1, pp. content of exhibit elements. Engaged attention requires narrow
270-283). Edinburg, UK: Displaying multiple objects similar in focusing, as well as deeper and effortful
MuseumsEtc.
nature (e.g., sea shells, pottery, mental processing. Visitors are reluctant
Bitgood, S. (2013a). Attention
snakes) hastens the onset of satiation. to commit the time and effort required
and value: Keys to understanding unless the promise of a sufficient payoff
museum visitors. Walnut Creek, • Fatigue: Minimize mental and is there. Reading text for longer than 10
CA: Left Coast Press. physical fatigue by designing seconds is perhaps one of the better signs
interesting exhibits, by encouraging of engaged attention since reading requires
Bitgood, S. (2013b). Value as
a combination of quality and
breaks during long viewing, deeper mental processing than passively
duration. In Attention and value: by keeping the mental effort to a viewing an object.
Keys to understanding museum minimum during viewing, and by
visitors (pp.77-82). Walnut providing good navigation so that • Value: Design for a high value
Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
visitors do not waste their time and ratio—the cost (time, effort) is at
Bitgood, S. (2013c). How value
energy trying to find their way. least as important as the perceived
influences choice of text. In benefits.
Attention and value: Keys to The Attention Focus Stage
understanding museum visitors When visitors begin to narrow their • Interest level: Select exhibit topics
(pp.83-91). Walnut Creek, CA:
attention to a particular exhibit element, and objects with high visitor interest.
Left Coast Press.
they appear to spend a few seconds
Bitgood, S. (2013d). Visitor assessing the potential value of engaging • Stimulate: Use provocative content
navigation and attention. their attention. The exhibit element must and design (ask questions, confront
(Chapter 15). In Attention and promise a good value ratio for the visitor, misconceptions, use catchy
Value: Keys to Understanding
otherwise attention will not get past the descriptive titles).
Museum Visitors (pp.166-175).
Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast focus stage. The most important principles
Press. are: • Mental effort: Minimize the mental
effort required to process the content
Bitgood, S. (2013e). Some guiding • Isolation: Visitors are more likely to (e.g., bullet main points rather than
principles for exhibitions. In
focus on an object that is isolated paragraph, eliminate unnecessary
Attention and Value: Keys to
Understanding Museum Visitors from others. verbiage).
(pp.176-183). Walnut Creek, CA:
Left Coast Press. • Focusing devices: Visitors can be • Prompting: Prompt engaged attention
encouraged to focus on an exhibit by instructing visitors on what
element by spot lighting, by raising to look at or what to do, and
the object above other objects in an by providing supplementary cues
exhibit case, or by placing the object (questions that prompt visitors to
so that it is at the center of the visual look for answers). [In Section Three
space. Magnifying an object is of my Attention and Value… book
another of the many techniques (Bitgood, 2013), I describe a series of

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 References continued:
Bitgood, S. (2013f). Appendix B:
Checklist for managing visitor
attention. In Attention and value:
keys to understanding museum
visitors (pp.176-183). Walnut
Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.

Loomis, R. (1987). Museum

visitor evaluation: New tools
for management. Nashville,TN:
AASLH.

Melton, A. (1935). Problems of

installation in museums of art.
New Series No. 14.
Washington, DC: American
Association of Museums.

Rounds, J. (2004). Strategies for

the curiosity-driven museum
visitor. Curator, 47(4), 389-410.

Screven, C. (1992). Motivating

visitors to read labels. ILVS
This introductory panel requires low cost in terms of time and effort since it tells visitors
Review: A Journal of Visitor
what there is to see and do in a few brief statements. Photo courtesy of Stephen Bitgood.
Behavior, 2(2), 183-211.

Screven, C. (1999). Information

studies that used prompting to Summary design in informal settings:
increase engaged attention.] The concepts of attention and value Museums and other public
pervade all aspects of the museum places. In Information design,
• Sensory distractions: Minimize experience. The key to effective design is R. Jacobson (ed.) (pp.131-192).
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
strong, competing attractors. Loud to understand and manage attention as
noises, sudden movements, and well as provide a high value ratio to the Serrell, B. (1998). Paying
flashes of light demand attention visitor. To appreciate the way attention attention: Visitors and museum
and only serve to distract visitors and value work together it is necessary to exhibitions. Washington,
from meaningful engagement with have sufficient knowledge of the visitor DC: American Association of
Museums.
exhibit content. studies literature and of how the concepts
of attention and value are applied to Shettel, H., Butcher, M., Cotton,
• Social engagement: Encourage museum settings. The limitations of space T., Northrup, J., & Slough, D.
group interaction and discussion. in this article do not do justice: to the (1968). Strategies for determining
Since most visitors come in groups, evidence that supports the attention-value exhibit effectiveness. Report
AIR-E95/68 -FR. Pittsburgh:
and since visiting is very often a model, to the details of the model, or to
American Institutes for Research.
social experience, engagement can how the model can be effectively applied
be increased if group members to museums. Additional material can be
discuss exhibit content together. found in several sources (Bitgood, 2010;
2011a; 2013b; 2013c; 2013d).

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