Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Overview of translation

2.1.1 Definition of translation
According to Khairoulline (2012), translation is a complex process that involves
transferring meaning from one language to another. It may be addressed in both narrow
and general ways. The fundamental goal of translation is to properly preserve the original
meaning while transforming written material from a source language into a similar text in
the target language (Alaudinova, 2024). The process of transferring a text's meaning from
the source language to the target language, with a focus on guaranteeing meaning
equivalency between the two, is known as translation (Nugroho, 2007). The topics
covered by translation theory include processes, strategies, methods, tactics, and
transformations. These all assist the translator in managing language and cultural
variations to create a good translation (Iordan, 2021).
2.1.2 History of translation
Cross-cultural communication relies heavily on translation, which has a long and
changing history. Three crucial phases in this development are identified by Ahmed
Mohamed Lemine (2023): the translation of religious texts, translation after writing, and
oral translation. He focuses especially on the enduring value of oral translation, which
has influenced several historical traditions.

Venuti (2005) also highlights how translation processes evolve throughout time and how
they are always impacted by the cultural norms and discourses of their respective eras. In
a similar spirit, Anthony Pym (1998) contends that knowing the history of translation is
essential to appreciating the significance of research and the interdependence and
interconnectedness of different translation studies facets.

By combining these viewpoints, we can see that translation is profoundly influenced by

cultural and historical circumstances and goes beyond just translating words across
languages. Gaining insight into its development enables us to recognize the wider
relevance of translation as well as how it functions.
2.1.3 The importance of translation in English language learning
Translation plays a vital role in improving students' language skills and is an effective
teaching method that supports various aspects of language learning. According to
Mukherjee (2019) and Dagilienė (2012), translation helps fill gaps in vocabulary, refine
writing and speaking styles, and support first-generation English learners in grasping key
concepts. It also aids in retaining and remembering new words (Gari, 2020).

In addition to vocabulary, translation helps strengthen grammar skills by correcting

common mistakes and encouraging learners to notice lexical and structural differences
between languages. This deeper understanding of grammar and structure improves both
spoken and written communication (Mukherjee, 2019; Dagilienė, 2012). As Liao (2016)
points out, translation helps students not just understand a foreign language but also
retain and use it effectively in conversation.
Furthermore, for translation-based teaching to be successful, it requires the right
approach selecting appropriate materials, designing effective exercises, and providing
timely feedback. Fei Ye (2023) highlights that these strategies are key in enhancing
students' cross-cultural communication skills and overall English proficiency. Integrating
translation into English teaching offers a richer learning experience for students,
especially in Asian contexts, where strong English communication skills are becoming
increasingly important (Zhao, 2015; Medvedev, 2016).

In conclusion, when used thoughtfully, translation is a powerful tool for language

learning. It not only boosts students' language skills but also helps them develop a deeper
understanding of cultural nuances, making it an essential part of English language
education.

2.2 Required knowledge and skills for doing translation

2.2.1 High proficiency in the language
The importance of language proficiency in translation cannot be overstated. To produce
accurate and high-quality translations, translators need advanced language skills in both
the source and target languages. Cao (1996) argues that translators should have
university-level competence in both languages to ensure their translations are both
accurate and fluent. Studies show that language proficiency influences how translators
approach their work and how they evaluate the quality of their translations. For example,
Yulita (2021) found that more proficient learners tend to use fewer strategies to improve
their language skills, as they already have a solid understanding of the language. Huang
et al. (2017) also found that high-proficiency bilinguals are better at integrating discourse
information and tend to rate free translations higher. This suggests that advanced
language skills not only help produce better translations but also improve the overall
translation process.

However, being bilingual alone is not enough to be a successful translator. According to

Megaptche and Xu (2021), knowledge of the subject matter and formal training in
translation are also essential. This highlights that translation requires more than just
linguistic ability it demands specialized knowledge in the field being translated.

Ultimately, these findings emphasize the importance of high-level language skills in

translation. A translator’s ability to understand both languages deeply plays a crucial role
in producing accurate and effective translations, as well as in evaluating their own work.

2.2.2 Comprehensive cultural understanding

Cultural translation involves more than just converting words from one language to
another; it also includes a deeper understanding of the social and cultural contexts
involved. Maitland (2017) points out that translating effectively requires not only a good
grasp of the language but also an appreciation for different cultures. This is especially
important in our increasingly globalized world, where cultural sensitivity can make all
the difference in how a message is received.

To ensure accurate translations, it’s helpful for translators to engage in intercultural

exchange programs and interact directly with native speakers (Wang et al., 2024). These
encounters provide translators with insightful knowledge of cultural nuances, enabling
them to comprehend how particular terms or ideas could be understood in various
settings. By becoming more culturally aware, translators are better equipped to navigate
the complexities of language and deliver translations that are both accurate and culturally
relevant.

