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Cambridge Senior Maths Y12 Guide

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115 views393 pages

Cambridge Senior Maths Y12 Guide

Uploaded by

Vaishnav VIPANCHIKA

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i

2J Using transformations to sketch graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

2K Transformations of power functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2L Determining the rule for a function from its graph . . . . . . . 88
Review of Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

3 Polynomial functions
3A Quadratic functions . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
99
100
3B Determining the rule for a parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3C The language of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3D Division and factorisation of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3E The general cubic function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3F Polynomials of higher degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3G Determining the rule for the graph of a polynomial . . . . . . . 138
3H Solution of literal equations and systems of equations . . . . . 145
Review of Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

4 Circular functions
4A Measuring angles in degrees and radians . . . . . . . . . . . .
158
159
4B Defining circular functions: sine, cosine and tangent . . . . . . 161
4C Further symmetry properties and the Pythagorean identity . . . 168
4D Graphs of sine and cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4E Solution of trigonometric equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4F Sketch graphs of y = a sin n(t ± ε) and y = a cos n(t ± ε) . . . . . 181
4G Sketch graphs of y = a sin n(t ± ε) ± b and y = a cos n(t ± ε) ± b . 184
4H Addition of ordinates for circular functions . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4I Determining rules for graphs of circular functions . . . . . . . . 188
4J The tangent function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4K Applications of circular functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Review of Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

5 Exponential and logarithmic functions

5A Exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
211
212
5B The exponential function f (x) = ex . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 218
5C Exponential equations . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 222
5D Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 224
5E Graphing logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5F Determining rules for graphs of exponential and
logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 235
5G Solution of equations using logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5H Exponential growth and decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5I Logarithmic scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Review of Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

6 Revision of Chapters 1–5

6A Short-answer questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
261

6B Multiple-choice questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

6C Extended-response questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

7 Differentiation
7A The derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
276
277
7B Rules for differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7C Differentiating xn where n is a negative integer . . . . . . . . . 293
7D The graph of the derivative function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7E The chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7F Differentiating rational powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
7G Differentiation of ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7H Differentiation of the natural logarithm function . . . . . . . . 312
7I Derivatives of circular functions . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 314
7J The product rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
7K The quotient rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 323
7L Second derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
7M Limits and continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
7N When is a function differentiable? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Review of Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

8 Applications of differentiation
8A Tangents and normals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
344
345
8B Rates of change . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
8C Linear approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
8D Stationary points . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
8E Types of stationary points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
8F Using the second derivative in graph sketching . . . . . . . . . 376
8G Absolute maximum and minimum values . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
8H Maximum and minimum problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
8I Families of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Review of Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

9 Integration
9A The area under a graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
420
421
9B Antidifferentiation: indefinite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
9C The antiderivative of (ax + b)r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
9D The antiderivative of ekx . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 . . . . . . . . .
9E The fundamental theorem of calculus and the
definite integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
9F Finding the area under a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

9G Integration of circular functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

9H Further integration techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
9I The area of a region between two curves . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
9J Applications of integration . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 457
9K The fundamental theorem of calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Review of Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

10 Revision of Chapters 7–9

10A Short-answer questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
478

10B Multiple-choice questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

10C Extended-response questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

11 Discrete random variables and their probability distributions

11A Sample spaces and probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
494
495
11B Conditional probability and independence . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
11C Discrete random variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
11D Expected value (mean), variance and standard deviation . . . . 520
Review of Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

12 The binomial distribution

12A Bernoulli sequences and the binomial probability distribution . . 541
540

12B The graph, expectation and variance of a

binomial distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
12C Finding the sample size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
12D Proofs for the expectation and variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Review of Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

13 Continuous random variables and their probability distributions

13A Continuous random variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
563
564
13B Mean and median for a continuous random variable . . . . . . 576
13C Measures of spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 584
13D Properties of mean and variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
13E Cumulative distribution functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
Review of Chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

14 The normal distribution

14A The normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
602
603
14B Standardisation and the 68–95–99.7% rule . . . . . . . . . . . 609
14C Determining normal probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
14D Solving problems using the normal distribution . . . . . . . . . 620
14E The normal approximation to the binomial distribution . . . . . 625
Review of Chapter 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

15 Sampling and estimation

15A Populations and samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
634
635
15B The exact distribution of the sample proportion . . . . . . . . . 642
15C Approximating the distribution of the sample proportion . . . . 650
15D Confidence intervals for the population proportion . . . . . . . 656
Review of Chapter 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666

16 Revision of Chapters 11–15

16A Short-answer questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
672

16B Multiple-choice questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

16C Extended-response questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679

17 Revision of Chapters 1–16

17A Short-answer questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
685

17B Multiple-choice questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688

17C Extended-response questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692

A Appendix A: Counting methods and the binomial theorem

A1 Counting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
708

A2 Summation notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711

A3 The binomial theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712

Included in the Interactive and PDF Textbook only

Appendix B: Guide to the TI-Nspire CAS Calculator (OS4) in Senior Mathematics
Appendix C: Guide to the Casio ClassPad II CAS Calculator in Senior Mathematics

Glossary 715

Answers 725

Objectives
To graph exponential and logarithmic functions and transformations of these functions.
To introduce Euler’s number e and the natural logarithm function.
To revise the index and logarithm laws.
To solve exponential and logarithmic equations.
To find rules for the graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions.
To apply exponential functions in modelling growth and decay.
To understand logarithmic scales.

An exponential function has a rule of the form f (x) = ka x , where k is a non-zero constant
and the base a is a positive real number other than 1. Exponential functions were introduced
in Mathematical Methods Year 11 and applied to practical situations such as radioactive
decay and population growth.
In this chapter, we introduce the exponential function f (x) = e x , which has many interesting
properties. In particular, this function is its own derivative. That is, f (x) = f (x).
Here we deﬁne the number e as
1 n
e = lim 1 +
n→∞ n
We will show that limits such as this arise in the consideration of compound interest.
A logarithm function has a rule of the form f (x) = loga x, where the base a is a positive real
number other than 1. These functions are the ‘reverse’ of exponential functions, and have
both historical and practical importance.
Logarithms were used to simplify calculations before the invention of electronic calculators.
Today, we use logarithms in several well-known measurement scales, including the Richter
scale (earthquakes), decibels (noise) and pH (acidity).
Cambridge Senior Maths AC ISBN 978-1-316-63582-7 © Evans et al. 2017 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
212 Chapter 5: Exponential and logarithmic functions

5A Exponential functions
The function f (x) = a x , where a ∈ R+ \ {1}, is an exponential function. The shape of the
graph depends on whether a > 1 or 0 < a < 1.
Graph of f (x) = ax for a > 1 Graph of f (x) = ax for 0 < a < 1
y y

−1, 1a
(1, a)
(0, 1)
−1, 1a (0, 1) (1, a)
x x
O O
1
Key values are f (−1) = , f (0) = 1 and f (1) = a.
a
The maximal domain is R and the range is R+ .
The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
An exponential function with a > 1 is strictly increasing, and an exponential function with
0 < a < 1 is strictly decreasing.

Graphing transformations of f(x) = ax

Translations
If the translation (x, y) → (x + h, y + k) is applied to the graph of y = a x , then the image has
equation y = a x−h + k.
The horizontal asymptote of the image has equation y = k.
The range of the image is (k, ∞).

Example 1
Sketch the graph and state the range of y = 2 x−1 + 2.

Solution Explanation
y
The graph of y = 2 x is translated 1 unit in the
positive direction of the x-axis and 2 units in the
positive direction of the y-axis.
The mapping is (x, y) → (x + 1, y + 2).
5 (2, 4)
0, 2 (1, 3) Translation of key points:
(−1, 12 ) → (0, 52 )
2
(0, 1) → (1, 3)
x (1, 2) → (2, 4)
O
The range of the function is (2, ∞).

Reflections
If a reﬂection in the x-axis, given by the mapping (x, y) → (x, −y), is applied to the graph of
y = a x , then the image has equation y = −a x .
The horizontal asymptote of the image has equation y = 0.
The range of the image is (−∞, 0).

Example 2
Sketch the graph of y = −3 x .

Solution Explanation
y The graph of y = 3 x is reﬂected in the x-axis.
x The mapping is (x, y) → (x, −y).
O
-1, - 1 (0, -1) Reﬂection of key points:
3 (1, -3)
(−1, 13 ) → (−1, − 13 )
(0, 1) → (0, −1)
(1, 3) → (1, −3)

If a reﬂection in the y-axis, given by the mapping (x, y) → (−x, y), is applied to the graph
1 xof
1
y = a x , then the image has equation y = a−x . This can also be written as y = x or y = .
a a
The horizontal asymptote of the image has equation y = 0.
The range of the image is (0, ∞).

Example 3
Sketch the graph of y = 6−x .

Solution Explanation
y The graph of y = 6 x is reﬂected in the y-axis.
The mapping is (x, y) → (−x, y).
(-1, 6) Reﬂection of key points:
(−1, 16 ) → (1, 16 )
(0, 1) → (0, 1)
1
(0, 1) 1, (1, 6) → (−1, 6)
6
x
O

Dilations
For k > 0, if a dilation of factor k from the x-axis, given by the mapping (x, y) → (x, ky), is
applied to the graph of y = a x , then the image has equation y = ka x .
The horizontal asymptote of the image has equation y = 0.
The range of the image is (0, ∞).

Example 4
Sketch the graph of each of the following:
a y = 3 × 5x b y = 0.2 × 8 x

Solution Explanation
a y The graph of y = 5 x is dilated by factor 3
from the x-axis.
The mapping is (x, y) → (x, 3y).
(1, 15)
Dilation of key points:
(−1, 15 ) → (−1, 35 )
3 (0, 3) (0, 1) → (0, 3)
−1,
5
x (1, 5) → (1, 15)
O
b y The graph of y = 8 x is dilated by factor 1
5
from the x-axis.

8 The mapping is (x, y) → (x, 15 y).

1,
5
Dilation of key points:
(−1, 18 ) → (−1, 40
1
)
1 1
−1, 0, (0, 1) → (0, 15 )
5
40
x (1, 8) → (1, 85 )
O

For k > 0, if a dilation of factor k from the y-axis, given by the mapping (x, y) → (kx, y), is
x
applied to the graph of y = a x , then the image has equation y = a k .
The horizontal asymptote of the image has equation y = 0.
The range of the image is (0, ∞).

Example 5
Sketch the graph of each of the following:
x
a y = 92 b y = 32x

Solution Explanation
a y The graph of y = 9 x is dilated by factor 2
from the y-axis.
The mapping is (x, y) → (2x, y).
(2, 9)
Dilation of key points:
(−1, 19 ) → (−2, 19 )
1 (0, 1) (0, 1) → (0, 1)
−2,
9 (1, 9) → (2, 9)
x
O

b y The graph of y = 3 x is dilated by factor 1

2
from the y-axis.

1,3 The mapping is (x, y) → ( 12 x, y).

2 Dilation of key points:
(−1, 13 ) → (− 12 , 13 )
(0, 1) → (0, 1)
−1 , 1 (0, 1)
2 3 (1, 3) → ( 12 , 3)
x
O
x 1 x x
Note: Since 9 2 = 9 2 = 3 x , the graph of y = 9 2 is the same as the graph of y = 3 x .
Similarly, the graph of y = 32x is the same as the graph of y = 9 x .
A translation parallel to the x-axis results in a dilation from the x-axis. For example, if the
graph of y = 5 x is translated 3 units in the positive direction of the x-axis, then the image is
the graph of y = 5 x−3 , which can be written y = 5−3 × 5 x . Hence, a translation of 3 units in the
positive direction of the x-axis is equivalent to a dilation of factor 5−3 from the x-axis.

Combinations of transformations
We have seen translations, reﬂections and dilations applied to exponential graphs. In the
following example we consider combinations of these transformations.

Example 6
Sketch the graph and state the range of each of the following:
a y = 2−x + 3 b y = 43x − 1 c y = −10 x−1 − 2

Solution Explanation
a y The graph of y = 2−x + 3 is obtained
from the graph of y = 2 x by a
reﬂection in the y-axis followed by
a translation 3 units in the positive
direction of the y-axis.
The mapping is (x, y) → (−x, y + 3).
(0, 4) 1, 7
(−1, 5) 2 For example:
3 (−1, 12 ) → (1, 72 )

x (0, 1) → (0, 4)
O (1, 2) → (−1, 5)
Graph of y = 2−x + 3:
The asymptote has equation y = 3.
The y-axis intercept is 20 + 3 = 4.
The range of the function is (3, ∞).

b y The graph of y = 43x − 1 is obtained

from the graph of y = 4 x by a dilation
1, 3 of factor 13 from the y-axis followed
3 by a translation 1 unit in the negative
direction of the y-axis.

(0, 0) The mapping is (x, y) → ( 13 x, y − 1).

x
O For example:
1 3 −1
− ,− (−1, 14 ) → (− 13 , − 34 )
3 4
(0, 1) → (0, 0)
Graph of y = 43x − 1:
(1, 4) → ( 13 , 3)
The asymptote has equation y = −1.
The y-axis intercept is 40 − 1 = 0.
The range of the function is (−1, ∞).
c y The graph of y = −10 x−1 − 2 is
obtained from the graph of y = 10 x
O x
-2 by a reﬂection in the x-axis followed
by a translation 1 unit in the positive
0, − 21 (1, -3)
10 direction of the x-axis and 2 units in
the negative direction of the y-axis.
(2, -12) The mapping is (x, y) → (x + 1, −y − 2).
For example:
Graph of y = −10 x−1
− 2: 1
) → (0, − 21
(−1, 10 10 )
The asymptote has equation y = −2. (0, 1) → (1, −3)
21 −1
The y-axis intercept is −10 − 2 = − . (1, 10) → (2, −12)
10
The range of the function is (−∞, −2).

Note: We can use the method for determining transformations for each of the graphs in
Example 6. Here we show the method for part c:

- Write the equation as y = −10 x −1 − 2.

- Rearrange to −y − 2 = 10 x −1 .
- We choose to write y = −y − 2 and x = x − 1.
- Hence y = −y − 2 and x = x + 1.

Section summary
Graphs of exponential functions: y y

y = ax, a > 1 y = ax, 0 < a < 1

1 1
x x

For a ∈ R+ \ {1}, the graph of y = a x has the following properties:

• The x-axis is an asymptote. • The y-axis intercept is 1.
• The y-values are always positive. • There is no x-axis intercept.
Transformations can be applied to exponential functions. For example, the graph of
y = ab(x−h) + k, where b > 0
1
can be obtained from the graph of y = a x by a dilation of factor from the y-axis
b
followed by the translation (x, y) → (x + h, y + k).

Exercise 5A

Example 1 1 For each of the following functions, sketch the graph (labelling the asymptote) and state
the range:
a y = 2 x+1 − 2 b y = 2 x−3 − 1 c y = 2 x+2 − 1 d y = 2 x−2 + 2

Example 2, 3 2 For each of the following, use the one set of axes to sketch the two graphs (labelling
asymptotes):
a y = 2 x and y = 3 x b y = 2−x and y = 3−x
c y = 5 x and y = −5 x d y = 1.5 x and y = −1.5 x

Example 4, 5 3 For each of the following functions, sketch the graph (labelling the asymptote) and state
the range:
1 x
a y = 3 × 2x b y = × 5x c y = 23x d y = 23
2
Example 6 4 Sketch the graph and state the range of each of the following:
a y = 3−x + 2 b y = 25x − 4 c y = −10 x−2 − 2

5 For each of the following functions, sketch the graph (labelling the asymptote) and state
the range:
a y = 3x b y = 3x + 1 c y = 1 − 3x
d y = ( 13 ) x e y = 3−x + 2 f y = ( 13 ) x − 1

6 For each of the following functions, sketch the graph (labelling the asymptote) and state
the range:
a y = ( 12 ) x−2 b y = ( 12 ) x − 1 c y = ( 12 ) x−2 + 1

7 For f (x) = 2 x , sketch the graph of each of the following, labelling asymptotes where
appropriate:
a y = f (x + 1) b y = f (x) + 1 c y = f (−x) + 2
x
d y = − f (x) − 1 e y = f (3x) f y= f
2
g y = 2 f (x − 1) + 1 h y = f (x − 2)

8 For each of the following functions, sketch the graph (labelling the asymptote) and state
the range:
x
a y = 10 x − 1 b y = 10 10 + 1 c y = 2 × 10 x − 20
x
d y = 1 − 10−x e y = 10 x+1 + 3 f y = 2 × 10 10 + 4

9 A bank oﬀers cash loans at 0.04% interest per day, compounded daily. A loan
of $10 000 is taken and the interest payable at the end of x days is given by

C1 = 10 000 (1.0004) x − 1 .
a Plot the graph of C1 against x.
b Find the interest at the end of:
i 100 days ii 300 days.
c After how many days is the interest payable $1000?
d A loan company oﬀers $10 000 and charges a fee of $4.25 per day. The amount
charged after x days is given by C2 = 4.25x.
i Plot the graph of C2 against x (using the same window as in part a).
ii Find the smallest value of x for which C2 < C1 .

