Forging

• It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed between two dies,
using either impact load or hydraulic load (or gradual load) to deform it.

• It is used to make a variety of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace,

and other applications. The components include engine crankshafts, connecting rods,
gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts etc.

• Category based on temperature : cold, warm, hot forging

• Category based on presses:
impact load => forging hammer; gradual pressure => forging press
• Category based on type of forming:
Open die forging, Close die forging (impression die forging, flashless forging)

In open die forging, the work piece is

compressed between two flat plates or dies,
thus allowing the metal to flow without any
restriction in the sideward direction relative to
the die surfaces.
Open die forging
 impression die forging

flashless forging

In impression die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape that is given to the work
piece during compression, thus restricting the metal flow significantly. There is some
extra deformed material outside the die impression which is called as flash. This will
be trimmed off later.

In flashless forging, the work piece is fully restricted within the die and no flash is
produced. The amount of initial work piece used must be controlled accurately so
that it matches the volume of the die cavity.
 Open die forging

A simplest example of open die forging is compression of billet between two flat die
halves which is like compression test. This also known as upsetting or upset forging.
Basically height decreases and diameter increases.
Under ideal conditions, where there is no friction between the billet and die surfaces,
homogeneous deformation occurs. In this, the diameter increases uniformly
throughout its height.
In ideal condition, ε = ln (ho/h). h will be equal to hf at the end of compression, ε will
be maximum for the whole forming. Also F = σf A is used to find the force required for
forging, where σf is the flow stress corresponding to ε at that stage of forming.

Start of compression Partial compression Completed compression

In actual forging operation, the deformation will not be homogeneous as
bulging occurs because of the presence of friction at the die-billet interface.
This friction opposes the movement of billet at the surface. This is called
barreling effect.
The barreling effect will be significant as the diameter-to-height (D/h) ratio of
the workpart increases, due to the greater contact area at the billet–die
interface. Temperature will also affect the barreling phenomenon.

Start of Partial Completed

compression compression compression

In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using, F = Kf σf A by

considering the effect of friction and D/h ratio. Here, 0.4D
K f  1
h
Where Kf = forging shape factor, μ = coefficient of friction, D = work piece diameter, h = work
piece height
 Open-die forging

•It uses slightly contoured dies to help shape the workpiece.

•Workpiece manipulation (e.g., rotation) is often required for the desired
shape.
•Operator skill is crucial for successful forging operations.
•Example: Large square cast ingots are shaped into round cross-sections
in the steel industry.
•Produces rough forms that require further processing for final dimensions.
•Key benefit: Creates favorable grain flow and metallurgical structure.

•Related operations:
•Fullering: Reduces cross-section and redistributes metal using convex dies.
•Edging: Similar to fullering but uses concave dies.
•Cogging: Sequential compressions along a workpiece to reduce cross-section
and increase length, used for producing blooms and slabs.
•Cogging is also known as incremental forging in some cases
Typical load-stroke curve
Effect of D/h ratio on load:
in open die forging
Compression Load

µ2 > µ1
µ2
µ1
µ0

Effect of h/D ratio on barreling: D/h

Long cylinder: h/D >2 Cylinder having h/D < 2 Frictionless compression
With friction
 Closed die forging
Closed die forging called as impression die forging is performed in dies which has the
impression that will be imparted to the work piece through forming.

In the intermediate stage, the initial billet deforms partially giving a bulged shape.
During the die full closure, impression is fully filled with deformed billet and further
moves out of the impression to form flash.

In multi stage operation, separate die cavities are required for shape change. In the
initial stages, uniform distribution of properties and microstructure are seen. In the final
stage, actual shape modification is observed. When drop forging is used, several blows
of the hammer may be required for each step.

Starting stage Intermediate Final stage with

stage flash formation
The formula used for open die forging earlier can be used for closed die
forging, i.e.,
F = Kf σf A
Where F is maximum force in the operation; A is projected area of the part
including flash, σf is flow stress of the material, Kf is forging shape factor.

Now selecting the proper value of flow stress is difficult because the strain
varies throughout the work piece for complex shapes and hence the
strength varies. Sometimes an average strength is used. Kf is used for
taking care of different shapes of parts. Table shows the typical values of Kf
used for force calculation. In hot working, appropriate flow stress at that
temperature is used.

The above equation is applied to find the maximum force during the
operation, since this is the load that will determine the required capacity of
the press used in the forging operation.
Impression die forging is not capable of making close tolerance objects.
Machining is generally required to achieve the accuracies needed. The
basic geometry of the part is obtained from the forging process, with
subsequent machining done on those portions of the part that require
precision finishing like holes, threads etc.