The role of culture in translation is critical, as translators often act as cultural

intermediaries. As Nagodawithana (2020) explains, translators must balance the meaning
of the original text with the cultural nuances of the target language. Zuo (2024) highlights
that achieving a successful translation requires finding a natural way to blend the source
text with the cultural context of the target language.

In the end, translation is not just about knowing two languages; it’s about understanding
the cultural context behind the words. Al-Sofi and Abouabdulqader (2019) argue that
translation programs should prioritize cultural competence alongside language
proficiency to ensure translators can accurately convey the intended message. Without
this deeper understanding, even the best bilingual skills may fall short.

Finally, translation can help develop intercultural competence in language learners,

though, as Olk (2009) notes, gaps in cultural knowledge can hinder their ability to
translate effectively. This shows why cultural education should be a central part of
language learning, helping students perform better in translation tasks.

2.2.3 Text analysis skills

Effective translation is a detailed process that involves several stages, including pre-
translation, the translation itself, and post-translation (Onyshchak et al., 2023). At each
stage, it’s crucial to examine both the text itself and the broader context to fully
understand the linguistic features and communicative goals of the source material
(Gasparyan, 2020). By diving into these aspects, translators can get a clearer picture of
the meaning, context, and intent behind the text, ensuring that the translation remains
accurate and culturally sensitive.

Building strong analytical skills is key for translators. These skills help them assess their
work critically, adapt to different writing styles, and consistently deliver high-quality
translations. Onyshchak et al. (2023) highlight that such skills allow translators to catch
subtle nuances, make thoughtful decisions, and elevate the overall quality of their
translations. Beyond simply ensuring linguistic accuracy, they also play a crucial role in
preserving the tone, style, and underlying message of the original text.
Incorporating this kind of analysis into translator training is essential for preparing future
professionals to meet the challenges of intercultural communication in a globalized
world. When translation programs emphasize these analytical skills, they give students
the tools they need to tackle translation tasks effectively (Onyshchak et al., 2023;
Seresová & Breveníková, 2019). This method equips students to evaluate texts more
critically, identify cultural references, and navigate the complexities of translating across
cultures and languages.

Additionally, this approach is invaluable in improving the translation abilities of college

students. Zhang Xiao-man (2008) explains that it helps students deepen their
understanding of the text, master translation techniques, and avoid common mistakes. It
also sharpens their ability to use English more flexibly in cross-cultural communication,
which prepares them to engage more effectively in global discussions.

By integrating analytical methods into translation education, we don’t just improve

translation accuracy—we also prepare translators to navigate the challenges of
intercultural communication. As these skills are refined, translators become better
equipped to ensure clearer and more effective communication in an interconnected world.
2.2.4 Use of translation strategies
Research into translation strategies highlights their vital role in improving both
translation skills and overall quality. Studies have shown that students use a variety of
strategies when translating, with the most common being the use of general terms,
paraphrasing, and cultural substitution (Junining & Kusuma, 2020). These techniques
allow students to tackle challenges more effectively and ensure their translations are more
adaptable to the context.

Self-regulation strategies have been particularly useful in enhancing students’ translation

abilities and their attitudes toward the translation process. As Hassan Barakat (2024)
points out, when students actively manage and adjust their translation approaches, they
become more confident and skilled. This self-awareness helps them engage more deeply
with the text and the translation process.

Teaching translation strategies in courses is essential for developing competent

translators. Using taxonomies like Baker's has been shown to improve translation
accuracy and overall quality. These frameworks help students better understand the
translation process and also provide a space for discussing theoretical issues within a
practical context (Aguado-Giménez & Pérez-Paredes, 2005). When translation strategy
instruction is integrated into the curriculum, students gain the tools they need to produce
high-quality translations while also strengthening their understanding of translation
theory.
At its core, a translation strategy is a method that translators use to address challenges in
the translation process. According to Podufalova (2021), it starts with identifying
difficulties and then selecting the most suitable approach to overcome them. This
systematic approach is key to achieving accurate translations.

While translation strategies are essential for language learners, it's important that they are
used carefully and appropriately depending on the skill level and competence of the
translator. Adil (2020) emphasizes that selecting the right strategy at the right moment is
crucial for improving communication through translation. Novice translators, for
example, often benefit from structural and semantic strategies, which help them produce
more polished and contextually accurate translations (Limantoro & Datu, 2021).