10 If you invest $100 at an interest rate of 2% per day, compounded daily, then after x days
the amount of money you have (in dollars) is given by y = 100(1.02) x . For how many
days would you have to invest to double your money?

11 a i Graph y = 2 x , y = 3 x and y = 5 x on the same set of axes.

ii For what values of x is 2 x > 3 x > 5 x ?
iii For what values of x is 2 x < 3 x < 5 x ?
iv For what values of x is 2 x = 3 x = 5 x ?
b Repeat part a for y = ( 12 ) x , y = ( 13 ) x and y = ( 15 ) x .
c Use your answers to parts a and b to sketch the graph of y = a x for:
i a>1 ii a = 1 iii 0 < a < 1

5B The exponential function f(x) = ex

In the previous section, we explored the family of exponential functions f (x) = a x , where
a ∈ R+ \ {1}. One particular member of this family is of great importance in mathematics.
This function has the rule f (x) = e x , where e is Euler’s number, named after the eighteenth
century Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler.
Euler’s number is deﬁned as follows.

Euler’s number
1 n
e = lim 1 +
n→∞ n

To see what the value of e might be, 1 n

n 1+ n
we could try large values of n and
100 (1.01) 100
= 2.704 813. . .
use a calculator to evaluate 1 + 1n n ,
as shown in the table on the right. 1000 (1.001)1000 = 2.716 923. . .
10 000 (1.0001)10 000 = 2.718 145. . .
As n is taken larger and larger, it can
100 000 (1.000 01)100 000 = 2.718 268. . .
be seen that 1 + 1n n approaches a
limiting value (≈ 2.718 28). 1 000 000 (1.000 001)1 000 000 = 2.718 280. . .

Like π, the number e is irrational:

e = 2.718 281 828 459 045 . . .
The function f (x) = e x is very important in mathematics. In Chapter 7 you will ﬁnd that it
has the remarkable property that f (x) = f (x). That is, the derivative of e x is e x .
Note: The function e x can be found on
y
your calculator. y = 3x
y = ex
Graphing f(x) = ex (1, 3)
y = 2x
The graph of y = e x is as shown. (1, e)
The graphs of y = 2 x and y = 3 x are shown (1, 2)
on the same set of axes. 1
−1,
1 2 (0, 1)
−1,
e

x
O
1
−1,
3

Example 7
Sketch the graph of f : R → R, f (x) = e x+1 − 2.

Solution Explanation
y To ﬁnd the transformation:

Write the image as y + 2 = e x +1 .
(1, e2 − 2)
We can choose y = y + 2 and x = x + 1.
Hence y = y − 2 and x = x − 1.

y = ex+1 − 2 The mapping is

1 e−2 (x, y) → (x − 1, y − 2)
x which is a translation of 1 unit in the negative
O
y = −2 direction of the x-axis and 2 units in the
−2 negative direction of the y-axis.

The asymptote has equation y = −2.

The y-axis intercept is e − 2.

Compound interest
Assume that you invest $P at an annual interest rate r. If the interest is compounded only
once per year, then the balance of your investment after t years is given by A = P(1 + r)t .
Now assume that the interest is compounded n times per year. The interest rate in each period
r r n
is . The balance at the end of one year is P 1 + , and the balance at the end of t years is
n n
given by
r nt r n rt
A= P 1+ = P 1+ r
n n
We recognise that
rr
n
lim 1 + =e
n
→∞ n
r
So, as n → ∞, we can write A = Pert .
For example, if $1000 is invested for one year at 5%, the resulting amount is $1050.
However, if the interest is compounded ‘continuously’, then the amount is given by
A = Pert = 1000 × e0.05 = 1000 × 1.051 271 . . . ≈ 1051.27
That is, the balance after one year is $1051.27.

Section summary
Euler’s number is the natural base for exponential functions:
1 n
e = lim 1 +
n→∞ n
= 2.718 281 . . .

Exercise 5B

Skillsheet 1 Sketch the graph of each of the following and state the range:
Example 7 a f (x) = e x + 1 b f (x) = 1 − e x
c f (x) = 1 − e−x d f (x) = e−2x
e f (x) = e x−1 − 2 f f (x) = 2e x
g h(x) = 2(1 + e x ) h h(x) = 2(1 − e−x )
i g(x) = 2e−x + 1 j h(x) = 2e x−1
k f (x) = 3e x+1 − 2 l h(x) = 2 − 3e x

2 For each of the following, give a sequence of transformations that maps the graph of
y = e x to the graph of y = f1 (x):
a f1 (x) = e x+2 − 3 b f1 (x) = 3e x+1 − 4
c f1 (x) = 5e2x+1 d f1 (x) = 2 − e x−1
e f1 (x) = 3 − 2e x+2 f f1 (x) = 4e2x − 1

3 Find the rule of the image when the graph of f (x) = e x undergoes each of the following
sequences of transformations:
a a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis, followed by a reflection in the x-axis, followed
by a translation 3 units in the positive direction of the x-axis and 4 units in the
negative direction of the y-axis
b a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis, followed by a translation 3 units in the positive
direction of the x-axis and 4 units in the negative direction of the y-axis, followed by
a reflection in the x-axis
c a reflection in the x-axis, followed by a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis, followed
by a translation 3 units in the positive direction of the x-axis and 4 units in the
negative direction of the y-axis
d a reflection in the x-axis, followed by a translation 3 units in the positive direction of
the x-axis and 4 units in the negative direction of the y-axis, followed by a dilation of
factor 2 from the x-axis
e a translation 3 units in the positive direction of the x-axis and 4 units in the negative
direction of the y-axis, followed by a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis, followed
by a reflection in the x-axis
f a translation 3 units in the positive direction of the x-axis and 4 units in the negative
direction of the y-axis, followed by a reflection in the x-axis, followed by a dilation
of factor 2 from the x-axis.

4 For each of the following, give a sequence of transformations that maps the graph of
y = f1 (x) to the graph of y = e x :
a f1 (x) = e x+2 − 3 b f1 (x) = 3e x+1 − 4
c f1 (x) = 5e2x+1 d f1 (x) = 2 − e x−1
e f1 (x) = 3 − 2e x+2 f f1 (x) = 4e2x − 1

5 Solve each of the following equations using a calculator. Give answers correct to three
decimal places.
a ex = x + 2 b e−x = x + 2
c x2 = e x d x3 = e x

6 a Using a calculator, plot the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = e x .

b Using the same screen, plot the graphs of:
x
i y = f (x − 2) ii y = f iii y = f (−x)
3

5C Exponential equations
One method for solving exponential equations is to use the following property of exponential
functions:
a x = ay implies x = y, for a ∈ R+ \ {1}

Example 8
Find the value of x for which:
a 4 x = 256 b 3 x−1 = 81

Solution
a 4 x = 256 b 3 x−1 = 81
4 x = 44 3 x−1 = 34
∴ x=4 ∴ x−1=4
x=5

When solving an exponential equation, you may also need to use the index laws.

Index laws
For all positive numbers a and b and all real numbers x and y:

a x × ay = a x+y a x ÷ ay = a x−y (a x )y = a xy (ab) x = a x b x

a x ax 1 1
= a−x = ax = a0 = 1
b bx ax a−x

Note: More generally, each index law applies for real numbers a and b provided both sides
of the equation are deﬁned. For example: am × an = am+n for a ∈ R and m, n ∈ Z.

Example 9
Find the value of x for which 52x−4 = 25−x+2 .
Solution Explanation
−x+2
52x−4
= 25 Express both sides of the equation as powers with base 5.
= (52 )−x+2
= 5−2x+4
∴ 2x − 4 = −2x + 4 Use the fact that 5a = 5b implies a = b.
4x = 8
x=2

To solve the equations in the next example, we must recognise that they will become
quadratic equations once we make a substitution.

Example 10
Solve for x:
a 9 x = 12 × 3 x − 27 b 32x = 27 − 6 × 3 x

Solution
a We can write the equation as b We can write the equation as
(3 x )2 = 12 × 3 x − 27 (3 x )2 = 27 − 6 × 3 x
Let y = 3 x . The equation becomes Let y = 3 x . The equation becomes
y2 = 12y − 27 y2 = 27 − 6y
y2 − 12y + 27 = 0 y2 + 6y − 27 = 0
(y − 3)(y − 9) = 0 (y − 3)(y + 9) = 0

∴ y = 3 or y=9 ∴ y=3 or y = −9
3 =3
x
or 3 =3
x 2
3 =3
x
or 3 x = −9
x=1 or x=2 The only solution is x = 1, since 3 x > 0
for all x.

Section summary
One method for solving an exponential equation, without using a calculator, is ﬁrst to
express both sides of the equation as powers with the same base and then to equate the
indices (since a x = ay implies x = y, for any base a ∈ R+ \ {1}).
For example: 2 x+1 = 8 ⇔ 2 x+1 = 23 ⇔ x + 1 = 3 ⇔ x = 2
Equations such as 32x − 6 × 3 x − 27 = 0 can be solved by making a substitution. In this
case, substitute y = 3 x to obtain a quadratic equation in y.

Exercise 5C

1 Simplify the following expressions:

12x8
a 3x2 y3 × 2x4 y6 b c 18x2 y3 ÷ (3x4 y)
4x2

d (4x4 y2 )2 ÷ 2(x2 y)4 e (4x0 )2 f 15(x5 y−2 )4 ÷ 3(x4 y)−2
3(2x2 y3 )4 1 x 2 + y2
g h (8x3 y6 ) 3 i
2x3 y2 x−2 + y−2
Example 8 2 Solve for x in each of the following:
a 3 x = 81 b 81 x = 9 c 2 x = 256
d 625 x = 5 e 32 x = 8 f 5 x = 125
1 1
g 16 x = 1024 h 2−x = i 5−x =
64 625

Example 9 3 Solve for n in each of the following:

1
a 52n × 252n−1 = 625 b 42n−2 = 1 c 42n−1 =
256
3n−2
d = 27 e 22n−2 × 4−3n = 64 f 2n−4 = 84−n
92−n
g 27n−2 = 93n+2 h 86n+2 = 84n−1 i 1254−n = 56−2n
1
j 2n−1 × 42n+1 = 16 k (27 × 3n )n = 27n × 3 4

Example 10 4 Solve for x:

a 32x − 2(3 x ) − 3 = 0 b 52x − 23(5 x ) − 50 = 0 c 52x − 10(5 x ) + 25 = 0
d 22x = 6(2 x ) − 8 e 8(3 x ) − 6 = 2(32x ) f 22x − 20(2 x ) = −64
g 42x − 5(4 x ) = −4 h 3(32x ) = 28(3 x ) − 9 i 7(72x ) = 8(7 x ) − 1

5D Logarithms
Consider the statement
23 = 8
This may be written in an alternative form:
log2 8 = 3
which is read as ‘the logarithm of 8 to the base 2 is equal to 3’.

For a ∈ R+ \ {1}, the logarithm function with base a is deﬁned as follows:

ax = y is equivalent to loga y = x

Note: Since a x is positive, the expression loga y is only deﬁned when y is positive.
Further examples:
32 = 9 is equivalent to log3 9 = 2
104 = 10 000 is equivalent to log10 10 000 = 4
a0 = 1 is equivalent to loga 1 = 0

Example 11
Without the aid of a calculator, evaluate the following:
a log2 32 b log3 81

Solution
a Let log2 32 = x b Let log3 81 = x
Then 2 x = 32 Then 3 x = 81
2 x = 25 3 x = 34
Therefore x = 5, giving log2 32 = 5. Therefore x = 4, giving log3 81 = 4.

Note: To ﬁnd log2 32, we ask ‘What power of 2 gives 32?’

To ﬁnd log3 81, we ask ‘What power of 3 gives 81?’

Inverse relationship between logarithms and exponentials

When the graph of y = a x is reﬂected in the line y = x, we obtain the graph of x = ay . By the
deﬁning property of logarithms, this corresponds exactly to the graph of y = loga x.

y y
y = loga x

y = ax
y = ax 1
1
x
O 1 x
O 1
y = loga x

a>1 0<a<1

The logarithm function with base a is the ‘reverse’ of the exponential function with base a.
This can be stated more precisely as follows:

Inverse relationship
Let a ∈ R+ \ {1}. The function with rule y = loga x, for x > 0, and the function with rule
y = a x , for x ∈ R, are inverse to each other in the following way:

loga (a x ) = x for all x aloga x = x for all positive values of x

The natural logarithm

Earlier in the chapter we deﬁned the number e and the important exponential function y = e x .
The corresponding logarithmic function is y = loge x.
The logarithm function with base e is known as the natural logarithm function and is
commonly written as y = ln x. That is,
ln x = loge x

Natural logarithm
The natural logarithm is deﬁned as follows:
ex = y is equivalent to ln y = x
The natural logarithm function y = ln x, for x > 0, and the exponential function y = e x are
inverse to each other in the following way:

ln(e x ) = x for all x eln x = x for all positive values of x

Laws of logarithms
The index laws are used to establish rules for computations with logarithms.

Law 1: Logarithm of a product

The logarithm of a product is the sum of their logarithms:
loga (mn) = loga m + loga n

Proof Let loga m = x and loga n = y, where m and n are positive real numbers. Then a x = m
and ay = n, and therefore
mn = a x × ay = a x+y (using the ﬁrst index law)
Hence loga (mn) = x + y = loga m + loga n.

For example:
log10 200 + log10 5 = log10 (200 × 5)
= log10 1000 = 3

Law 2: Logarithm of a quotient

The logarithm of a quotient is the diﬀerence of their logarithms:
m
loga = loga m − loga n
n

Proof Let loga m = x and loga n = y, where m and n are positive real numbers. Then as
before a x = m and ay = n, and therefore
m ax
= y = a x−y (using the second index law)
n a
m
Hence loga = x − y = loga m − loga n.
n
For example:
32
log2 32 − log2 8 = log2
8
= log2 4 = 2

Law 3: Logarithm of a power

loga (m p ) = p loga m

Proof Let loga m = x. Then a x = m, and therefore

m p = (a x ) p = a xp (using the third index law)
Hence loga (m p ) = xp = p loga m.

For example:
log2 32 = log2 (25 ) = 5

1
Law 4: Logarithm of m

loga (m−1 ) = − loga m

Proof Use logarithm law 3 with p = −1.

For example:

loga 12 = loga (2−1 ) = − loga 2

Law 5
loga 1 = 0 and loga a = 1

Proof Since a0 = 1, we have loga 1 = 0. Since a1 = a, we have loga a = 1.

Example 12
Express each of the following as the logarithm of a single term:
6
a log10 5 + 2 log10 7 b 2 ln 3 + ln 16 − 2 ln
5
Solution 6
a log10 5 + 2 log10 7 b 2 ln 3 + ln 16 − 2 ln
5
= log10 5 + log10 (72 ) 6 2
= ln(32 ) + ln 16 − ln
= log10 5 + log10 49 5
36
= log10 (5 × 49)
= ln 9 + ln 16 − ln
= log10 245 25
25
= ln 9 × 16 ×
36
= ln 100

Note: For part b, remember that ln x = loge x.

Logarithmic equations
Example 13
Solve each of the following equations for x:
a log2 x = 5 b log2 (2x − 1) = 4 c ln(3x + 1) = 0

Solution
a log2 x = 5 b log2 (2x − 1) = 4 c ln(3x + 1) = 0
x = 25 2x − 1 = 24 3x + 1 = e0
∴ x = 32 2x = 17 3x = 1 − 1

∴ x=
17 ∴ x=0
2

Example 14
Solve each of the following equations for x:
a ln(x − 1) + ln(x + 2) = ln(6x − 8) b log2 x − log2 (7 − 2x) = log2 6

Solution
a ln(x − 1) + ln(x + 2) = ln(6x − 8) b log2 x − log2 (7 − 2x) = log2 6
x
ln (x − 1)(x + 2) = ln(6x − 8)
log2 = log2 6
x2 + x − 2 = 6x − 8 7 − 2x
x
x2 − 5x + 6 = 0 =6
7 − 2x
(x − 3)(x − 2) = 0
x = 42 − 12x
∴ x = 3 or x = 2
13x = 42
Note: The solutions must satisfy x − 1 > 0, 42
∴ x=
x + 2 > 0 and 6x − 8 > 0. Therefore both of 13
these solutions are allowable.

