CE 322 - GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

(SOIL MECHANICS)
C H A P T E R 2 : S O I L F O R M A T I O N –
O R I G I N O F S O I L A N D G R A I N S I Z E
INTRODUCTION
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration of chemical decomposition. When a rock
surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into small particles and thus
the soils are formed.

Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained from the geologic cycle which goes on continuously in nature.
The geologic cycle consists of erosion, transportation, deposition and upheaval of soil as shown in Figure.

If the soil stays at the place of its formation just above the parent rock, it is known as residual soil or sedentary soil. When
the soil has been deposited at a place away from the place of its origin, it is called transported soil.
A. ORIGIN OF SOIL
Residual Soil
The engineering properties of residual soil vary
considerably from the top layer to the bottom layer.
Residual soils have a gradual transition from relatively fine
material near the surface to large fragments of stones at
greater depth. The properties of the bottom layer
resemble that of the parent rock in many aspects. The
thickness of the residual soil formation is generally limited
to a few matters.

Transported Soil
The engineering properties of transported soils are
entirely different from the properties of the rock at the
place of deposition. Deposits of transported soil are quite
thick and are usually uniform. Most of the soil deposits
with which a geotechnical engineer has to deal are
transported soils.
Three types of rocks
A. Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks, as shown, are formed by the solidification
of molten magma ejected from deep within the earth’s
mantle. After ejection by either fissure eruption or volcanic
eruption, some of the molten magma cools on the surface
of the earth. Sometimes magma ceases its mobility below
the earth’s surface and cools to form intrusive igneous
rocks that are called plutons.

B. Sedimentary Rock
The deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay formed by
weathering may become compacted by overburden
pressure and cemented by agents like iron oxide, calcite,
dolomite, and quartz. Cementing agents are generally
carried in solution by groundwater. They fill the spaces
between particles and form a sedimentary rock. Rocks
formed in this way are called detrital sedimentary rocks
as shown in Figure.
Three types of rocks
C. Metamorphic Rock
Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and texture of rocks (without melting) by heat and pressure.
During metamorphism, new minerals are formed, and mineral grains are sheared to give a foliated texture to metamorphic
rock.
Transportation of Soil
(1) Water Transported Soils
Flowing water is one of the most important agents of transportation of soil. Swift running water
carries a large quantity of soil either in suspension or by rolling along the bed. Water erodes the hills
and deposits the soil in the valleys. All types of soil carried and deposited by water are known as
alluvial deposits as shown in Figure 2.5. Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine deposits. Marine
deposits are formed when the flowing water carries soil to the ocean or sea.
Transportation of Soil
(2) Wind Transported Soils
Soil particles are transported by wind. The particle size of the soil depends upon the velocity of wind. The finer
particles are carried far away from the place of the formation. A dust storm gives visual evidence of the soil particles
carried by wind. Soils deposited by wind are known as aeolian deposits.

Large sand dunes Loess plateau

It occurs in arid regions and on These deposits have low density,
the leeward side of sea with high compressibility, low bearing
sandy beaches capacity, and high permeability
Transportation of Soil
(3) Glacier-Deposited Soils
Glaciers are large masses of ice formed by the compaction of snow. Figure 2.8 is the orientation of
glacier deposit soil. As the glaciers grow and move, they carry with them soils varying in size from
fine-grained to huge boulders. Soil gets mixed with the ice and is transported far away from their
origin position. Drift is a general term used for the deposits made by glaciers directly or indirectly.
Deposits directly made by melting glaciers are called till.
Transportation of Soil
(4) Gravity-Deposited Soils
Soil can be transported through short distances under the action of gravity. Rock fragments and soil
masses collected at the foot of the cliffs or steep slopes had fallen from higher elevation under the
action of the gravitational force. Colluvial soils, such as talus, have been deposited by gravity. Talus
consists of irregular, coarse particles. It is a good source of broken rock pieces and coarse-grained
soil for many engineering works.

(5) Soils transported by combined action

Sometimes, two or more agents of transportation act jointly and transport the soil. Example, a soil
particle may fall under gravity and may be carried by wind to a far-off place. It might be picked up
again by flowing water and deposited. A glacier may carry it still further.
B. GRAIN SIZE
Soil Particle Size
Soil has four constituent parts
B. GRAIN SIZE
Gravels are pieces of rocks with occasional particles of
quartz, feldspar, and other minerals.

Sand particles are made of mostly quartz and feldspar

Silts are the microscopic soil fractions that consist of very

fine quartz grains and some flake-shaped particles that are
fragments of micaceous minerals.

Clays are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and

submicroscopic particles of mica, clay minerals, and other
minerals.
B. GRAIN SIZE
Several organizations have developed particle-size classifications as shown in Table 2.1. These includes:
1. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
2. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
3. American association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
4. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Mechanical Analysis of Soil
Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size range of
particles present in a soil, expressed as a percentage of the total dry
weight. There are two methods in determining the particle size
distribution of soil:
1. Sieve Analysis - which is used for particle sizes larger than 0.075
mm in diameter
2. Hydrometer analysis - which is used for particle sizes smaller
than 0.075 mm in diameter
Mechanical Analysis of Soil
Sieve Analysis
This consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have progressively
smaller openings. U.S. standard sieve numbers. Table 2.1 shows the sieve no. with its
corresponding size opening. Figure 2.14 is a set of sieves and soil samples.
Mechanical Analysis of Soil
Hydrometers Analysis
This is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water. When a soil
specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different velocities, depending
on their shape, size, weight, and the viscosity of the water.
Particle-Size Distribution Curve
A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four parameters for a given soil:
1. Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution curve corresponding
to 10% finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity
and drainage through soil.