Overall, translation strategies are indispensable for developing skilled translators. By

teaching and integrating these strategies into translation education, students can be better
prepared to handle translation challenges, improve their language skills, and produce
translations that are both precise and culturally appropriate.
2.3 Translation teaching and learning in Vietnam
2.3.1 The role of translation in the English Curriculum in Vietnam
Translation plays a key role in teaching English, offering several benefits for learners. It
helps students understand English more deeply by allowing them to compare its
structures with those of their native language. This comparison aids in grasping grammar,
syntax, and vocabulary more effectively (Akpaca, 2024; Mićić, 2008). Through
translation exercises, instructors can identify where students struggle with
comprehension, especially regarding vocabulary and sentence structure, while students
also become more aware of the different genres and structural differences between
languages (Mićić, 2008).

Cook (2010) suggests that translation should be a core part of teaching materials,
curriculum development, and teacher education. Incorporating translation into these areas
creates a more engaging and effective learning experience. It gives students a chance to
approach English in a way that’s connected to their own language, making the learning
process more relatable and comprehensive.

In practice, translation serves multiple purposes in the classroom. Samardali and Ismael
(2017) found that instructors use translation to clarify vocabulary, explain grammar, teach
idiomatic expressions, and help students better understand reading passages. It also
serves as an effective way to check comprehension, allowing students to assess their
grasp of the material and the language itself.

Although there has been some debate about the role of translation in language teaching,
these studies demonstrate its value in a variety of contexts. Translation is particularly
useful for building vocabulary, explaining grammar, and improving reading
comprehension (Cook, 2010; Samardali & Ismael, 2017). It helps students engage with
the language in a deeper way, making it a powerful tool in the classroom.

Translation plays an important and versatile role in the English curriculum. By

integrating it into teaching, educators can offer a richer learning experience that not only
improves language skills but also helps students connect more meaningfully with
English.
2.3.2 Translation training programs in Vietnam’s universities
Research into translation training programs in Vietnam’s universities shows a clear
disconnect between what’s taught in the classroom and what the translation industry
actually needs (Do, 2018; Pham & Tran, 2013). Studies point out that the gap between
professional requirements and the current training methods is significant, making it
harder for graduates to find suitable jobs after finishing their degrees. This suggests a
need for curriculum reform to better prepare students for the workforce and improve their
chances of employment (Do, 2018; Pham & Tran, 2013).

To close this gap, universities need to update their curricula to match industry demands.
This means focusing on the skills and knowledge that are actually required in the real
world, including cultural awareness and understanding of the evolving translation
landscape. It’s also important to consider students' individual needs and the broader
socio-cultural context they’ll work in. By doing so, universities can better prepare
graduates for the global workplace and the fast-changing knowledge economy (Do, 2018;
Pham & Tran, 2013).

Adjusting translation training programs to meet both industry expectations and the
diverse needs of students is crucial. This approach will not only make graduates more
employable but also ensure they’re ready to navigate the challenges of working in a
globalized world.
2.3.3 Challenges in translating from English to Vietnamese
Translating from English to Vietnamese presents a number of challenges, especially for
students. One common struggle is the tendency to rely on literal translations, which often
miss the figurative meanings and cultural subtleties of the original text (Dang Thi Kim
Chung, 2024). This can lead to translations that sound awkward or miss the mark entirely,
as students fail to capture the deeper context and implied meanings behind phrases.

The differences between the two languages—vocabulary, grammar, and sentence

structure—only add to the difficulty (Phan et al., 2021; Trieu Thu Hang, 2022). For
example, Vietnamese and English have different ways of expressing ideas, which means
students often face challenges in maintaining the accuracy of their translations while
keeping the sentences sounding natural in Vietnamese.

Cultural differences also play a big role in translation difficulties. There are many English
expressions and references that don’t have direct equivalents in Vietnamese, which can
lead to misunderstandings or awkward translations (Dang Thi Kim Chung, 2024).
Idiomatic expressions or cultural references in English may not exist in Vietnamese,
requiring students to find ways to express the same idea while preserving its meaning and
cultural relevance.

To help address these issues, experts suggest that translation training programs should
focus not only on linguistic knowledge but also on cultural awareness. Understanding
cultural context and learning to adapt the structure of sentences can make a big difference
in producing accurate translations (Dang Thi Kim Chung, 2024). Using strategies like
paraphrasing or finding Vietnamese idioms with similar meanings can also help
overcome some of these barriers and improve the overall quality of translations (Thu Le
Hoai, 2024).

At Tay Do University, English major juniors face similar difficulties when translating
between Vietnamese and English. They often struggle with vocabulary, grammar, and
cultural aspects, which shows that more comprehensive translation training is needed
(Phan, Nguyen, & Ly, 2021). Trieu Thu Hang (2022) also highlights that these differences
between the two languages require careful attention to both linguistic and cultural
elements in the translation process.