Using the TI-Nspire

Use solve from the Algebra menu as shown.
The natural logarithm (base e) is available on
the keypad by pressing ctrl ex .

Note: Logarithms with other bases are obtained by pressing the log key ( ctrl 10x ) and
completing the template.

Using the Casio ClassPad

For the natural logarithm (base e),
use l from the Math1 keyboard.
Enter and highlight the equation
ln(x − 1) + ln(x + 2) = ln(6x − 8).
Select Interactive > Equation/Inequality
> solve. Ensure the variable is set to x.
Note: For logarithms with other bases, tap V and complete the template.

Example 15
Solve each of the following equations for x:
a ln(2x + 1) − ln(x − 1) = 4 b ln(x − 1) + ln(x + 1) = 1

Solution
a ln(2x + 1) − ln(x − 1) = 4 b ln(x − 1) + ln(x + 1) = 1
2x + 1
ln (x − 1)(x + 1) = 1
ln =4
x−1 ln(x2 − 1) = 1
2x + 1 x2 − 1 = e
= e4
x−1 √
∴ x=± e+1
2x + 1 = e4 (x − 1)
But the original equation is not deﬁned
(2 − e4 )x = −(e4 + 1) √
for x = − e + 1 and so the only solution
√
e4 + 1 is x = e + 1.
∴ x=
e4 − 2

Example 16
Solve the equation log x 27 = 3
2 for x.

Solution
3
log x 27 = 3
2 is equivalent to x 2 = 27
√
( x)3 = 33
√
x=3
∴ x=9

Section summary
For a ∈ R+ \ {1}, the logarithm function base a is deﬁned as follows:
ax = y is equivalent to loga y = x
To evaluate loga y ask the question: ‘What power of a gives y?’
Let a ∈ R+ \ {1}. The logarithmic function y = loga x, for x > 0, and the exponential
function y = a x , for x ∈ R, are inverse to each other in the following way:
• loga (a x ) = x for all x • aloga x = x for all positive values of x
The natural logarithm
The function y = loge x is commonly written as y = ln x. Therefore
ex = y is equivalent to ln y = x
The natural logarithm function y = ln x, for x > 0, and the exponential function y = e x ,
for x ∈ R, are inverse to each other in the following way:
• ln(e x ) = x for all x • eln x = x for all positive values of x
Laws of logarithms m
1 loga (mn) = loga m + loga n 2 loga = loga m − loga n
n
3 loga (m p ) = p loga m 4 loga (m−1 ) = − loga m
5 loga 1 = 0 and loga a = 1

Exercise 5D

Skillsheet 1 Evaluate each of the following:

1
Example 11 a log10 1000 b log2 c log10 0.001
16 1
d log2 64 e log10 1 000 000 f log2
128
Example 12 2 Express each of the following as the logarithm of a single term:
a log10 2 + log10 3 b log10 32 − log10 8 c ln 10 + ln 100 + ln 1000
1 1 1 1
d ln + ln 14 e ln + ln + ln f ln(uv) + ln(uv2 ) + ln(uv3 )
2 3 4 5
g 2 ln x + 5 ln x h ln(x + y) + ln(x − y) − ln(x2 − y2 )
Example 13 3 Solve each of the following equations for x:
a log10 x = 2 b 2 log2 x = 8 c ln(x − 5) = 0
d log2 x = 6 e 2 ln(x + 5) = 6 f ln(2x) = 0
g ln(2x + 3) = 0 h log10 x = −3 i 2 log2 (x − 4) = 10
Example 14 4 Solve each of the following equations for x:
a log10 x = log10 3 + log10 5 b ln x = ln 15 − ln 3
2
c ln x = ln 8 d ln x + ln(2x − 1) = 0
3
e 2 ln x − ln(x − 1) = ln(x + 3)
5 Express each of the following as the logarithm of a single term:
1 1
a log10 9 + log10 3 b log2 24 − log2 6 c log10 a − log10 b
2 2
1 1 1 2
d 1 + log10 a − log10 b e log10 36 − log10 27 − log10 64
3 2 3 3
6 Without using your calculator, evaluate each of the following:
a log10 5 + log10 2 b log10 5 + 3 log10 2 − log10 4
√
c log2 2 + log2 1 + 2 log2 2 d 2 log10 5 + 2 log10 2 + 1
e 4 log10 2 − log10 16
7 Simplify the following expressions:
1
a log3 x b log2 x − 2 log2 y + log2 (xy2 ) c ln(x2 − y2 ) − ln(x − y) − ln(x + y)
3
Example 15 8 Solve each of the following equations for x:
a ln(x2 − 2x + 8) = 2 ln x b ln(5x) − ln(3 − 2x) = 1
9 Solve each of the following equations for x:
a ln x + ln(3x + 1) = 1 b 8e−x − e x = 2
Example 16 10 Solve each of the following equations for x:
1
a log x 81 = 4 b log x =5
32

11 Solve 2 ln x + ln 4 = ln(9x − 2).

1
12 Given that loga N = loga 24 − loga 0.375 − 6 loga 3 , ﬁnd the value of N.
2

5E Graphing logarithmic functions

The graphs of y = e x and y = loge x are The graphs of y = log2 x, y = loge x and
shown on the one set of axes. y = log3 x are shown on the one set of axes.
y y = ex y
(1, e) y = log2 x
y = loge x
(2, 1) y = log3 x
y = loge x (3, 1)
(0, 1)
−1, 1e (e, 1)
(1, 0) (e, 1)
x O x
O (1, 0)
1 , −1
y=x e

Note: Recall that we usually write the natural logarithm function y = loge x as y = ln x.
For each base a ∈ R+ \ {1}, the graph of f (x) = loga x has the following features:
1
Key values are f = −1, f (1) = 0 and f (a) = 1.
a
The maximal domain is R+ and the range is R.
The y-axis is a vertical asymptote.
A logarithmic function with a > 1 is strictly increasing, and a logarithmic function with
0 < a < 1 is strictly decreasing.

Graphing transformations of f(x) = loga x

We now look at transformations applied to the graph of f (x) = loga x where a > 1.

Example 17
Sketch the graph of y = 3 ln(2x).

Solution y
This is obtained from the graph of y = ln x by a dilation of
e
factor 3 from the x-axis and a dilation of factor 12 from the ,3
2
y-axis.
x
The mapping is (x, y) → ( 12 x, 3y). O 1, 0
2
(1, 0) → ( 12 , 0)
(e, 1) → ( 12 e, 3)

Example 18
Sketch the graph and state the implied domain of each of the following:
a y = log2 (x − 5) + 1 b y = − log3 (x + 4)

Solution
a The graph of y = log2 (x − 5) + 1 is obtained from the graph of y = log2 x by a
translation of 5 units in the positive direction of the x-axis and 1 unit in the positive
direction of the y-axis.
The mapping is (x, y) → (x + 5, y + 1).
y
(1, 0) → (6, 1)
(2, 1) → (7, 2)
The asymptote has equation x = 5. (7, 2)
When y = 0, log2 (x − 5) + 1 = 0
(6, 1)
log2 (x − 5) = −1 O x
5 1
5 ,0
x − 5 = 2−1 2
∴ x = 5 12
The domain of the function is (5, ∞).

b The graph of y = − log3 (x + 4) is obtained from the graph of y = log3 x by a reﬂection

in the x-axis and a translation of 4 units in the negative direction of the x-axis.
The mapping is (x, y) → (x − 4, −y).
y
(1, 0) → (−3, 0)
(3, 1) → (−1, −1)
The asymptote has equation x = −4.
When x = 0, y = − log3 (0 + 4) -4 -3 O x
= − log3 4
(-1, -1)
The domain of the function is (−4, ∞).
-log3 4

Example 19
Sketch the graph of y = 2 ln(x + 5) − 3 and state the implied domain.

Solution
The graph of y = 2 ln(x + 5) − 3 is obtained from the y
graph of y = ln x by a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis (0, 2 ln 5 − 3)
followed by a translation of 5 units in the negative
(−0.518, 0)
direction of the x-axis and 3 units in the negative direction
x
of the y-axis. −5 O

The equation of the asymptote is x = −5.

x = −5
The domain of the function is (−5, ∞).

Axis intercepts
When x = 0, y = 2 ln(0 + 5) − 3
= 2 ln 5 − 3

When y = 0, 2 ln(x + 5) − 3 = 0
3
ln(x + 5) =
2
3
x + 5 = e2
3
∴ x = e2 − 5

Exponential and logarithmic graphs with different bases

It is often useful to know how to go from one base to another.
To change the base of loga x from a to b (where a, b > 0 and a, b 1), we use the deﬁnition
that y = loga x implies ay = x. Taking logb of both sides:
logb (ay ) = logb x
y logb a = logb x
logb x
y=
logb a

Since y = loga x, this gives: y

y = log b x
(b, 1)
logb x y = log a x
loga x =
logb a 1
b,
logb a
Hence the graph of y = loga x can be obtained from (1, 0)
O x
1
the graph of y = logb x by a dilation of factor
logb a
from the x-axis.

Using the inverse relationship between logarithms y

and exponentials, we can write a = blogb a . y = bx
This gives: y = ax
(1, b)
a x = b(logb a)x 1 ,b
-1 , 1 -1, 1 logb a
logb a b b
Hence the graph of y = a x can be obtained from (0, 1)
1
the graph of y = b x by a dilation of factor
logb a x
from the y-axis. O

Example 20
Find a transformation that takes the graph of y = 2 x to the graph of y = e x .

Solution
We can write e = 2log2 e and so
e x = (2log2 e ) x
= 2(log2 e)x
1
The graph of y = e x is the image of the graph of y = 2 x under a dilation of factor
log2 e
from the y-axis.

Section summary
Let a ∈ R+ \ {1}.
The function y = loga x has domain R+ and range R.
The graph of y = loga x is the reﬂection of the graph of y = a x in the line y = x, and has
the following properties:
• The y-axis is an asymptote. • The x-axis intercept is 1.
• The x-values are always positive. • There is no y-axis intercept.

Exercise 5E

Example 17 1 Sketch the graph of each of the following:

x
a y = 2 ln(3x) b y = 4 ln(5x) c y = 2 ln(4x) d y = 3 ln
2
Example 18 2 For each of the following functions, sketch the graph (labelling axis intercepts and
asymptotes) and state the maximal domain and range:
a y = 2 ln(x − 3) b y = ln(x + 3) − 2 c y = 2 ln(x + 1) − 1
d y = 2 + ln(3x − 2) e y = −2 ln(x + 2) f y = −2 ln(x − 2)
g y = 1 − ln(x + 1) h y = ln(2 − x) i y + 1 = ln(4 − 3x)

Example 19 3 Sketch the graph of each of the following. Label the axis intercepts and asymptotes.
State the implied domain of each function.
a y = log2 (2x) b y = log10 (x − 5) c y = − log10 x
d y = log10 (−x) e y = log10 (5 − x) f y = 2 log2 (2x) + 2
g y = −2 log2 (3x) h y = log10 (−x − 5) + 2 i y = 4 log2 (−3x)
j y = 2 log2 (2 − x) − 6 k y = ln(2x − 1) l y = − ln(3 − 2x)

4 Solve each of the following equations using a calculator. Give answers correct to three
decimal places.
1 1
a −x + 2 = ln x b ln(2x + 1) = − x + 1
3 2

5 a Using a calculator, plot the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = ln x.

b Using the same screen, plot the graphs of:
x
i y = f (−x) ii y = − f (x) iii y = f iv y = f (3x)
3
Example 20 6 Find a transformation that takes the graph of y = 3 x to the graph of y = e x .

7 Find a transformation that takes the graph of y = e x to the graph of y = 2 x .

5F Determining rules for graphs of exponential and

logarithmic functions
In previous chapters, we have determined the rules for graphs of various types of functions,
including polynomial functions and circular functions. In this chapter, we consider similar
questions for exponential and logarithmic functions.

Example 21
y
The rule for the function with the graph shown is of the
form y = ae x + b. Find the values of a and b. (3, 22)
(0, 6)

x
O

Solution
When x = 0, y = 6 and when x = 3, y = 22:
6 = ae0 + b (1)
22 = ae + b
3
(2)
Subtract (1) from (2):
16 = a(e3 − e0 )
16 = a(e3 − 1)
16
∴ a=
e3 − 1
From equation (1):
b=6−a
16
=6−
e3−1
6e3 − 22
=
e3 − 1
16 6e3 − 22
The function has rule y = e x
+ .
e3 − 1 e3 − 1

Example 22
y
The rule for the function with the graph shown is of the
form y = a ln(x + b). Find the values of a and b.
(8, 1)

x
O (5, 0)

Solution Explanation
0 = a ln(5 + b) (1) Form two equations in a and b by substituting
1 = a ln(8 + b) (2) into the rule y = a ln(x + b):
y = 0 when x = 5
From (1): ln(5 + b) = 0 y = 1 when x = 8
5+b=e 0

∴ b = −4

Substitute in (2): 1 = a ln 4
1
∴ a=
ln 4
1
The rule is y = ln(x − 4).
ln 4

Example 23
Given that y = Aebt with y = 6 when t = 1 and y = 8 when t = 2, ﬁnd A and b.

Solution Explanation
6 = Aeb (1) Form two equations in A and b by substituting
8 = Ae 2b
(2) into the rule y = Aebt :
y = 6 when t = 1
4
Divide (2) by (1): = eb y = 8 when t = 2
3
4
∴ b = ln
3
4
Substitute in (1): 6 = Aeln 3
4 4 4
6= A eln 3 = since eln a = a for all a > 0
3 3
18 9
∴ A= =
4 2
9 ln 4 t 9 ln 4 t 9 4 t
The rule is y = e 3 . Note that y = e 3 =
2 2 2 3

Using the TI-Nspire

Use > Algebra > Solve System of
menu
Equations > Solve System of Equations
and complete as shown.
Note: Do not use the ‘e’ from the alpha keys;
it will be treated as a variable.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Select the simultaneous equations template ~.
Enter the equations as shown: select Q from the
Math1 keyboard and select the parameters a, b
from the Var keyboard.

Exercise 5F

Example 21 1 An exponential function has rule y = a × e x + b and the points with coordinates (0, 5)
and (4, 11) are on the graph of the function. Find the values of a and b.

Example 22 2 A logarithmic function has rule y = a ln(x + b) and the points with coordinates (5, 0)
and (10, 2) are on the graph of the function. Find the values of a and b.

3 The graph shown has rule y

y = ae + b
x

Find the values of a and b.

(0, 6)
y=4
x
O

4 The rule for the function for which the graph is shown y
is of the form
(1, 14)
y = ae x + b
Find the values of a and b.
x
O

Example 23 5 Find the values of a and b such that the graph of y = ae−bx goes through the points
(3, 50) and (6, 10).

6 The rule for the function f is of the form y

f (x) = ae−x + b
Find the values of a and b. (0, 700)
y = 500
x
O

7 Find the values of a and b such that the graph of y = a log2 x + b goes through the points
(8, 10) and (32, 14).

8 The rule of the graph shown is of the form y

y = a log2 (x − b) x=5

Find the values of a and b. (7, 3)

x
O

9 Find the values of a and b such that the graph of y = aebx goes through the points
(3, 10) and (6, 50).

10 Find the values of a and b such that the graph of y = a log2 (x − b) passes through the
points (5, 2) and (7, 4).

11 The points (3, 10) and (5, 12) lie on the graph of y = a ln(x − b) + c. The graph has a
vertical asymptote with equation x = 1. Find the values of a, b and c.

12 The graph of the function with rule f (x) = a ln(−x) + b passes though the points (−2, 6)
and (−4, 8). Find the values of a and b.

5G Solution of equations using logarithms

Example 24
If log2 6 = k log2 3 + 1, ﬁnd the value of k.

Solution
log2 6 = k log2 3 + 1
= log2 (3k ) + log2 2
= log2 (2 × 3k )
∴ 6 = 2 × 3k
3 = 3k
k=1

Example 25
Solve for x if 2 x = 11, expressing the answer to two decimal places.