In order to improve the efficiency of closed die forging, precision forging

was developed that can produce forgings with thin sections, more
complex geometries, closer tolerances, and elimination of machining
allowances. In precision forging operations, sometimes machining is fully
eliminated which is called near-net shape forging.
 Flashless forging
The three stages of flashless forging is shown below:

In flashless forging, most important is that the work piece volume

must equal the space in the die cavity within a very close
tolerance.
If the starting billet size is too large, excessive pressures will cause
damage to the die and press.
If the billet size is too small, the cavity will not be filled.

Because of the demands, this process is suitable to make simple and

symmetrical part geometries, and to work materials such as Al, Mg and
their alloys.
Coining is a simple application of closed die forging in which fine details in the
die impression are impressed into the top or/and bottom surfaces of the work
piece.

Though there is little flow of metal in coining, the pressures required to

reproduce the surface details in the die cavity are at par with other impression
forging operations.

Starting of cycle Fully compressed Ram pressure

removed and
ejection of part
Making of coin
 Forging hammers, presses and dies
Hammers:
Hammers operate by applying an impact loading on the work piece. This is
also called as drop hammer, owing to the means of delivering impact energy.
When the upper die strikes the work piece, the
impact energy applied causes the part to take
the form of the die cavity. Sometimes, several
blows of the hammer are required to achieve
the desired change in shape.

Drop hammers are classified as:

Gravity drop hammers, power drop hammers.

Gravity drop hammers - achieve their energy

by the falling weight of a heavy ram. The force
of the blow is dependent on the height of the
drop and the weight of the ram. Drop hammers

Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by

pressurized air or steam.
Presses:
The force is given to the forging billet gradually, and not like impact force.

Mechanical presses: In these presses, the rotating motion of a drive motor

is converted into the translation motion of the ram. They operate by means
of eccentrics, cranks, or knuckle joints. Mechanical presses typically
achieve very high forces at the bottom of the forging stroke.
Hydraulic presses : hydraulically driven piston is used to actuate the ram.
Screw presses : apply force by a screw mechanism that drives the vertical
ram. Both screw drive and hydraulic drive operate at relatively low ram
speeds.
Forging dies:
Parting line: The parting line divides the upper die from the lower die. In other
words, it is the plane where the two die halves meet. The selection of parting
line affects grain flow in the part, required load, and flash formation.

Draft: It is the amount of taper given on the sides of the part required to
remove it from the die.

Draft angles: It is meant for easy removal of part after operation is completed.
3° for Al and Mg parts; 5° to 7° for steel parts.

Webs and ribs: They are thin portions of the forging that is parallel and
perpendicular to the parting line. More difficulty is witnessed in forming the
part as they become thinner.

Fillet and corner radii: Small radii limits the metal flow and increase stresses
on die surfaces during forging.

Flash: The pressure build up because of flash formation is controlled proper

design of gutter and flash land.
 Other forging operations
Upset forging:
It is a deformation operation in which a cylindrical work piece is increased in diameter
with reduction in length. In industry practice, it is done as closed die forging.

Upset forging is widely used in the fastener industries to form heads on nails, bolts,
and similar products.

Gripping of work piece and retracting of stop

Feeding of work piece

Forward movement of Forging operation completes

punch and upsetting
Heading:
The following figure shows variety of heading operations with different die
profiles.

Heading a die using open die forging Round head formed by punch only

Head formed inside die only Bolt head formed by both

die and punch

Long bar stock (work piece) is fed into the machines by horizontal slides, the end of
the stock is upset forged, and the piece is cut to appropriate length to make the
desired product. The maximum length that can be upset in a single blow is three
times the diameter of the initial wire stock.
 Swaging:
Swaging is used to reduce the diameter of a tube or a rod at the end of the
work piece to create a tapered section. In general, this process is conducted
by means of rotating dies that hammer a workpiece in radial direction inward
to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies. A mandrel is required to control the
shape and size of the internal diameter of tubular parts during swaging.
Swaging
Radial forging:
This operation is same as swaging,
except that in radial forging, the dies do
not rotate around the work piece,
instead, the work is rotated as it feeds
into the hammering dies.

Diameter reduction of solid work Tube tapering Swaging to form a groove on

the tube

Swaging with different die profiles

Swaging the edge of a cylinder
R. G
Roll forging:
It is a forming process used to reduce the cross section of a cylindrical or
rectangular rod by passing it through a set of opposing rolls that have matching
grooves w.r.t. the desired shape of the final part. It combines both rolling and
forging, but classified as forging operation.