Translating from English to Vietnamese is a complex task that goes beyond simply
knowing the language. It involves overcoming linguistic differences, understanding
cultural contexts, and using the right strategies to ensure the translation is both accurate
and culturally relevant. By focusing on both linguistic skills and cultural awareness in
training, students can become more capable translators, producing work that is both
precise and meaningful.
2.4 Previous studies on difficulties in learning and pratising translation.
2.4.1 Linguistic and cultural barriers
Linguistic and cultural barriers are some of the biggest challenges when it comes to
translation, and they can make effective communication between cultures pretty difficult.
These barriers aren’t just about words; they also involve things like grammar, sentence
structure, and meaning, along with concepts that are deeply rooted in specific cultures
(Imami et al., 2021). For example, idiomatic expressions, cultural references, or ideas
shaped by history might not have a direct equivalent in another language, which
complicates the translation process.

One of the toughest parts of translation is how different languages express things like
identity, lifestyle, and abstract ideas (Imami et al., 2021). It’s not just about translating
words—it’s about understanding the cultural context behind them. Translators have to
capture not only the literal meaning but also the feeling and significance of these
concepts in both cultures, which can be difficult.
To deal with these challenges, translators need more than just a good grasp of the
language—they need cultural awareness. This means understanding the culture behind
both the source and target language and knowing how to adapt the translation so it makes
sense in both contexts (Karachova et al., 2022). When translators are able to do this, they
can create translations that are not only accurate but also culturally relevant and sensitive
to the audience.

As technology advances and global connections grow, the need to bridge linguistic and
cultural gaps becomes even more important. Yurchenko (2023) points out that in our
increasingly interconnected world, it’s crucial for people to understand each other across
language and cultural differences. Translators play a huge role in making that happen,
which is why their ability to understand both languages and cultures deeply is so
important.

While linguistic and cultural barriers in translation can be tough, they’re not
insurmountable. With the right mix of language skills and cultural insight, translators can
help break down these barriers and make communication between cultures smoother,
which is more important than ever in today’s globalized world.
2.4.2 Research on student’s translation performance
Recent research has highlighted several factors that affect students’ translation
performance, both in terms of the tools they use and their internal psychological state.
One important factor is the role of online information seeking. Studies show that students
who are confident in their ability to find useful online resources tend to perform better in
translation tasks, thanks to their higher self-efficacy—that is, their belief in their own
skills (S. Lu et al., 2022). This suggests that encouraging students to build confidence in
using digital tools could help improve their translation outcomes.

But it’s not just about tools—emotional and personality traits also play a big role in how
well students translate. Research by Cifuentes-Férez and Fenollar Cortés (2017) found
that students who are better at managing their emotions and staying calm during the
translation process tend to do better. It seems that being able to suppress negative
emotions helps them stay focused and avoid getting distracted. On the flip side, students
who let their anxiety or frustration show tend to struggle more, likely because those
emotions interfere with their cognitive abilities. This shows just how important emotional
control is for translation, and suggests that teaching students how to handle their
emotions could improve their performance.

When it comes to oral translation exams, a number of factors influence how well EFL
(English as a Foreign Language) students do. For example, the quality of the audio, how
anxious the student feels, their memory, vocabulary gaps, and their listening skills all
play a part in their performance. Nhu Nguyen Yen Ta and T. Nguyen (2024) point out that
students also have certain expectations for a positive testing environment, and being
aware of these can help educators create better conditions for students to perform well.
Taken together, these studies highlight that translation performance is shaped by a mix of
external tools, like online resources, and internal factors, such as emotions and personal
traits. For translation training to be effective, it’s important for educators to focus on both
—teaching students to use digital tools confidently and helping them manage the
psychological aspects of translation. This approach can better prepare students for the
challenges they’ll face, both in exams and in their future careers as translators.
2.5 Chapter Summary
The process of translation is intricate and entails much more than merely translating words
across languages. The goal is to convey meaning properly while accounting for cultural
variances. Every step emphasizes how culture, which is greatly impacted by social and historical
situations, plays a part in translation. When learning a language, translation is crucial for raising
cultural awareness and strengthening vocabulary, grammar, and communication abilities.
Students benefit from being able to adapt words to various cultural situations and comprehend
their deeper meanings. Furthermore, a thorough grasp of the culture and environment in which
the language is spoken is essential for efficient translation; linguistic proficiency alone is not
enough. These obstacles may be addressed and the precision and applicability of translations
increased by employing translation techniques like paraphrase and cultural replacement. All
things considered, translation is a crucial ability for professionals who must cross linguistic and
cultural divides in a world growing more interconnected by the day, as well as for language
learners.