Solution
2 x = 11 ⇔ x = log2 11
= 3.45943 . . .
Therefore x ≈ 3.46 correct to two decimal places.

Example 26
Solve 32x−1 = 28, expressing the answer to three decimal places.

Solution
32x−1 = 28 ⇔ 2x − 1 = log3 28
Thus 2x − 1 = log3 28
2x = log3 28 + 1
1
x = log3 28 + 1
2
≈ 2.017 correct to three decimal places

Using the TI-Nspire

Use menu > Algebra > Solve and complete
as shown.
Convert to a decimal answer using ctrl enter
or menu > Actions > Convert to Decimal.
Round to three decimal places as required:
x = 2.017.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In M, enter and highlight the equation 32x−1 = 28.
Go to Interactive > Equation/Inequality > solve
and tap OK .
Copy and paste the answer into the next entry line
and go to Interactive > Transformation > simplify
to obtain a simpliﬁed exact answer.
Highlight the answer and tap u to obtain the
decimal approximation.

Example 27
Solve the inequality 0.7 x ≥ 0.3.

Solution
Taking log10 of both sides:
log10 (0.7 x ) ≥ log10 0.3
x log10 0.7 ≥ log10 0.3
log10 0.3
∴ x≤ (direction of inequality reversed since log10 0.7 < 0)
log10 0.7

Alternatively, we can solve the inequality 0.7 x ≥ 0.3 directly as follows:

Note that 0 < 0.7 < 1 and thus y = 0.7 x is strictly decreasing. Therefore the inequality
0.7 x ≥ 0.3 holds for x ≤ log0.7 0.3.

The inverse relationship between logarithms and exponentials can be used when solving and
rearranging equations:
loga (a x ) = x for all x ∈ R
aloga x = x for all x ∈ R+

Example 28
Rewrite the equation y = 2 ln(x) + 3 with x as the subject.

Solution
y = 2 ln(x) + 3
y−3
= ln x
2
y−3
∴ x=e 2

Example 29
Rearrange the equation x = 2 ln(y − 1) + 3 to express y as a function of x.

Solution
x = 2 ln(y − 1) + 3
x−3
= ln(y − 1)
2
x−3
y−1=e 2
x−3
∴ y=e 2 +1

Using the TI-Nspire

Use solve from the Algebra menu as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Enter and highlight x = 2 ln(y − 1) + 3.
Select Interactive > Equation/Inequality > solve
and ensure the variable is set to y.

Example 30
Rewrite the equation P = Aekt with t as the subject.

Solution
P = Aekt
Take logarithms with base e of both sides:
ln P = ln(Aekt )
= ln A + ln(ekt )
= ln A + kt
1
∴ t= ln P − ln A
k
1 P
= ln
k A

Section summary
If a ∈ R+ \ {1} and x ∈ R, then the statements a x = b and loga b = x are equivalent. This
deﬁning property of logarithms may be used in the solution of exponential equations
and inequalities. For example:
• 2 x = 5 ⇔ x = log2 5 • 2 x ≥ 5 ⇔ x ≥ log2 5
• 0.3 x = 5 ⇔ x = log0.3 5 • 0.3 x ≥ 5 ⇔ x ≤ log0.3 5
An exponential inequality may also be solved by taking loga of both sides. For a > 1,
the direction of the inequality stays the same (as y = loga x is strictly increasing). For
0 < a < 1, the direction of the inequality reverses (as y = loga x is strictly decreasing).
The inverse relationship between logarithms and exponentials is helpful when solving
and rearranging equations:
• loga (a x ) = x for all x ∈ R
• aloga x = x for all x ∈ R+

Exercise 5G

Example 24 1 a If log2 8 = k log2 7 + 2, ﬁnd the value of k.

b If log2 7 − x log2 7 = 4, ﬁnd the value of x.
c If ln 7 − x ln 14 = 1, ﬁnd the value of x.

Example 25, 26 2 Use your calculator to solve each of the following equations, correct to two decimal
places:
a 2x = 6 b 3 x = 0.7 c 3 x = 11
d 4x = 5 e 2−x = 5 f 0.2 x = 3
g 5 x = 3 x−1 h 8 x = 2005 x+1 i 3 x−1 = 8
j 0.3 x+2 = 0.7 k 2 x−1 = 3 x+1 l 1.4 x+2 = 25(0.9 x )
1
m 5 x = 22x−2 n 2 2 (x+2) = 3 x−1 o 2 x+1 × 3 x−1 = 100

3 Solve for x using a calculator. Express your answer correct to two decimal places.
a 2x < 7 b 3x > 6 c 0.2 x > 3
d 3 x−2 ≤ 8 e 0.2 x ≤ 0.4

4 Solve each of the following equations for x. Give exact answers.

a 2x = 5 b 32x−1 = 8 c 73x+1 = 20
d 3x = 7 e 3x = 6 f 5x = 6
g 32x − 3 x+2 + 8 = 0 h 52x − 4 × 5 x − 5 = 0

Example 27 5 Solve each of the following inequalities for x. Give exact answers.
a 7 x > 52 b 32x−1 < 40 c 43x+1 ≥ 5
d 3 x−5 ≤ 30 e 3 x < 106 f 5 x < 0.6

Example 28 6 Rewrite the equation y = 3 ln(x) − 4 with x as the subject.

Example 29 7 For each of the following functions y = f (x), rearrange the rule to show that x can be
expressed as a function of y:
a y = ln(2x) b y = 3 ln(2x) + 1 c y = ex + 2
d y = e x+2 e y = ln(2x + 1) f y = 4 ln(3x + 2)
g y = log10 (x + 1) h y = 2e x−1

8 a Using a calculator, for each of the following plot the graphs of y = f (x) and
y = g(x), together with the line y = x, on the one set of axes:
i f (x) = ln x and g(x) = e x
x−3
ii f (x) = 2 ln(x) + 3 and g(x) = e 2

iii f (x) = log10 x and g(x) = 10 x

b Use your answers to part a to comment on the relationship in general between the
x−c
graphs of f (x) = a logb (x) + c and g(x) = b a .

Example 30 9 Rewrite the equation P = Ae−kt + b with t as the subject.

10 For each of the following formulas, make the pronumeral in brackets the subject:
a y = 2 ln(x) + 5 (x) b P = Ae−6x (x)
c y = ax n
(n) d y = 5 × 10 x
(x)
e y = 5 − 3 ln(2x) (x) f y = 6x 2n
(n)
−x
g y = ln(2x − 1) (x) h y = 5(1 − e ) (x)

11 a If a log2 7 = 3 − log6 14, find the value of a, correct to three significant figures.
b If log3 18 = log11 k, find the value of k, correct to one decimal place.

12 Prove that if logr p = q and logq r = p, then logq p = pq.

13 If u = log9 x, ﬁnd in terms of u:

a x b log9 (3x) c log x 81

14 Solve the equation log5 x = 16 log x 5.

15 Given that q p = 25, ﬁnd log5 q in terms of p.

5H Exponential growth and decay

If the rate at which a quantity increases or decreases is proportional to its current value, then
the quantity obeys the law of exponential change.
Let A be the quantity at time t. Then
A = A0 ekt
where A0 is the initial quantity and k is the rate constant.
If k > 0, the model represents growth: If k < 0, the model represents decay:
growth of cells radioactive decay
population growth cooling of materials
continuously compounded interest

An equivalent way to write this model is as A = A0 bt , where we take b = ek . In this form,

growth corresponds to b > 1 and decay corresponds to b < 1.

Cell growth
Suppose a particular type of bacteria cell divides into two new cells every TD minutes. Let N0
be the initial number of cells of this type. After t minutes the number of cells, N, is given by
t
N = N0 2 T D
where TD is called the generation time.

Example 31
What is the generation time of a bacterial population that increases from 5000 cells to
100 000 cells in four hours of growth?

Solution
In this example, N0 = 5000 and N = 100 000 when t = 240.
240
Hence 100 000 = 5000 × 2 T D
240
20 = 2 T D
240
Thus TD = ≈ 55.53 (correct to two decimal places).
log2 20
The generation time is approximately 55.53 minutes.

Radioactive decay
Radioactive materials decay such that the amount of radioactive material, A, present at time t
(in years) is given by
A = A0 e−kt
where A0 is the initial amount and k is a positive constant that depends on the type of
material. A radioactive substance is often described in terms of its half-life, which is the time
required for half the material to decay.

Example 32
After 1000 years, a sample of radium-226 has decayed to 64.7% of its original mass. Find
the half-life of radium-226.
Solution
We use the formula A = A0 e−kt . When t = 1000, A = 0.647A0 . Thus
0.647A0 = A0 e−1000k
0.647 = e−1000k
−1000k = ln 0.647
− ln 0.647
k= ≈ 0.000435
1000
To ﬁnd the half-life, we consider when A = 12 A0 :
A0 e−kt = 12 A0
e−kt = 1
2
−kt = ln( 12 )
ln( 12 )
t=− ≈ 1591.95
k
The half-life of radium-226 is approximately 1592 years.

Population growth
It is sometimes possible to model population growth through exponential models.

Example 33
The population of a town was 8000 at the beginning of 2007 and 15 000 at the end
of 2014. Assume that the growth is exponential.
a Find the population at the end of 2016.
b In what year will the population be double that of 2014?

Solution
Let P be the population at time t years (measured from 1 January 2007). Then
P = 8000ekt
At the end of 2014, t = 8 and P = 15 000. Therefore
15 000 = 8000e8k
15
= e8k
8
1 15
k = ln ≈ 0.079
8 8
The rate of increase is 7.9% per annum.
Note: The approximation 0.079 was not used in the calculations which follow.
The value for k was held in the calculator.

a When t = 10, P = 8000e10k

≈ 17 552.6049
≈ 17 550
The population is approximately 17 550.
b When does P = 30 000? Consider the equation
30 000 = 8000ekt
30 000
= ekt
8000
15
= ekt
4
1 15
∴ t = ln
k 4
≈ 16.82
The population reaches 30 000 approximately 16.82 years after the beginning of 2007,
i.e. during the year 2023.

Example 34
There are approximately ten times as many red kangaroos as grey kangaroos in a certain
area. If the population of grey kangaroos increases at a rate of 11% per annum while that
of the red kangaroos decreases at 5% per annum, ﬁnd how many years must elapse before
the proportions are reversed, assuming the same rates continue to apply.

Solution
Let G0 be the population of grey kangaroos at the start.
Then the number of grey kangaroos after n years is G = G0 (1.11)n , and the number of red
kangaroos after n years is R = 10G0 (0.95)n .
When the proportions are reversed:
G = 10R
G0 (1.11)n = 10 × 10G0 (0.95)n
(1.11)n = 100(0.95)n
Taking logarithms base e of both sides:

ln (1.11)n = ln 100(0.95)n
n ln 1.11 = ln 100 + n ln 0.95
ln 100
∴ n=
ln 1.11 − ln 0.95
≈ 29.6
i.e. the proportions of the kangaroo populations will be reversed after 30 years.

Section summary
There are many situations in which a varying quantity can be modelled by an exponential
function. Let A be the quantity at time t. Then
A = A0 ekt
where A0 is the initial quantity and k is a constant. Growth corresponds to k > 0, and
decay corresponds to k < 0.

Exercise 5H

Skillsheet 1 A population of 1000 E. coli bacteria doubles every 15 minutes.

Example 31 a Determine the formula for the number of bacteria at time t minutes.
b How long will it take for the population to reach 10 000? (Give your answer to the
nearest minute.)

2 In the initial period of its life a particular species of tree grows in the manner described
by the rule d = d0 10mt where d is the diameter (in cm) of the tree t years after the
beginning of this period. The diameter is 52 cm after 1 year, and 80 cm after 3 years.
Calculate the values of the constants d0 and m.

3 The number of people, N, who have a particular disease at time t years is given by
N = N0 ekt .
a If the number is initially 20 000 and the number decreases by 20% each year, ﬁnd:
i the value of N0 ii the value of k.
b How long does it take until only 5000 people are infected?

Example 32 4 Polonium-210 is a radioactive substance. The decay of polonium-210 is described by

the formula M = M0 e−kt , where M is the mass in grams of polonium-210 left after
t days, and M0 and k are constants. At t = 0, M = 10 g and at t = 140, M = 5 g.
a Find the values of M0 and k.
b What will be the mass of the polonium-210 after 70 days?
c After how many days is the mass remaining 2 g?

5 A quantity A of radium at time t years is given by A = A0 e−kt , where k is a positive

constant and A0 is the amount of radium at time t = 0.
a Given that A = 12 A0 when t = 1690 years, calculate k.
b After how many years does only 20% of the original amount remain? Give your
answer to the nearest year.

6 The half-life of plutonium-239 is 24 000 years. If 20 grams are present now, how long
will it take until only 20% of the original sample remains? (Give your answer to the
nearest year.)

7 Carbon-14 is a radioactive substance with a half-life of 5730 years. It is used to

determine the age of ancient objects. A Babylonian cloth fragment now has 40% of the
carbon-14 that it contained originally. How old is the fragment of cloth?

Example 33 8 The population of a town was 10 000 at the beginning of 2002 and 15 000 at the end
of 2014. Assume that the growth is exponential.
a Find the population at the end of 2017.
b In what year will the population be double that of 2014?

Example 34 9 There are approximately ﬁve times as many magpies as currawongs in a certain area.
If the population of currawongs increases at a rate of 12% per annum while that of
the magpies decreases at 6% per annum, ﬁnd how many years must elapse before the
proportions are reversed, assuming the same rates continue to apply.

10 The pressure in the Earth’s atmosphere decreases exponentially as you rise above the
surface. The pressure in millibars at a height of h kilometres is given approximately by
the function P(h) = 1000 × 10−0.05428h .
a Find the pressure at a height of 4 km. (Give your answer to the nearest millibar.)
b Find the height at which the pressure is 450 millibars. (Give your answer to the
nearest metre.)

11 A biological culture contains 500 000 bacteria at 12 p.m. on Sunday. The culture
increases by 10% every hour. At what time will the culture exceed 4 million bacteria?

12 When a liquid is placed into a refrigerator, its temperature T ◦ C at time t minutes is

given by the formula T = T 0 e−kt . The temperature is initially 100◦ C and drops to 40◦ C
in 5 minutes. Find the temperature of the liquid after 15 minutes.

13 The number of bacteria in a certain culture at time t weeks is given by the rule
N = N0 ekt . If when t = 2, N = 101 and when t = 4, N = 203, calculate the values of N0
and k.

14 Five kilograms of sugar is gradually dissolved in a vat of water. After t hours, the
amount, S kg, of undissolved sugar remaining is given by S = 5 × e−kt .
a Calculate k given that S = 3.2 when t = 2.
b At what time will there be 1 kg of sugar remaining?

15 The number of bacteria, N, in a culture increases exponentially with time according to

the rule N = a × bt , where time t is measured in hours. When observation started, there
were 1000 bacteria, and 5 hours later there were 15 000 bacteria.
a Find the values of a and b.
b Find, to the nearest minute, when there were 5000 bacteria.
c Find, to the nearest minute, when the number of bacteria ﬁrst exceeds 1 000 000.
d How many bacteria would there be 12 hours after the ﬁrst observation?

5I Logarithmic scales
A logarithmic scale is a scale of measurement that uses the logarithm of a quantity. Familiar
examples of logarithmic scales include the Richter scale (earthquakes), decibels (noise) and
pH (acidity). In this section, we will show why such scales are useful and study these three
examples.

Charts with logarithmic scales

In the chart below we show an example for which the vertical axis has equally spaced
increments that are labelled 1 = 50 , 5 = 51 , 25 = 52 , 125 = 53 , . . . instead of 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
The major horizontal grid lines, which are equally spaced, are the integer powers of 5.
The straight line is the result of graphing y = 3 × 52x but with the vertical axis having a
logarithmic scale (base 5).

