Welcome!

AP/IB Chemistry Foundation (G11)

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Find Your Lesson
materials
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• Notetaking is essential!
Notetaking Tips for this Course

• Don’t just copy everything down, add your own

comments.
• Write down all definitions clearly
• Pay attention to methods, steps, properties, formulae,
theorems, rules, etc.
• Be sure to write down a few good examples for each
type of question.
• Always review your notes carefully before doing
homework
• Before the next class, check your homework mark,
review your notes again, and come to class with
questions.
An Example of Good Notes (for math/science)
Complete Your Homework
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Absence and Recording Request
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And now! Let’s get started!
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• Don’t be afraid to ask questions
Introduction to Chemistry
& Atomic Theory
Structure of Atom
Structure of an Atom
• Elements make up all matter, and atoms are the smallest particle of
an element.
• Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Element notation
• Atomic number (Z) - Number of protons in
nucleus (and electrons if it is a neutral atom)
• Atomic symbol (X) - Capital letter, if there is a
2nd letter it is lowercase
• Atomic mass (A) - Relative mass compared to
carbon 12

Isotopes have same number of protons, different

number of neutrons
Concept Check

23
11 Na
Sodium
Atom
Concept Check

23
11 Na
Sodium
Atom
Concept Check
Ions
• The atom is made up of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus and electrons orbiting around it.
• ONLY electrons can be added or subtracted from an
atom
• When this occurs the atom becomes an ion
➢ Loses electrons (metal) = cation (+) because less
negative
➢Gains electrons (non-metal) = anion (-) because
more negative
Average Atomic
Mass
Atomic Masses
• Why are atomic masses not whole numbers? Why do they contain
decimals?
 Isotopes
Atoms of the same element can have different
numbers of neutrons. For example, some Carbon
atoms have 6 neutrons, some carbon atoms have 8
neutrons.

Atoms of the same element that have differing C-12 C-14

numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.
6 protons 6
6 neutrons 8
Note: Isotopes of an element will always have the same number of 6 electrons 6
protons but differing masses due to the differing numbers of
neutrons.
Concept Check
Concept Check
Concept Check
Isotopes
• Periodic table states Average Atomic Masses, which take into account
relative mass of isotopes of each element, as well as relative
abundance (how much)

Symbol Isotope Protons Neutrons Electrons Abundance

35Cl Chlorine-35 17 18 17 75.77%

37Cl Chlorine-37 17 20 17 24.23%

Calculating Average Atomic Mass
• When calculating average atomic mass, the fraction of each isotope
must be determined
• Typically, we are given abundance in a percentage. So we need to
convert to a decimal before using it to calculate atomic mass

AM Average = ( AM1 )(abundance1 ) + ( AM 2 )(abundance2 ) + ......

*AM represents atomic mass*

Practice
Calculate the average atomic mass for iron
Iron-54 Iron-56 Iron-57 Iron-58
Percent 5.82% 91.66% 2.19% 0.33%
Abundance
Practice
Calculate the average atomic mass of natural carbon using the following values
for relative atomic mass and abundance of each of its isotopes:
Isotope Relative Atomic Mass Abundance (%)
C-12 12 98.89
C-13 13.003 1.11
Practice
 Practice
Titanium has three common isotopes: 46Ti, 47Ti, 50Ti (45.3%). If the average
atomic mass of titanium is 47.90 amu, what are the percent abundance of
Ti-46 and Ti-47?
 Practice
Strontium consists of three isotopes with masses of 86, 87, and 88
(abundance of 72.6%). If the average atomic mass of strontium is 87.62
amu, what are the abundances of Sr-86 and Sr-87?
Mass Spectrometry
Mass Spectroscopy
• What is the purpose of mass spectroscopy?
• To determine the elemental composition of a sample
• The mases of particles and molecules
• To identify unknown compounds by determining masses and matching to
a known spectrum
Mass
Spectroscopy
Recall:
• Atomic mass = protons and
neutrons
• Elements occur in nature as
a mixture of isotopes
• Isotopes are two or more
atoms with the same
number of protons and
electrons but a different
number of neutrons
• Note the number of
neutrons does NOT affect
an element’s reactivity!
Practice
Mass
Evaluate:
Spectroscopy
• How many isotopes are
shown in the graph to
the right?

• Predict which element is

shown in the graph to
the right.
Practice
Practice
• How many isotopes does
zirconium have according to
the graph?
• How many neutrons does Zr-92
have?
• Estimate the average atomic
mass for zirconium
Quantum Numbers
Maximum number of electrons
Maximum number of electrons = 2(n2)
 Shells, sub-shells & orbitals
• Electrons are arranged in
electrons shells (energy levels).

• The shells have sub-shells (sub-

levels).

• Each shell/sub-shell is made up

of electron orbitals which can
each hold 2 electrons.
Orbitals
• Each orbital can hold 2 electrons with opposite spins (one
electron spins clockwise and one anticlockwise).
• Orbitals are regions of space that electrons are most likely
to be in.
Each number is an energy level, and
each letter represents a subshell.

Each box is an orbital that exists within

each subshell.

S subshells contain one orbital, p

contain 3 and d contain 5 orbitals.
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
Values: Positive integers (1, 2, 3, ...)

Significance: Indicates the main energy level or shell of an

electron
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
Values: Integers ranging from 0 to n−1 for a given n

Significance: Describes the shape of the orbital. Each value of l

corresponds to a different type of orbital:
l = 0: S orbital (Spherical shape)
l = 1: p orbital (Dumbbell shape)
l = 2: d orbital (Cloverleaf shape)
l = 3: f orbital (Complex shape)
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
Values: Integers ranging from –l to +l, including zero
Significance: Describes the orientation of the orbital in
space relative to the other orbitals.
For each type of orbital (s, p, d, f), there are different
numbers of possible orientations:

For l = 0 (s orbital), ml = 0
For l = 1 (p orbital), ml = -1, 0, +1
For l = 2 (d orbital), ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
For l = 3 (f orbital), ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
4. Spin Quantum Number (ms)
Values: +1/2 or -1/2

Significance: Describes the intrinsic spin of the electron.

The spin quantum number determines the direction of the
electron's spin (up or down).
Practice
Practice
Hund’s Rule
Electrons prefer to occupy orbitals on their own, and only pair up
when no empty orbitals of the same energy are available .
Aufbau Principle
Electrons enter the lowest energy orbital available.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
• An orbital(or a box in an electron orbital notation) can hold a
maximum of two electrons, and they must have opposite spin
Concept Check
Concept Check
Concept Check
The highlighted elements below are in the ___.

A s block
B d block
C p block
D f block
E I need help
Concept Check
An unknown element has an electron configuration
2
ending in s . It is most likely in which group?

A Alkaline Earth Metals

B Halogens
C Alkali Metals
D Transition Metals
E I need help
Concept Check
2 6
The electron configuration ending ns p belongs in which
group of the periodic table?

A Alkali Metals
B Alkaline Earth Metals
C Halogens
D Noble Gases
E I need help
Exam question
4) Rb+1 ___________________________________________________

5) arsenic ___________________________________________________

7) magnesium ___________________________________________________

8) nitrogen ___________________________________________________

9) Sr2+ ___________________________________________________