2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as a ratio of the D60 to D10 as shown in equation

3. Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This parameter is defined as a ratio of the (D30)2 to the product of D60
and D10 as shown in equation 2.2
Particle-Size Distribution Curve
4. Sorting coefficient (S0): This parameter is another measure of uniformity and is generally
encountered in geologic works and expressed as shown in equation 2.3. Figure 2.15 shows the
illustration on how to determine the effective sizes in the graph.
Grading of Soil
Is the distribution of particles of different sizes in a soil mass. The grading can be determined from the particle distribution curve.
1. Curve I represents a type of soil in which most of the soil grains are the same size. This is called poorly graded soil.
2. Curve II represents a soil in which the particle sizes are distributed over a wide range, termed well graded. A well-graded soil
has a uniformity coefficient greater than about 4 for gravels and 6 for sands, and a coefficient of gradation between 1 and 3 (for
gravels and sands). A flat S-curve represents a soil which contains particles of different sizes in good proportion.
3. Curve III represents a soil that might have a combination of two or more uniformly graded fractions. This type of soil is termed
gap graded. A curve with a hump in which some of the intermediate size particles are missing. Figure 2.16 is the illustration of
Curve I, II and III.
Uses of Particle Size Distribution Curve
This curve is extremely useful for coarse-grained soil but has limited application for fine-
grained since the behavior of fine-grained depends upon the plasticity characteristics.
[Link] is used in the classification of coarse-grained soil.
[Link] coefficient of permeability of a coarse-grained soil depends to a large extent on the size
of the particles.
[Link] particle size is used to know the susceptibility of soil to frost action.
[Link] curve is required for the design of drainage filters.
[Link] particle size distribution provides an index to the shear strength of the soil. Well-graded
has high shear strength.
[Link] compressibility can be judged from its particle size distribution curve. A uniform soil is
more compressible than a well-graded soil.
[Link] particle size distribution curve is useful in soil stabilization and for the design of pavement.
[Link] particle size distribution curve may indicate the mode of deposition of a soil.
[Link] particle size distribution curve of a residual soil may indicate the age of the soil deposit.
Particle Shape
The particle shape generally can be divided into three major
categories:
1. Bulky
2. Flaky
3. Needle shaped

1. Bulky Particles
are formed mostly by mechanical weathering of rock and minerals. Geologists use such terms as
angular, subangular, subrounded, and rounded to describe the shapes of bulky particles. The
angularity, A, is defined as shown in equation 2.4.
Particle Shape
2. Flaky Particles
have very low sphericity, usually 0.01 or less. These particles are
predominantly clay minerals.

3. Needle-shaped Particles
are much less common than the other two particle types. Examples of
soils containing needle-shaped particles are some coral deposits and
attapulgite clays.
Example
Problem No.1
From the given sieve analysis results, determine the following
a. D10, D30 and D60 from the grain-size distribution curve
b. Calculate the uniformity coefficient, Cu, and coefficient of gradation, Cc.
Example
Solution:
a. D10, D30 and D60 from the grain-size distribution curve

b. Calculate the uniformity coefficient, Cu, and coefficient

of gradation, Cc.
Example
Problem No. 2
From the given sieve analysis results, determine the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and
clay according to:
a. MIT System
b. USDA System
c. AASHTO System
Example
Solution:

a. MIT System
Passing 2 mm = 100%
Passing 0.06 mm = 95%
Passing 0.002 mm = 42%

Gravel : 0%
Sand : 100% - 95% = 5%
Silt : 95% - 42% = 53%
Clay : 42% -0% = 42%
Example
Solution:

b. USDA System
Passing 2 mm = 100%
Passing 0.05 mm = 94%
Passing 0.002 mm = 42%

Gravel : 0%
Sand : 100% - 94% = 6%
Silt : 94% - 42% = 52%
Clay : 42% -0% = 42%
Example
Solution:

c. AASHTO System
Passing 2 mm = 100%
Passing 0.075 mm = 96%
Passing 0.002 mm = 42%

Gravel : 0%
Sand : 100% - 96% = 4%
Silt : 96% - 42% = 54%
Clay : 42% -0% = 42%
UNIT SUMMARY
In this chapter, the origin of soil and its grain sizes were discussed. Some important
ideas include:
There are three types of rock: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Soil particles are transported through water, wind, glacier, gravity or combined action.
Soil is composed of gravel, sand, silt and clay.
There are two methods in determining the particle size distribution of soil: sieve
analysis and hydrometer test.
A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four
parameters for a given soil: effective size, uniformity coefficient, gradation coefficient,
and sorting coefficient.