1953125
390625
78125
15625 125
3125
625 25
125
25 5
5
1 1
0 1 2 3 4 0 1

The bottom-left corner of the chart is shown ‘blown up’ on the right.
The horizontal grid lines between 1 and 5 represent 2, 3 and 4. Their positions are
determined by log5 2, log5 3 and log5 4.
The horizontal grid lines between 5 and 25 represent 10, 15 and 20. Their positions are
determined by log5 10, log5 15 and log5 20.
The horizontal grid lines between 25 and 125 represent 50, 75 and 100. Their positions are
determined by log5 50, log5 75 and log5 100.
Notice that there is the same gap between the grid lines for 1 and 2, for 5 and 10, and for 25
and 50. This is because
log5 2 − log5 1 = log5 2 log5 10 − log5 5 = log5 2 log5 50 − log5 25 = log5 2
This is not what we are used to from working with linear scales.
For a linear scale, the change between two values is determined by the diﬀerence between
the values. That is, a change from 1 to 2 is the same as a change from 6 to 7. We use
linear scales to measure temperature (degrees Celsius) and length (metres) and in standard
Cartesian graphs.
For a logarithmic scale, the change between two values is determined by the ratio of the
values. That is, a change from 1 to 2 (ratio of 1:2) would be perceived as the same amount
of increase as a change from 6 to 12 (also a ratio of 1:2).

The logarithm rule

x
loga = loga x − loga y
y
provides the connections between these types of scale.
Presentation of data on a logarithmic scale can be helpful when the data covers a large range
of values. The use of the logarithms of the values rather than the actual values reduces a wide
range to a more manageable size.

Graphing with logarithmic scales

We will see how to sketch the graph of an exponential function using a logarithmic scale for
the vertical axis and a linear scale for the horizontal axis.
Let y = b × amx , where a, b and m are positive real numbers. Then taking logarithms base a of
both sides gives
loga y = loga b + mx
So the graph of loga y against x is a straight line with gradient m and with (loga y)-axis
intercept at (0, loga b).
In the case of the exponential function y = 3 × 52x , the equation 125
for the straight line becomes log5 y = log5 3 + 2x. On the chart,
we have labelled the vertical axis with powers of 5 rather than 25
the logarithm.
5
This straight line has gradient 2. The line through points
(0.5, 15) and (1, 75) on this chart has actual gradient 1
75 0 1
log5 75 − log5 15
= 2 log5 = 2 log5 5 = 2
1 − 0.5 15
Of course any two points on the line will give this result.

Example 35
Let y = 4 × 32x , for x ≥ 0.
a If log3 y = mx + c, give the values of m and c.
b Sketch the graph of log3 y against x.
c Sketch the graph of log3 y against x labelling your vertical axis with powers of 3.

Solution
a Take logarithms base 3 of both sides of the equation:
log3 y = log3 (4 × 32x )
log3 y = log3 4 + log3 (32x )
log3 y = 2x + log3 4
Therefore m = 2 and c = log3 4.

b log3 y c y

11 177147
10 59049
9 19683
8 65561
7 2187
6 729
5 243
4 81
3 27
2 9
1 log3 4 3 4
x x
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

Note: For part c, using the logarithmic scale on the vertical axis means that the axis
intercept is at 3log3 4 = 4.

Applications
We now look at three uses of logarithmic scales.

Decibels
A decibel is deﬁned as one-tenth of a bel, which is named after Alexander Graham Bell, the
inventor of the telephone.
The decibel is a logarithmic scale for measuring ‘loudness of noise’. The intensity of a sound
in decibels can be deﬁned by
dB = 10 log10 (P × 1016 )
where P is the power of the sound in watt/cm2 .

Example 36
A power mower generates a noise of 96 dB and a conversation in a restaurant generates
noise of 60 dB. Find the power in watt/cm2 for each of these.

Solution

Power mower Conversation

We have 96 = 10 log10 (P × 10 ). 16
We have 60 = 10 log10 (P × 1016 ).
Hence Hence
log10 (P × 1016 ) = 9.6 log10 (P × 1016 ) = 6
P × 1016 = 109.6 P × 1016 = 106
P = 10−6.4 P = 10−10
The power is 10−6.4 watt/cm2 . The power is 10−10 watt/cm2 .

Note: The maximum intensity which the ear can tolerate is about 10−4 watt/cm2 , which
corresponds to a loudness level of about 120 dB.

The Richter scale

Earthquake intensity is often reported on the Richter scale. The formula is
a
R = log10 +B
T
where a is the amplitude of the ground motion, T is the period of the seismic wave, and B is
a term that allows for the weakening of the seismic wave with increasing distance from the
epicentre of the earthquake.

Example 37
Assume that, for a particular earthquake, we have a = 10, T = 1 and B = 6.8. Find the
earthquake’s magnitude on the Richter scale.

Solution
10
R = log10 + 6.8 = 7.8
1

Example 38
Early in the twentieth century an earthquake in San Francisco registered 8.3 on the Richter
scale. In the same year, another earthquake was recorded in South America that was
a
four times stronger. We will take this to mean that the value of for South America is
T
four times that for San Francisco. What was the magnitude of the earthquake in South
America? Assume both were measured at the same distance from the epicentre, and so the
constant B is the same for both.
Solution
For San Francisco:
a
1
8.3 = log10 +B (1)
T1
Hence, for South America:
a
2
R = log10 +B
T2
4a
1
= log10 +B
T1
a
1
= log10 4 + log10 +B
T1
= log10 4 + 8.3 using equation (1)
≈ 8.9
The magnitude was 8.9.

Note: Although the earthquake in South America was four times stronger, the magnitude on
the Richter scale only increased by log10 4 ≈ 0.6.

The pH scale
The pH scale for measuring the acidity of a solution is logarithmic. The pH of a solution is
determined by the concentration of hydronium ions, [H3 O+ ], in the solution. (Concentration
is measured in moles per litre.) The deﬁnition is
1
pH = log10 +
= − log10 [H3 O+ ]
[H3 O ]
Vinegar has pH 3, and bananas have pH in the interval [4.5, 4.7]. The scale goes from 0.1 for
hydrochloric acid up to 14 for sodium hydroxide.

Example 39
The pH of blood normally lies in the interval [7.37, 7.44]. Find the range for the
concentration of hydronium ions.

Solution
For pH 7.37, we have

− log10 [H3 O+ ] = 7.37

log10 [H3 O+ ] = −7.37
[H3 O+ ] = 10−7.37 moles per litre
Now, for pH 7.44, we have

log10 [H3 O+ ] = −7.44
[H3 O+ ] = 10−7.44 moles per litre
So the concentration of hydronium ions lies in the interval [10−7.44 , 10−7.37 ].
We can write this interval as [3.63 × 10−8 , 4.27 × 10−8 ] to three signiﬁcant ﬁgures.

Section summary
Linear scale The change between two values is determined by the diﬀerence between
the values. That is, a change from 1 to 2 is the same as a change from 6 to 7. We use
linear scales for temperature and length.
Logarithmic scale The change between two values is determined by the ratio of the
values. That is, a change from 1 to 2 (ratio of 1:2) is the same as a change from 6 to 12
(also a ratio of 1:2). We use logarithmic scales for noise and acidity.
Consider the exponential function y = b × amx , where a, b and m are positive real
numbers. Taking logarithms base a of both sides gives
loga y = loga b + mx
So the graph of loga y against x is a straight line with gradient m and with (loga y)-axis
intercept at (0, loga b).

Exercise 5I

Example 35 1 Let y = 3 × 42x , for x ≥ 0.

a If log4 y = mx + c, give the values of m and c.
b Sketch the graph of log4 y against x.
c Sketch the graph of log4 y against x labelling your vertical axis with powers of 4.

2 Let y = 2 × 53x , for x ≥ 0.

a If log5 y = mx + c, give the values of m and c.
b Sketch the graph of log5 y against x.
c Sketch the graph of log5 y against x labelling your vertical axis with powers of 5.

Example 36 3 A busy street generates noise of 70 dB and a quiet car generates noise of 50 dB. Find
the power in watt/cm2 for each of these.

4 Use the formula dB = 10 log10 (P × 1016 ) to answer the following:

a If P is increased by a factor of 2, what is the effect on dB?
b If P is increased by a factor of 10, what is the effect on dB?
c If dB is increased by a factor of 3, what is the effect on P?
d For what value of P is dB = 0?
e For what value of P is dB = 100?

5 If dB1 − dB2 = λ, ﬁnd P1 in terms of P2 .

Example 37 6 Find the magnitude on the Richter scale of an earthquake with a = 10, T = 2 and B = 5.

Example 38 7 An earthquake in Turkey registered 7.3 on the Richter scale. In the same year, an
earthquake in Greece had a quarter of this strength. We will take this to mean that
a
the value of for Greece is one-quarter that for Turkey. What was the magnitude of
T
the earthquake in Greece? Assume both were measured at the same distance from the
epicentre, and so the constant B is the same for both.

Example 39 8 The pH of a soft drink normally lies in the interval [2.0, 4.0]. Find the range for the
concentration of hydronium ions.

Short-answer questions
1 Sketch the graph of each of the following. Label asymptotes and axis intercepts.
1
a f (x) = e x − 2 b g(x) = 10−x + 1 c h(x) = (e x − 1)
2
d f (x) = 2 − e−x e f (x) = ln(2x + 1) f h(x) = ln(x − 1) + 1
g g(x) = − ln(x − 1) h f (x) = − ln(1 − x)

2 For each of the following, ﬁnd y in terms of x:

a ln y = ln x + 2 b log10 y = log10 x + 1 c log2 y = 3 log2 x + 4
d log10 y = −1 + 5 log10 x e ln y = 3 − ln x f ln y = 2x − 3

3 Solve each of the following equations for x, expressing your answers in terms of
logarithms with base e:
a 3 x = 11 b 2 x = 0.8 c 2 x = 3 x+1

4 Solve each of the following for x:

a 22x − 2 x − 2 = 0 b ln(3x − 1) = 0
c log10 (2x) + 1 = 0 d 102x − 7 × 10 x + 12 = 0

5 The graph of the function with rule y = 3 log2 (x + 1) + 2 intersects the axes at the points
(a, 0) and (0, b). Find the exact values of a and b.

6 The graph of y = 5 log10 (x + 1) passes through the point (k, 6). Find the value of k.

7 Find the exact value of x for which 4e3x = 287.

8 Find the value of x in terms of a, where 3 loga x = 3 + loga 8.

9 Given that y = log3 (x − 4), express x as a function of y.

10 The graph of the function with rule f (x) = e2x − 3ke x + 5 intersects the axes at (0, 0) and
(a, 0) and has a horizontal asymptote at y = b. Find the exact values of a, b and k.

11 Given that y = e3x − 4, express x as a function of y.

xy
12 Show that, if 3 x = 4y = 12z , then z = .
x+y
13 Evaluate 2 log2 12 + 3 log2 5 − log2 15 − log2 150.

14 a Given that log p 7 + log p k = 0, ﬁnd k.

b Given that 4 logq 3 + 2 logq 2 − logq 144 = 2, ﬁnd q.

15 Let f (x) = e x + e−x and g(x) = e x − e−x .

a Show that f is an even function. b Find f (u) + f (−u).

c Find f (u) − f (−u). d Find f (u) 2 − 2.
e Show that g is an odd function.
f Find f (x) + g(x), f (x) − g(x) and f (x) · g(x).

Review
Multiple-choice questions
1 If 4 logb (x2 ) = logb 16 + 8, then x is equal to
√
A b4 B ±6 C ± 2b D 26 E 2b4

2 The expression ln(4e3x ) is equal to

A ln(e12x ) B ln(12) + x C 3x ln(4) D ln(4) + 3x E 12x

3 The expression 3log3 (x−4) is equal to

x
A B x−4 C 3(x − 4) D 3 x − 34 E log3 x − log3 4
4
4 Consider the three functions
1 1
f : A → R, f (x) = e2x , , h : C → R, h(x) = e2x +
g : B → R, g(x) =
x+1 x+1
where A, B and C are the largest domains for which f , g and h respectively are deﬁned.
Which one of the following statements is true?
A A C and ran(g) = ran(h) B A = B and ran( f ) ran(h)
C A C and ran( f ) = ran(h) D B = C and ran(g) = ran(h)
E B = C and ran(g) ran(h)

5 If x = 5 is a solution of the equation log10 (kx − 3) = 2, then the exact value of k is

103 log10 2 + 3
A B C 2 D 5 E 21
5 5
6 34 log3 (x)+log3 (4x) is equal to
A 8x B x4 + 4x C 4x5 D 38x E log3 (4x5 )

7 The solution of the equation 3x = 10−0.3x is closest to

A 0.83 B 0.28 C 0 D 0.30 E 0.91

8 The graph of the function with rule y = ae−x + b is y

shown on the right.
The values of a and b respectively are
A 3, −3 B −3, 3 C −3, −3
D 0, −3 E −3, 0 x
O
−3
9 Which one of the following statements is not true of the graph of the function
f : R+ → R, f (x) = log5 x?
A The domain is R+ .
B The range is R.
C It passes through the point (5, 0).
D It has a vertical asymptote with equation x = 0.
E The slope of the tangent at any point on the graph is positive.

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Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
258 Chapter 5: Exponential and logarithmic functions
Review
10 If 3 log2 x − 7 log2 (x − 1) = 2 + log2 y, then y is equal to
3x 1
A B C 3 − 4x
28(x − 1) 4x4
x3
D E x3 − (x − 1)7 − 4
4(x − 1)7
11 The graph of the function f (x) = e2x − 12 intersects the graph of g(x) = −e x where
A x = ln 3 B x = ln 2 C x = ln 7 D x = ln 4 E x = ln 5

12 Let the rule for a function g be g(x) = ln (x − 4)2 . For the function g, the maximal
domain and range are
A R, R B (4, ∞), R+ C R \ {4}, R
D R \ {2}, R \ {0} E (−∞, 4), R

13 The maximal domain D of the function f : D → R, f (x) = ln (x − 3)2 + 6 is
A (3, ∞) B [3, ∞) C R \ {3} D R+ E (∞, 3)

14 When rewritten with x as the subject, the equation y = e3x+4 becomes

ln(y) − 4 y − 4
A x = −3 ln(3y − 4) B x= C x = −3 ln
3 3
D x = ln(3y − 4) E x = ln(3y) − 4

15 If f (x) = 2 ln(3x) and f (6x) = ln(y), then

x
A y = 18x B y= C y = 6x2 D y = 324x2 E y = 36x2
3

Extended-response questions
1 A liquid cools from its original temperature of 90◦ C to a temperature of T ◦ C in
x minutes. Given that T = 90(0.98) x , ﬁnd:
a the value of T when x = 10
b the value of x when T = 27.

2 The population of a village at the beginning of the year 1800 was 240. The population
increased so that, after a period of n years, the new population was 240(1.06)n . Find:
a the population at the beginning of 1820
b the year in which the population ﬁrst reached 2500.

3 The value, $V, of a particular car can be modelled by the equation V = ke−λt , where
t years is the age of the car. The car’s original price was $22 497, and after 1 year it is
valued at $18 000.
a State the value of k and calculate λ, giving your answer to two decimal places.
b Find the value of the car when it is 3 years old.

Review
4 The value, $M, of a particular house during the period 1988 to 1994 can be modelled by
the equation M = Ae−pt , where t is the time in years after 1 January 1988. The value of
the house on 1 January 1988 was $65 000 and its value on 1 January 1989 was $61 000.
a State the value of A and calculate the value of p, correct to two signiﬁcant ﬁgures.
b What was the value of the house in 1993? Give your answer to the nearest $100.

5 There are two species of insects living in a suburb: the Asla bibla and the Cutus pius.
The number of Asla bibla alive at time t days after 1 January 2000 is given by
NA (t) = 10 000 + 1000t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 15
The number of Cutus pius alive at time t days after 1 January 2000 is given by
NC (t) = 8000 + 3 × 2t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 15
a With a calculator, plot the graphs of y = NA (t) and y = NC (t) on the one screen.
b i Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the two graphs.
ii At what time is NA (t) = NC (t)?
iii What is the number of each species of insect at this time?
2 + t
c i Show that NA (t) = NC (t) if and only if t = 3 log2 10 + log2 .
2 + x 3
ii Plot the graphs of y = x and y = 3 log2 10 + log2 and ﬁnd the coordinates
3
of the point of intersection.
d It is found by observation that the model for Cutus pius does not quite work. It is
known that the model for the population of Asla bibla is satisfactory. The form of
the model for Cutus pius is NC (t) = 8000 + c × 2t . Find the value of c, correct to two
decimal places, if it is known that NA (15) = NC (15).

6 The number of a type of bacteria is modelled by the formula n = A(1 − e−Bt ), where n is
the size of the population at time t hours, and A and B are positive constants.
a When t = 2, n = 10 000 and when t = 4, n = 15 000.
i Show that 2e−4B − 3e−2B + 1 = 0.
ii Use the substitution a = e−2B to show that 2a2 − 3a + 1 = 0.
iii Solve this equation for a.
iv Find the exact value of B.
v Find the exact value of A.
b Sketch the graph of n against t.
c After how many hours is the population of bacteria 18 000?