Depending on the amount of deformation, the rolls rotate partially. Roll-forged

parts are generally stronger and possess desired grain structure compared to
machining that might be used to produce the same part.
Orbital forging:
In this process, forming is imparted to the workpiece by means of a cone-
shaped upper die that is simultaneously rolled and pressed into the work.
The work is supported on a lower die.

Because of the inclined axis of cone, only a small area of the work surface is
compressed at any stage of forming. As the upper die revolves, the area
under compression also revolves. Because of partial deformation contact at
any stage of forming, there is a substantial reduction in press load
requirement.
Isothermal forging:
It is a hot-forging operation in which the work is maintained at some
elevated temperature during forming. The forging dies are also maintained
at the same elevated temperature. By avoiding chill of the work in contact
with the cold die surfaces, the metal flows more readily and the force
requirement is reduced.

The process is expensive than conventional forging and is usually meant for
difficult-to-forge metals, like Ti, superalloys, and for complex part shapes.
The process is done in vacuum or inert atmosphere to avoid rapid oxidation
of the die material.
 Forging in Plane Strain

The primary characteristic of plane strain is that the strain in one dimension is
assumed to be zero, effectively restricting deformation to a single plane.

• “P” is the forging stress.

• 𝜏𝑥𝑦 is frictional shear
stress at the die surface
developed due to ram
travel.
• 𝜎𝑥 is lateral pressure.
• h is height of the plate.
• 2a is the length of the
Figure : Stresses acting on a plate forged in plane strain
plate.
 = 2k
Where 𝜎𝑜 is flow stress and k is yield stress in pure shear.
• Where L= 2a. Eq (9) shows the that as the ratio of length to thickness (L/h), increases,
the resistance to compressive deformation increases rapidly.

Use Eq (6) to
understand
the stress
variation.

Figure 2: Distribution of normal stress and longitudinal stress for compression

between plates.

• In this simple case, the centreline of the plate defines a neutral surface.
• For the vertical downward motion of the ram the metal flow is in the lateral, or
horizontal direction.
• The metal is stationary at the neutral surface, but the flow is outward away from
the neutral surface.
There is another way other than Coulomb’s law to describe the interface shear stress.

The equation expresses the concept of interface friction factor (m) in metal
forming processes. Instead of assuming that the interface shear strength
(τi) is equal to the shear yield stress (k), as in the case of perfect sticking
friction, the interface shear strength is considered to be a fraction of the yield
strength in shear. This fraction is represented by the interface friction factor
m.
Mathematically, it is given by:
m= 𝝉𝒊/k
where:
•m is the interface friction factor
•τi is the interface shear strength
•k is the yield stress in shear
The value of m ranges from 0 to 1, where:
•m=0 represents perfect sliding (no frictional resistance).
•m=1 represents perfect sticking (maximum frictional resistance).
Substituting 𝜏𝑥𝑦=mk into Eq (4)

(10)

(11)
For special case of sticking friction , m=1

(12)

The mean forging pressure is

(13)
• Frictional conditions in metal forming can be intermediate
between full sticking and slipping.
• Sliding friction occurs near the edges (𝑥=𝑎) where the pressure is
lower.
• Moving closer to the neutral surface, the pressure increases.
• At a certain distance 𝑥1 from the centerline, the shear stress
reaches:
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝑘 = 𝜎o/√3 = 𝜎,o /2
• At this point, friction follows Coulomb’s law:
𝜏𝑥𝑦=𝜇𝑝=𝑘=𝜎,o /2
• Using Equation (6), the location of the boundary between slipping
and sticking friction can be determined.

(14)
 Residual Stresses in Forging
• Residual stresses in forgings are usually small due to hot-working.
• Significant residual stresses and warping can occur during
quenching in heat treatment.
Precautions for Cooling Large Steel Forgings
• Risk of Flaking
• Large forgings can develop small cracks (flakes) at the center.
• Caused by high hydrogen content in large steel ingots and
residual stresses.
Preventing Thermal & Transformation Stresses
• Large forgings must be cooled very slowly from the working
temperature.
Methods include:
• Burying in ashes for up to several weeks.
• Controlled cooling treatments (used for railroad rails &
special forgings).
• Automated cooling cycles to gradually lower temperature.
Solution to Flaking
Using vacuum-degassed steel significantly reduces flaking issues.