7 The barometric pressure P (in centimetres of mercury) at a height h km above sea level
is given by P = 75(10−0.15h ). Find:
a P when h = 0 b P when h = 10 c h when P = 60.

8 A radioactive substance is decaying such that the amount, A g, at time t years is given
by the formula A = A0 ekt . If when t = 1, A = 60.7 and when t = 6, A = 5, ﬁnd the
values of the constants A0 and k.

Cambridge Senior Maths AC ISBN 978-1-316-63582-7 © Evans et al. 2017 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
260 Chapter 5: Exponential and logarithmic functions
Review
9 In a chemical reaction the amount, x g, of a substance that has reacted is given by
x = 8(1 − e−0.2t ), where t is the time in minutes from the beginning of the reaction.
a Sketch the graph of x against t.
b Find the amount of substance that has reacted after:
i 0 minutes ii 2 minutes iii 10 minutes.
c Find the time when exactly 7 g of the substance has reacted.

10 Newton’s law of cooling for an object in a medium of constant temperature states

T − T s = (T 0 − T s ) e−kt
where:
T is the temperature (in ◦ C) of the object at time t (in minutes)
T s is the temperature of the surrounding medium
T 0 is the initial temperature of the object.
An egg at 96◦ C is placed to cool in a sink of water at 15◦ C. After 5 minutes the egg’s
temperature is 40◦ C. (Assume that the temperature of the water does not change.)
a Find the value of k.
b Find the temperature of the egg when t = 10.
c How long does it take for the egg to reach a temperature of 30◦ C?

11 The population of a colony of small, interesting insects is modelled by the following

function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ 20e0.2t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 50
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 10
N(t) = ⎪
⎪ 20e for 50 < t ≤ 70
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩10e10 (e70−t + 1) for t > 70
where t is the number of days.
a Sketch the graph of N(t) against t.
b Find:
i N(10) ii N(40) iii N(60) iv N(80)
c Find the number of days for the population to reach:
i 2968 ii 21 932

Differentiation

Objectives
To understand the concept of limit.
To understand the definition of differentiation.
To understand and use the notation for the derivative of a polynomial function.
To find the gradient of a tangent to the graph of a polynomial function by calculating its
derivative.
To deduce the graph of the derivative from the graph of a function.
To understand and use the chain rule.
To differentiate rational powers.
To differentiate exponential functions and natural logarithmic functions.
To differentiate circular functions.
To understand and use the product rule and the quotient rule.
To find the second derivative of a function.

It is believed that calculus was discovered independently in the late seventeenth century
by two great mathematicians: Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz. Like most scientiﬁc
breakthroughs, the discovery of calculus did not arise out of a vacuum. In fact, many
mathematicians and philosophers going back to ancient times made discoveries relating
to calculus.
In this chapter, we review some of the important ideas and results that have been introduced
in earlier studies of calculus. We introduce the chain rule, the product rule and the quotient
rule, along with the diﬀerentiation of exponential, logarithmic and circular functions.

7A The derivative
We begin this chapter by recalling the deﬁnition of average rate of change from Mathematical
Methods Year 11.

Average rate of change

For any function y = f (x), the average rate of change of y y
with respect to x over the interval [a, b] is the gradient of
the line through the two points A(a, f (a)) and B(b, f (b)).
B
That is: (b, f(b))
A
f (b) − f (a) (a, f(a))
average rate of change =
b−a y = f(x)

x
O a b

Example 1
Find the average rate of change of the function with rule f (x) = x2 − 2x + 5 as x changes
from 1 to 5.
Solution
change in y
Average rate of change =
change in x
f (1) = (1)2 − 2(1) + 5 = 4
f (5) = (5)2 − 2(5) + 5 = 20
20 − 4
Average rate of change =
5−1
=4

The tangent to a curve at a point

We first recall that a chord of a curve is a line segment y
joining points P and Q on the curve. A secant is a line
through points P and Q on the curve.
The instantaneous rate of change at P can be defined Q1
by considering what happens when we look at a Q2
sequence of secants PQ1 , PQ2 , PQ3 , . . . , PQn , . . . , Q3
where the points Qi get closer and closer to P. Qn
Here we first focus our attention on the gradient of the P
tangent at P.
x
O

Consider the function f : R → R, f (x) = x2 . y

The gradient of the secant PQ shown on the f(x) = x2
graph is (a + h, (a + h)2) Q
(a + h)2 − a2
gradient of PQ =
a+h−a
a2 + 2ah + h2 − a2
=
h P(a, a2)
= 2a + h x
O
The limit of 2a + h as h approaches 0 is 2a,
and so the gradient of the tangent at P is
said to be 2a.
Note: This also can be interpreted as the instantaneous rate of change of f at (a, f (a)).
The straight line that passes through the point P and has gradient 2a is called the tangent to
the curve at P.
It can be seen that there is nothing special about a here. The same calculation works for any
real number x. The gradient of the tangent to the graph of y = x2 at any point x is 2x.
We say that the derivative of x2 with respect to x is 2x, or more brieﬂy, we can say that the
derivative of x2 is 2x.

Limit notation
The notation for the limit of 2x + h as h approaches 0 is
lim (2x + h)
h→0

The derivative of a function with rule f (x) may be found by:

1 ﬁnding an expression for the gradient of the line through P x, f (x) and Q x + h, f (x + h)
2 ﬁnding the limit of this expression as h approaches 0.

Example 2
Consider the function f (x) = x3 . By first finding the gradient of the secant through P(2, 8)

and Q 2 + h, (2 + h)3 , find the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point (2, 8).

Solution
(2 + h)3 − 8
Gradient of PQ =
2+h−2
8 + 12h + 6h2 + h3 − 8
=
h
12h + 6h2 + h3
=
h
= 12 + 6h + h2
The gradient of the tangent line at (2, 8) is lim (12 + 6h + h2 ) = 12.
h→0

The following example provides practice in determining limits.

Example 3
Find:
3x2 h + 2h2
a lim (22x2 + 20xh + h) b lim
h→0 h→0 h
c lim 12x d lim 4
h→0 h→0

Solution
a lim (22x2 + 20xh + h) = 22x2
h→0

3x2 h + 2h2
b lim = lim (3x2 + 2h)
h→0 h h→0

= 3x2

c lim 12x = 12x

h→0

d lim 4 = 4
h→0

Using the TI-Nspire

To calculate a limit, use menu > Calculus >
Limit and complete as shown.

Note: The limit template can also be accessed from the 2D-template palette t.
When you insert the limit template, you will notice a superscript ﬁeld (small box)
on the template – generally this will be left empty.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In M, enter and highlight the expression
3x2 h + 2h2
h
Note: Use h from the Var keyboard.
Select ; from the Math2 keyboard and tap EXE .
Enter h and 0 in the spaces provided as shown.

Definition of the derivative

In general, consider the graph y = f (x) of a y
function f : R → R.
f (x + h) − f (x) y = f(x)
Gradient of secant PQ =
x+h−x
Q
f (x + h) − f (x)
= (x + h, f(x + h))
h P(x, f(x))
The gradient of the tangent to the graph of
x
y = f (x) at the point P(x, f (x)) is the limit of this O
expression as h approaches 0.

Derivative of a function
The derivative of the function f is denoted f and is deﬁned by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h

The tangent line to the graph of the function f at the point (a, f (a)) is deﬁned to be the
line through (a, f (a)) with gradient f (a).

Warning: This deﬁnition of the derivative assumes that the limit exists. For polynomial
functions, such limits always exist. But it is not true that for every function you can ﬁnd the
derivative at every point of its domain. This is discussed further in Sections 7M and 7N.

Differentiation by first principles

Determining the derivative of a function by evaluating the limit is called diﬀerentiation by
ﬁrst principles.

Example 4
f (x + h) − f (x)
Find lim for each of the following:
h→0 h
a f (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 2 b f (x) = 2 − x3

Solution
f (x + h) − f (x) 3(x + h)2 + 2(x + h) + 2 − (3x2 + 2x + 2)
a =
h h
3x2 + 6xh + 3h2 + 2x + 2h + 2 − 3x2 − 2x − 2
=
h
6xh + 3h2 + 2h
=
h
= 6x + 3h + 2

Therefore
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim = lim (6x + 3h + 2) = 6x + 2
h→0 h h→0

f (x + h) − f (x) 2 − (x + h)3 − (2 − x3 )
b =
h h
2 − (x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 ) − 2 + x3
=
h
−3x2 h − 3xh2 − h3
=
h
= −3x2 − 3xh − h2
Therefore
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim = lim (−3x2 − 3xh − h2 ) = −3x2
h→0 h h→0

Using the TI-Nspire

Deﬁne f (x) = 2 − x3 .
Use menu > Calculus > Limit or the
2D-template palette t, and complete
as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In M, enter and highlight the expression 2 − x3 .
Select Interactive > Define and tap OK .
Now enter and highlight the expression
f (x + h) − f (x)
h
Note: Select f from the abc keyboard and x, h from
the Var keyboard.
Select ; from the Math2 keyboard and tap EXE .
Enter h and 0 in the spaces provided as shown.

Section summary
The derivative of the function f is denoted f and is deﬁned by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
The tangent line to the graph of the function f at the point (a, f (a)) is deﬁned to be the
line through (a, f (a)) with gradient f (a).

Exercise 7A

Example 1 1 Find the average rate of change of the function with rule f (x) = −x2 + 2x + 1 as x
changes from −1 to 4.

2 Find the average rate of change of the function with rule f (x) = 6 − x3 as x changes
from −1 to 1.

Example 2 3 For the curve with equation y = x2 + 5x:

a Find the gradient of the secant though points P and Q, where P is the point (2, 14)

and Q is the point 2 + h, (2 + h)2 + 5(2 + h) .
b From the result of a, ﬁnd the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point (2, 14).

Example 3 4 Find:
4x2 h2 + xh + h 2x3 h − 2xh2 + h
a lim b lim
h→0 h h→0 h
c lim (40 − 50h) d lim 5h
h→0 h→0

30h2 x2 + 20h2 x + h
e lim 5 f lim
h→0 h→0 h
3h2 x3 + 2hx + h
g lim h lim 3x
h→0 h h→0

3x3 h − 5x2 h2 + xh
i lim j lim (6x − 7h)
h→0 h h→0

5 For the curve with equation y = x3 − x:

a Find the gradient of the chord PQ, where P is the point (1, 0) and Q is the point

1 + h, (1 + h)3 − (1 + h) .
b From the result of a, ﬁnd the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point (1, 0).

f (x + h) − f (x)
6 If f (x) = x2 − 2, simplify . Hence ﬁnd the derivative of x2 − 2.
h

7 Let P and Q be points on the curve y = x2 + 2x + 5 at which x = 2 and x = 2 + h

respectively. Express the gradient of the line PQ in terms of h, and hence ﬁnd the
gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x2 + 2x + 5 at x = 2.

f (x + h) − f (x)
Example 4 8 For each of the following, ﬁnd f (x) by ﬁnding lim :
h→0 h
a f (x) = 5x2 b f (x) = 3x + 2
c f (x) = 5 d f (x) = 3x2 + 4x + 3
e f (x) = 5x3 − 5 f f (x) = 5x2 − 6x

7B Rules for differentiation

The derivative of xn where n is a positive integer
Diﬀerentiating from ﬁrst principles gives the following:

For f (x) = x, f (x) = 1. For f (x) = x2 , f (x) = 2x. For f (x) = x3 , f (x) = 3x2 .

This suggests the following general result:

For f (x) = xn , f (x) = nxn−1 , where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Proof We can prove this result using the binomial theorem (discussed in Appendix A).
Let f (x) = xn , where n ∈ N with n ≥ 2.
Then f (x + h) − f (x) = (x + h)n − xn
= xn + nC1 xn−1 h + nC2 xn−2 h2 + · · · + nCn−1 xhn−1 + hn − xn
= nC1 xn−1 h + nC2 xn−2 h2 + · · · + nCn−1 xhn−1 + hn
= nxn−1 h + nC2 xn−2 h2 + · · · + nCn−1 xhn−1 + hn
f (x + h) − f (x) 1 n−1
and so = nx h + nC2 xn−2 h2 + · · · + nCn−1 xhn−1 + hn
h h
= nxn−1 + nC2 xn−2 h + · · · + nCn−1 xhn−2 + hn−1
f (x + h) − f (x)
Thus lim = lim nxn−1 + nC2 xn−2 h + · · · + nCn−1 xhn−2 + hn−1
h→0 h h→0

= nxn−1

The derivative of a polynomial function

The following results are very useful when ﬁnding the derivative of a polynomial function.

Constant function: If f (x) = c, then f (x) = 0.

Multiple: If f (x) = k g(x), where k is a constant, then f (x) = k g (x).
That is, the derivative of a number multiple is the multiple of the derivative.
For example: if f (x) = 5x2 , then f (x) = 5(2x) = 10x.
Sum: If f (x) = g(x) + h(x), then f (x) = g (x) + h (x).
That is, the derivative of the sum is the sum of the derivatives.
For example: if f (x) = x2 + 2x, then f (x) = 2x + 2.
Difference: If f (x) = g(x) − h(x), then f (x) = g (x) − h (x).
That is, the derivative of the diﬀerence is the diﬀerence of the derivatives.
For example: if f (x) = x2 − 2x, then f (x) = 2x − 2.

You will meet rules for the derivatives of products and quotients later in this chapter.
The process of ﬁnding the derivative function is called diﬀerentiation.

Example 5
Find the derivative of x5 − 2x3 + 2, i.e. diﬀerentiate x5 − 2x3 + 2 with respect to x.

Solution Explanation
Let f (x) = x5 − 2x3 + 2 We use the following results:
Then f (x) = 5x4 − 2(3x2 ) + 0 the derivative of xn is nxn−1
= 5x4 − 6x2 the derivative of a number is 0
the multiple, sum and diﬀerence rules.

Example 6
Find the derivative of f (x) = 3x3 − 6x2 + 1 and thus ﬁnd f (1).

Solution
Let f (x) = 3x3 − 6x2 + 1
Then f (x) = 3(3x2 ) − 6(2x) + 0
= 9x2 − 12x
∴ f (1) = 9 − 12 = −3

Using the TI-Nspire

For Example 5:
Use menu > Calculus > Derivative and
complete as shown.

Note: The derivative template can also be accessed from the 2D-template palette t.
Alternatively, using shift – will paste the derivative template to the screen.

For Example 6:
Deﬁne f (x) = 3x3 − 6x2 + 1.
Use menu > Calculus > Derivative to
diﬀerentiate as shown.
To evaluate the derivative at x = 1, use menu
> Calculus > Derivative at a Point.

Using the Casio ClassPad

For Example 5:
In M, enter and highlight the expression
x5 − 2x3 + 2.
Go to Interactive > Calculation > diff and tap OK .

For Example 6:
In M, enter and highlight the expression
3x3 − 6x2 + 1.
Go to Interactive > Calculation > diff and tap OK ;
this will give the derivative only.
To ﬁnd the value of the derivative at x = 1, tap the
stylus at the end of the entry line. Select | from the
Math3 keyboard and type x = 1. Then tap EXE .

Alternatively, deﬁne the derivative as g(x) and

ﬁnd g(1).

Finding the gradient of a tangent line

We discussed the tangent line at a point on a graph in Section 7A. We recall the following:
The tangent line to the graph of the function f at the point (a, f (a)) is deﬁned
to be the line through (a, f (a)) with gradient f (a).

Example 7
For the curve determined by the rule f (x) = 3x3 − 6x2 + 1, ﬁnd the gradient of the tangent
line to the curve at the point (1, −2).

Solution
Now f (x) = 9x2 − 12x and so f (1) = 9 − 12 = −3.
The gradient of the tangent line at the point (1, −2) is −3.

Alternative notations
It was mentioned in the introduction to this chapter that the German mathematician Gottfried
Leibniz was one of the two people to whom the discovery of calculus is attributed. A form of
the notation he introduced is still in use today.

Leibniz notation
An alternative notation for the derivative is the following:

dy dy
If y = x3 , then the derivative can be denoted by , and so we write = 3x2 .
dx dx
dy
In general, if y is a function of x, then the derivative of y with respect to x is denoted by .
dx
dz
Similarly, if z is a function of t, then the derivative of z with respect to t is denoted .
dt

Warning: In Leibniz notation, the symbol d is not a y

factor and cannot be cancelled.
Q
This notation came about because, in the eighteenth
century, the standard diagram for finding the δy
limiting gradient was labelled as shown: P
δx means a small difference in x δx
δy means a small difference in y x
O
where δ (delta) is the lowercase Greek letter d.

Example 8
dy dx 1 3 dz
a If y = t2 , find . b If x = t3 + t, find . c If z = x + x2 , find .
dt dt 3 dx
Solution
1 3
a y = t2 b x = t3 + t c z= x + x2
3
dy dx dz
= 2t = 3t2 + 1 = x2 + 2x
dt dt dx

Example 9
dy dz
a For y = (x + 3)2 , find . b For z = (2t − 1)2 (t + 2), find .
dx dt
x2 + 3x dy
c For y = , find . d Differentiate y = 2x3 − 1 with respect to x.
x dx
Solution
a First write y = (x + 3)2 in b Expanding:
expanded form: z = (4t2 − 4t + 1)(t + 2)
y = x2 + 6x + 9 = 4t3 − 4t2 + t + 8t2 − 8t + 2
dy = 4t3 + 4t2 − 7t + 2
∴ = 2x + 6
dx
dz
∴ = 12t2 + 8t − 7
dt
c First simplify: d y = 2x3 − 1
y= x+3 (for x 0) ∴
dy
= 6x2
dy dx
∴ =1 (for x 0)
dx

Operator notation
d
‘Find the derivative of 2x2 − 4x with respect to x’ can also be written as ‘ﬁnd (2x2 − 4x)’.
dx
d
In general: f (x) = f (x).
dx

Example 10
Find:
d d d
a (5x − 4x3 ) b (5z2 − 4z) c (6z3 − 4z2 )
dx dz dz
Solution
d d d
a (5x − 4x3 ) b (5z2 − 4z) c (6z3 − 4z2 )
dx dz dz
= 5 − 12x2 = 10z − 4 = 18z2 − 8z

Example 11
For each of the following curves, ﬁnd the coordinates of the points on the curve at which
the gradient of the tangent line at that point has the given value:
a y = x3 , gradient = 8 b y = x2 − 4x + 2, gradient = 0
c y = 4 − x3 , gradient = −6

Solution
dy dy
a y = x3 implies = 3x2 b y = x2 − 4x + 2 implies = 2x − 4
dx dx
∴ 3x2 = 8 ∴ 2x − 4 = 0
√
8 ±2 6 ∴ x=2
∴ x=± =
3 3 The only point is (2, −2).
√
2 6 16√6
The points are , and
3 9
−2√6 −16√6
, .
3 9
dy
c y = 4 − x3 implies = −3x2
dx
∴ −3x2 = −6
∴ x2 = 2
√
∴ x=± 2
1 3 1 3
The points are 2 2 , 4 − 2 2 and −2 2 , 4 + 2 2 .

Using the TI-Nspire

Deﬁne f (x) = 4 − x3 .
d
Solve the equation f (x) = −6.
dx
Substitute in f (x) to ﬁnd the y-coordinates.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In M, enter and highlight the expression 4 − x3 .
Go to Interactive > Define and tap OK .
In the next entry line, type and highlight f (x).
Go to Interactive > Calculation > diff and tap OK .
d
Type = −6 after f (x) . Highlight the equation
dx
and use Interactive > Equation/Inequality > solve.
√ √
Enter f (− 2) and f ( 2) to ﬁnd the required
y-values.

An angle associated with the gradient of a curve at a point

The gradient of a curve at a point is the gradient of the tangent at that point. A straight line,
the tangent, is associated with each point on the curve.
If α is the angle a straight line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis, then the
gradient, m, of the straight line is equal to tan α. That is, m = tan α.
For example, if α = 135◦ , then tan α = −1 and so the gradient is −1.

Example 12
Find the coordinates of the points on the curve with equation y = x2 − 7x + 8 at which the
tangent line:
a makes an angle of 45◦ with the positive direction of the x-axis
b is parallel to the line y = −2x + 6.

Solution
dy
a = 2x − 7 b The line y = −2x + 6 has gradient −2.
dx
2x − 7 = 1 (as tan 45◦ = 1) 2x − 7 = −2
2x = 8 2x = 5
∴ x=4 5
∴ x=
2
y = 42 − 7 × 4 + 8 = −4
5 13
The coordinates are (4, −4). The coordinates are ,− .
2 4

Increasing and decreasing functions

We have discussed strictly increasing and strictly decreasing functions in Chapter 1.
A function f is strictly increasing on an interval if x2 > x1 implies f (x2 ) > f (x1 ).
A function f is strictly decreasing on an interval if x2 > x1 implies f (x2 ) < f (x1 ).
We have the following very important results.
Cambridge Senior Maths AC ISBN 978-1-316-63582-7 © Evans et al. 2017 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
7B Rules for differentiation 289

If f (x) > 0, for all x in the interval, then the function is strictly increasing.
(Think of the tangents at each point – they each have positive gradient.)
If f (x) < 0, for all x in the interval, then the function is strictly decreasing.
(Think of the tangents at each point – they each have negative gradient.)

Warning: The function f : R → R, f (x) = x3 is strictly increasing, but f (0) = 0. This means
that strictly increasing does not imply f (x) > 0.

Sign of the derivative y

Gradients of tangents can, of
course, be negative or zero. They R(b, g(b))
y = g(x)
are not always positive.
At a point (a, g(a)) on the graph
of y = g(x), the gradient of the a
x
tangent is g (a). b O
S(a, g(a))
Some features of the graph shown are:
For x < b, the gradient of any tangent is positive, i.e. g (x) > 0.
For x = b, the gradient of the tangent is zero, i.e. g (b) = 0.
For b < x < a, the gradient of any tangent is negative, i.e. g (x) < 0.
For x = a, the gradient of the tangent is zero, i.e. g (a) = 0.
For x > a, the gradient of any tangent is positive, i.e. g (x) > 0.
Note: This function g is strictly decreasing on the open interval (b, a), but it is also strictly
decreasing on the closed interval [b, a]. Similarly, the function g is strictly increasing
on the intervals [a, ∞) and (−∞, b].

Example 13
y
For the graph of f : R → R, ﬁnd: (5, 6)
a { x : f (x) > 0 }
b { x : f (x) < 0 }
c { x : f (x) = 0 }
x
O
y = f(x)

(–1, –7)

Solution
a { x : f (x) > 0 } = { x : −1 < x < 5 } = (−1, 5)
b { x : f (x) < 0 } = { x : x < −1 } ∪ { x : x > 5 } = (−∞, −1) ∪ (5, ∞)
c { x : f (x) = 0 } = {−1, 5}

Section summary
For f (x) = xn , f (x) = nxn−1 , where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Constant function: If f (x) = c, then f (x) = 0.
Multiple: If f (x) = k g(x), where k is a constant, then f (x) = k g (x).
That is, the derivative of a number multiple is the multiple of the derivative.
Sum: If f (x) = g(x) + h(x), then f (x) = g (x) + h (x).
That is, the derivative of the sum is the sum of the derivatives.
Difference: If f (x) = g(x) − h(x), then f (x) = g (x) − h (x).
That is, the derivative of the diﬀerence is the diﬀerence of the derivatives.
Angle of inclination of tangent
• A straight line, the tangent, is associated with each point on a smooth curve.
• If α is the angle that a straight line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis,
then the gradient of the line is given by m = tan α.
Increasing and decreasing functions
• A function f is strictly increasing on an interval if x2 > x1 implies f (x2 ) > f (x1 ).
• A function f is strictly decreasing on an interval if x2 > x1 implies f (x2 ) < f (x1 ).
• If f (x) > 0 for all x in the interval, then the function is strictly increasing.
• If f (x) < 0 for all x in the interval, then the function is strictly decreasing.

Exercise 7B

Skillsheet 1 For each of the following, ﬁnd the derivative with respect to x:
Example 5 a x5 b 4x7 c 6x
d 5x2 − 4x + 3 e 4x3 + 6x2 + 2x − 4 f 5x4 + 3x3
g −2x2 + 4x + 6 h 6x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 6

Example 6 2 For each of the following, ﬁnd the derivative of f (x) and thus ﬁnd f (1):
a f (x) = 2x3 − 5x2 + 1 b f (x) = −2x3 − x2 − 1
c f (x) = x4 − 2x3 + 1 d f (x) = x5 − 3x3 + 2

Example 7 3 a For the curve determined by the rule f (x) = 2x3 − 5x2 + 2, find the gradient of the
tangent line to the curve at the point (1, −1).
b For the curve determined by the rule f (x) = −2x3 − 3x2 + 2, find the gradient of the
tangent line to the curve at the point (2, −26).
dy
Example 8 4 a If y = t3 , find .
dt
dx
b If x = t3 − t2 , find .
dt
1 4 dz
c If z = x + 3x3 , find .
4 dx

dy
Example 9 5 For each of the following, ﬁnd :
dx
a y = −2x b y=7
2 3
c y = 5x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 1 d y= (x − 4x + 6)
5
e y = (2x + 1)(x − 3) f y = 3x(2x − 4)
10x7 + 2x2 9x4 + 3x2
g y= , x0 h y= , x0
x2 x
Example 10 6 Find:
d d d
a (2x2 − 5x3 ) b (−2z2 − 6z) c (6z3 − 4z2 + 3)
dx dz dz
d d d
d (−2x − 5x3 ) e (−2z2 − 6z + 7) f (−z3 − 4z2 + 3)
dx dz dz
Example 11 7 Find the coordinates of the points on the curves given by the following equations at
which the gradient has the given value:
a y = 2x2 − 4x + 1, gradient = −6 b y = 4x3 , gradient = 48
c y = x(5 − x), gradient = 1 d y = x3 − 3x2 , gradient = 0

Example 12 8 Find the coordinates of the points on the curve with equation y = 2x2 − 3x + 8 at which
the tangent line:
a makes an angle of 45◦ with the positive direction of the x-axis
b is parallel to the line y = 2x + 8.

9 Find the value of x such that the tangent line to the curve f (x) = x2 − x at (x, f (x)):
a makes an angle of 45◦ with the positive direction of the x-axis
b makes an angle of 135◦ with the positive direction of the x-axis
c makes an angle of 60◦ with the positive direction of the x-axis
d makes an angle of 30◦ with the positive direction of the x-axis
e makes an angle of 120◦ with the positive direction of the x-axis.

10 For each of the following, ﬁnd the angle that the tangent line to the curve y = f (x)
makes with the positive direction of the x-axis at the given point:
a y = x2 + 3x, (1, 4) b y = −x2 + 2x, (1, 1) c y = x3 + x, (0, 0)
d y = −x3 − x, (0, 0) e y = x4 − x2 , (1, 0) f y = x4 − x2 , (−1, 0)

11 a Diﬀerentiate y = (2x − 1)2 with respect to x.

x3 + 2x2 dy
b For y = , x 0, find .
x dx
dy dy
c Given that y = 2x3 − 6x2 + 18x, find . Hence show that > 0 for all x.
dx dx
3
x dy dy
d Given that y = − x2 + x, find . Hence show that ≥ 0 for all x.
3 dx dx

12 At the points on the following curves corresponding to the given values of x, ﬁnd the
y-coordinate and the gradient:
a y = x2 + 2x + 1, x = 3 b y = x2 − x − 1, x = 0
c y = 2x2 − 4x, x = −1 d y = (2x + 1)(3x − 1)(x + 2), x = 4
e y = (2x + 5)(3 − 5x)(x + 1), x = 1 f y = (2x − 5)2 , x = 2 12

13 For the function f (x) = 3(x − 1)2 , ﬁnd the value(s) of x for which:
a f (x) = 0 b f (x) = 0 c f (x) > 0
d f (x) < 0 e f (x) = 10 f f (x) = 27

Example 13 14 For the graph of y = h(x) illustrated, ﬁnd: y

a { x : h (x) > 0 } (-1, 6)
b { x : h (x) < 0 }
c { x : h (x) = 0 }
x
O
(0, -1)

(1, -4)

15 For the graph of y = f (x) shown, ﬁnd: y

y = f(x)

a { x : f (x) > 0 }
b { x : f (x) < 0 } (0.5, 5.0625)
c { x : f (x) = 0 }
x
-1 O 2

16 For the graph of y = g(x) shown, ﬁnd: y

a { x : g (x) > 0 } y = g(x)
b { x : g (x) < 0 }
c { x : g (x) = 0 }
x
-1 O 2

1 -2187
- ,
4 256

17 Find the coordinates of the points on the parabola y = x2 − 4x − 8 at which:

a the gradient is zero b the tangent is parallel to y = 2x + 6
c the tangent is parallel to 3x + 2y = 8.

18 a Show that f : R → R, f (x) = x3 is a strictly increasing function for R by showing

that f (x) > 0, for all non-zero x, and showing that, if b > 0, then f (b) > f (0) and,
if 0 > b, then f (0) > f (b).
b Show that f : R → R, f (x) = −x3 is a strictly decreasing function for R.

19 a Show that f : [0, ∞) → R, f (x) = x2 is a strictly increasing function.

b Show that f : (−∞, 0] → R, f (x) = x2 is a strictly decreasing function.

20 For the function f : R → R, f (x) = x2 − x − 12, show that the largest interval for which
f is strictly increasing is [ 12 , ∞).

21 For each of the following, ﬁnd the largest interval for which the function is strictly
decreasing:
a y = x2 + 2x b y = −x2 + 4x c y = 2x2 + 3 d y = −2x2 + 6x

7C Differentiating xn where n is a negative integer

In the previous sections we have seen how to diﬀerentiate polynomial functions. In this
section we add to the family of functions that we can diﬀerentiate. In particular, we will
consider functions which involve linear combinations of powers of x, where the indices may
be negative integers.
e.g. f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = x−1
f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = 2x + x−1
f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = x + 3 + x−2
Note: We have reintroduced function notation to emphasise the need to consider domains.

Example 14
Let f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = x−3 . Find f (x) by ﬁrst principles.

Solution
The gradient of secant PQ is given by y
−3 −3
(x + h) −x
h P(x, x–3)
x3 − (x + h)3 1
= ×
(x + h)3 x3 h
x3 − (x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 ) 1 Q(x + h, (x + h)–3)
= × x
(x + h)3 x3 h O
−3x2 h − 3xh2 − h3 1
= ×
(x + h)3 x3 h
−3x2 − 3xh − h2
=
(x + h)3 x3
So the gradient of the curve at P is given by
−3x2 − 3xh − h2 −3x2
lim = 6 = −3x−4
h→0 (x + h)3 x3 x
Hence f (x) = −3x−4 .

We are now in a position to state the generalisation of the result we found in Section 7B. This
result can be proved by again using the binomial theorem.

For f (x) = xn , f (x) = nxn−1 , where n is a non-zero integer.

For f (x) = c, f (x) = 0, where c is a constant.

When n is positive, we take the domain of f to be R, and when n is negative, we take the
domain of f to be R \ {0}.

Example 15
Find the derivative of x4 − 2x−3 + x−1 + 2, x 0.
Solution
If f (x) = x4 − 2x−3 + x−1 + 2 (for x 0)
−4 −2
then f (x) = 4x − 2(−3x ) + (−x ) + 0
3

= 4x3 + 6x−4 − x−2 (for x 0)

Example 16
Find the derivative f of f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = 3x2 − 6x−2 + 1.

Solution
f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = 3(2x) − 6(−2x−3 ) + 0
= 6x + 12x−3

Example 17
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve determined by the function f : R \ {0} → R,
1
f (x) = x2 + at the point (1, 2).
x
Solution
f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = 2x + (−x−2 )
= 2x − x−2
Therefore f (1) = 2 − 1 = 1. The gradient of the curve is 1 at the point (1, 2).

Example 18
Show that the derivative of the function f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = x−3 is always negative.

Solution
−3
f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = −3x−4 =
x4
Since x4 is positive for all x 0, we have f (x) < 0 for all x 0.

Section summary
For f (x) = xn , f (x) = nxn−1 , where n is a non-zero integer.
For f (x) = c, f (x) = 0, where c is a constant.

Exercise 7C
2
1 a Sketch the graph of f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = .
x2
b Let P be the point (1, 2) and Q the point (1 + h, f (1 + h)). Find the gradient of the
secant PQ.
2
c Hence find the gradient of the tangent to the curve f (x) = 2 at (1, 2).
x
1
Example 14 2 a Let f : R \ {3} → R, f (x) = . Find f (x) by first principles.
x−3
1
b Let f : R \ {−2} → R, f (x) = . Find f (x) by first principles.
x+2
3 Let f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = x−4 . Find f (x) by first principles.
Hint: Remember that (x + h)4 = x4 + 4x3 h + 6x2 h2 + 4xh3 + h4 .

Example 15, 16 4 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:

5 −5 4
a 3x−2 + 5x−1 + 6 b 3 + 6x2 c 3
+ 2 +1
x x x
4x 2
+ 2x
d 6x−3 + 3x−2 e
x2
5 Find the derivative of each of the following:
2z2 − 4z 6+z
a , z0 b , z0 c 16 − z−3 , z 0
z2 z3
4z + z3 − z4 6z2 − 2z 6
d , z 0 e , z0 f − 3x2 , x 0
z2 z4 x
Example 17 6 Find the gradient of the tangent to each of the following curves at the stated point:
1
a y = x−2 + x3 , x 0, at (2, 8 14 ) b y = x−2 − , x 0, at (4, 12 )
x
1
c y = x−2 − , x 0, at (1, 0) d y = x x−1 + x2 − x−3 , x 0, at (1, 1)
x
Example 18 7 Show that the derivative of the function f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) = −2x−5 is always
positive.
x2 − 1
8 Find the x-coordinates of the points on the curve y = at which the gradient of the
x
curve is 5.
b
9 Given that the curve y = ax2 + has a gradient of −5 at the point (2, −2), ﬁnd the
x
values of a and b.

2x − 4
10 Find the gradient of the curve y = at the point where the curve crosses
x2
the x-axis.
a
11 The gradient of the curve y = + bx2 at the point (3, 6) is 7. Find the values of a and b.
x
5 8
12 For the curve with equation y = x + kx2 − x3 , calculate the possible values of k such
3 9
that the tangents at the points with x-coordinates 1 and − 12 are perpendicular.

7D The graph of the derivative function

First consider the quadratic function with rule y = f (x) shown in the graph on the left. The
vertex is at the point with coordinates (a, b).
For x < a, f (x) < 0. y y
For x = a, f (x) = 0.
y = f(x)
For x > a, f (x) > 0. y = f ¢(x)
The graph of the derivative
function with rule y = f (x) (a, b)
is therefore as shown on x x
the right. O O a

The derivative f is known

to be linear as f is quadratic.
Now consider the cubic function with rule y = g(x) y
shown in the graph.
For x < a, g (x) > 0. y = g(x)
(a, b)
For x = a, g (x) = 0.
For a < x < c, g (x) < 0.
For x = c, g (x) = 0. x
For x > c, g (x) > 0. O

(c, d)
The graph of the derivative function with rule y = g (x) y
is therefore as shown to the right. The derivative g is
y = g¢(x)
known to be quadratic as g is cubic.

x
a O c

Example 19
Sketch the graph of the derivative function for each of the functions of the graphs shown:

a y b y c y

(–1, 4)
1 2
x x O x
–1 O O 2
(1, –3)

d y e y f y

2
x x x
O point of O O
zero gradient

Solution
Note: Not all features of the graphs are known.

a y b y c y

y=1
1
x x x
O O y = –1 –1 O 1
–1

d y e y f y

x x x
O O O

For some functions f , there are values of x for which the derivative f (x) is not deﬁned. We
will consider diﬀerentiability informally here and more formally in Section 7N.

Consider the function f : R → R given by y

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨x for x ≥ 0
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ y = f(x)
⎪
⎩−x for x < 0
Now consider the gradient of the secant through the points
(0, 0) and (h, f (h)) on the graph of y = f (x):
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
h x
⎪
⎪ for h > 0 O
⎪
f (0 + h) − f (0) ⎨ h
gradient = =⎪⎪
h ⎪
⎪
⎪ −h
⎪
⎩ for h < 0
h
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨1 for h > 0
=⎪⎪
⎪
⎩−1 for h < 0

f (0 + h) − f (0)
The gradient does not approach a unique value as h → 0, and so we say lim
h→0 h
does not exist. The function f is not diﬀerentiable at x = 0.
The gradient of the curve y = f (x) is −1 to the left of 0, y
and 1 to the right of 0. Therefore the derivative function
f : R \ {0} → R is given by y = f′ (x)
⎧ 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨1 for x > 0
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ x
⎪
⎩−1 for x < 0 O
The graph of f is shown on the right. –1

Example 20
y
Draw a sketch graph of f where the graph of f is as
illustrated. Indicate where f is not deﬁned. 2

x
–1 O 1

Solution y
The derivative does not exist at x = 0,
i.e. the function is not diﬀerentiable at x = 0.
2

x
–1 O 1

–2

Exercise 7D

Example 19 1 Sketch the graph of the derivative function for each of the following functions:
a y b y c y

2 3
–1
x x x
O O 1 O 2

d y e y f y
Point of
(–1, 4)
zero gradient
(2, 3)

x x x
–3 O 1 O O

(–1, –5)

g y h y i y

(2, 3) (1, 5)
(0, 1)
(3, 3) x
x x (1, 0)
O O O
(0, –6)

Example 20 2 Sketch the graph of the derivative function for each of the following functions:
a y b y c y

(1, 5) 2
(0, 4) (2, 4)
x O
x –3 O 3 x
O
–3 point of
zero gradient

d y e y f y

(–3, 1.5)
1 y=3
x
–1O 1 2 x x
–1.5O 1.5 O x=2
–1.5 (1, –2)

g y h y i y

x
O O
x x
O
(1, –1)
(–2, –2)

3 Match the graphs of the functions a–f with the graphs of their derivatives A–F:
a y b y c y

2
2
2
x x x
-4 O O 1 O 1

d y e y f y

2 2

x
x O x
-1 O 1 -2 O 2

A y B y C y

x x x
O O O 1

D y E y F y

1 2

x x x
O –2 O 2 O
–2

4 a Use a calculator to plot the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = (x2 − 2x)2 .
b Using the same screen, plot the graph of y = f (x). (Do not attempt to determine the
rule for f (x) ﬁrst.)
c Use a calculator to determine f (x) for:
i x=0 ii x = 2 iii x = 1 iv x = 4
d For 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, ﬁnd the value of x for which:
i f (x) is a maximum ii f (x) is a maximum.

x3
5 For f (x) = − x2 + x + 1, plot the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f (x) on the same screen.
3
Comment.

6 For g(x) = x3 + 2x + 1, plot the graphs of y = g(x) and y = g (x) on the same screen.
Comment.

7 a For h(x) = x4 + 2x + 1, plot the graphs of y = h(x) and y = h (x) on the same screen.
b Find the value(s) of x such that:
i h(x) = 3 ii h (x) = 3

7E The chain rule

An expression such as q(x) = (x3 + 1)2 may be differentiated by expanding and then
differentiating each term separately. This method is a great deal more tiresome for an
expression such as q(x) = (x3 + 1)30 .
We can express q(x) = (x3 + 1)2 as the composition of two simpler functions defined by
u = g(x) = x3 + 1 and y = f (u) = u2
which are ‘chained’ together:
g f
x −→ u −→ y
That is, q(x) = (x3 + 1)2 = f (g(x)), and so q is expressed as the composition f ◦ g.
The chain rule gives a method of differentiating such functions.

The chain rule

If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the composite function
q(x) = f (g(x)) is differentiable at x and

q (x) = f g(x) g (x)
Or using Leibniz notation, where u = g(x) and y = f (u),
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx

Proof To ﬁnd the derivative of q = f ◦ g where x = a, consider the secant through the points

a, f ◦ g(a) and a + h, f ◦ g(a + h) . The gradient of this secant is
f ◦ g(a + h) − f ◦ g(a)
h
We carry out the trick of multiplying the numerator and the denominator by
g(a + h) − g(a). This gives

f g(a + h) − f g(a) g(a + h) − g(a)
×
h g(a + h) − g(a)
provided g(a + h) − g(a) 0.
Now write b = g(a) and b + k = g(a + h) so that k = g(a + h) − g(a). The expression
for the gradient becomes
f (b + k) − f (b) g(a + h) − g(a)
×
k h
The function g is continuous, since its derivative exists, and therefore

lim k = lim g(a + h) − g(a) = 0
h→0 h→0

Thus, as h approaches 0, so does k. Hence q (a) = f g(a) g (a).

Note that this proof does not hold for a function g such that g(a + h) − g(a) = 0 for arbitrarily
chosen small h. However, a fully rigorous proof is beyond the scope of this course.

Example 21
Diﬀerentiate y = (4x3 − 5x)−2 .

Solution
The diﬀerentiation is undertaken using both notations:

Let u = 4x3 − 5x Let h(x) = 4x3 − 5x

Then y = u−2 and g(x) = x−2
We have Then f (x) = g(h(x))
dy We have
= −2u−3
du
h (x) = 12x2 − 5
du
= 12x2 − 5 g (x) = −2x−3
dx

Therefore Therefore
dy dy du
= · f (x) = g h(x) h (x)
dx du dx
= −2 h(x) −3 h (x)
= −2u−3 · (12x2 − 5)
= −2(4x3 − 5x)−3 × (12x2 − 5)
−2(12x − 5)
2
= −2(12x2 − 5)
(4x3 − 5x)3 =
(4x3 − 5x)3

Using the TI-Nspire

Deﬁne g(x) and h(x).
Then deﬁne f (x) = g(h(x)).
Use menu > Calculus > Derivative and
complete as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Deﬁne g(x) and h(x).
Then deﬁne f (x) = g(h(x)).
Find the derivative of f (x).

Example 22
16
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve with equation y = at the point (1, 4).
3x2 + 1
Solution
Let u = 3x2 + 1 then y = 16u−1
du dy
So = 6x and = −16u−2
dx du

dy dy du
∴ = ·
dx du dx
= −16u−2 · 6x
−96x
=
(3x2 + 1)2
−96
∴ At x = 1, the gradient is = −6.
16

Section summary
The chain rule
If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the composite function
q(x) = f (g(x)) is differentiable at x and

q (x) = f g(x) g (x)
Or using Leibniz notation, where u = g(x) and y = f (u),
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx

Exercise 7E

Example 21 1 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:

a (x2 + 1)4 b (2x2 − 3)5
c (6x + 1)4 d (ax + b)n
e (ax2 + b)n f (1 − x2 )−3
1 −3
g x2 − 2 h (1 − x)−1
x

2 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:

a (x2 + 2x + 1)3 b (x3 + 2x2 + x)4
2 4
c 6x3 + d (x2 + 2x + 1)−2
x
16
Example 22 3 Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve with equation y = 3 at the
3x + x
point (1, 4).

1
4 Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve with equation y = at the
x2 +1
points (1, 12 ) and (−1, 12 ).
√
5 Given that f (x) = 3x + 4 and g(x) = x2 − 1, ﬁnd F (x) where F(x) = f (g(x)).

6 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x, giving the answer in terms of f (x)
and f (x):

a f (x) n , where n is a positive integer
1
b , where f (x) 0
f (x)

7F Differentiating rational powers

Before using the chain rule to differentiate rational powers, we will show how to differentiate
1 1
x 2 and x 3 by first principles.

Example 23
Diﬀerentiate each of the following by ﬁrst principles:
1 1
a f (x) = x 2 , x > 0 b g(x) = x 3 , x 0

Solution
√ √
f (x + h) − f (x) x+h− x
a =
h h
√ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= ×√ √
h x+h+ x
x+h−x
= √ √
h( x + h + x)
1
= √ √
x+h+ x

f (x + h) − f (x) 1 1
∴ f (x) = lim = lim √ √ = √
h→0 h h→0 x+h+ x 2 x
b We use the identity
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
1 3 1 3
By observing that a 3 = a and b 3 = b, we obtain
1 1 2 1 1 2
a − b = a3 − b3 a3 + a3 b3 + b3
and therefore
1 1 a−b
a3 − b3 = 2 1 1 2
a3 + a3 b3 + b3
We now have
1 1
g(x + h) − g(x) (x + h) 3 − x 3
=
h h
x+h−x
= 2 1 1 2
h (x + h) 3 + (x + h) 3 x 3 + x 3
1
= 2 1 1 2
(x + h) 3 + (x + h) 3 x 3 + x 3
Hence
g(x + h) − g(x) 1 1
g (x) = lim = lim 2 1 1 2
= 2
h→0 h h→0
(x + h) 3 + (x + h) 3 x3 + x3 3x 3

Note: We can prove that an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b2 + · · · + abn−2 + bn−1 )

1
for n ≥ 2. We could use this result to ﬁnd the derivative of x n by ﬁrst principles,
but instead we will use the chain rule.

Using the chain rule

Suppose that two variables x and y are related in such a way that y = f (x) and x = g(y). Then
y = f (g(y)) and using the chain rule gives
dy dy dx
1= = ·
dy dx dy

dy 1 dx
Thus = for 0
dx dx dy
dy
1
Now consider y = x n , where n ∈ Z \ {0} and x > 0.
dx
We have x = yn and so = nyn−1 . Therefore
dy
dy 1 1 1 1 1
= = n−1 = 1 = x n −1
dx dx ny n−1 n
n xn
dy

1 dy 1 1 −1
For y = x n , = x n , where n ∈ Z \ {0} and x > 0.
dx n

This result may now be extended to rational powers.

p
Let y = x q , where p, q ∈ Z \ {0}.
1 p 1
Write y = x q . Let u = x q . Then y = u p . The chain rule yields
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
1 1 −1
= pu p−1 · x q
q
1 p−1 1 1 −1
= p xq · xq
q
p qp − q1 1q −1
= x x
q
p qp −1
= x
q
Thus the result for integer powers has been extended to rational powers. In fact, the
analogous result holds for any non-zero real power:

For f (x) = xa , f (x) = axa−1 , where a ∈ R \ {0} and x > 0.

1 1
This result is stated for x > 0, as (−3) 2 is not deﬁned, although (−2) 3 is deﬁned.
1 1
The graphs of y = x 2 , y = x 3 and y 1
1
y= x4 are shown. y = x2
1
The domain of each has been taken to 1.5 y= x3
1
be R+ .
1.0 y = x4

0.5

x
-0.5 O 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-0.5

The ﬁgure to the right is the graph of y

1
the function f : R → R, f (x) = x3 .
0.4 1
Note that the values shown here are
y = x3
−0.08 ≤ x ≤ 0.08. 0.2
From this it can be seen that the O
1 x
tangent to y = x 3 at the origin is on -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
the y-axis. -0.2

-0.4

Example 24
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
1 2 √3
a 2x− 5 + 3x 7 b x2 + 2x

Solution
d −1 2 d √3 2
a 2x 5 + 3x 7 b x + 2x
dx dx
−1 6 2 5 d 2 1
=2 x− 5 + 3 x− 7 = (x + 2x) 3
5 7 dx
2 6 6 5 1 2 2
= − x− 5 + x− 7 = (x + 2x)− 3 (2x + 2) (chain rule)
5 7 3
2x + 2
= 3
3 (x2 + 2x)2

Section summary
p
For any non-zero rational number r = , if f (x) = xr , then f (x) = rxr−1 .
q

Exercise 7F
1
Example 23 1 Diﬀerentiate 2x 2 by ﬁrst principles.

Example 24a 2 Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
1 5 5 3
a x5 b x2 c x2 − x2 , x > 0
1 5 6 1 1
d 3x 2 − 4x 3 e x− 7 f x− 4 + 4x 2

3 Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve for each of the following at the stated value
for x:
1 1
a f (x) = x 3 where x = 27 b f (x) = x 3 where x = −8
2 5
c f (x) = x 3 where x = 27 d f (x) = x 4 where x = 16

Example 24b 4 Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
√ √ √
a 2x + 1 b 4 − 3x c x2 + 2
√3 x2 + 2 √
d 4 − 3x e √ f 3 x x2 + 2x
x
d √ 2 x
5 a Show that x ± a2 = √ .
dx x 2 ± a2
d √ 2 −x
b Show that a − x2 = √ .
dx a − x2
2

√ dy 2y
6 If y = x + x2 + 1 2 , show that = √ .
dx x2 + 1
7 Find the derivative with respect to x of each of the following:
√ √3 √5
a x2 + 2 b x2 − 5x c x2 + 2x

7G Differentiation of ex
In this section we investigate the derivative of functions of the form f (x) = a x . We will see
that Euler’s number e has the special property that f (x) = f (x) where f (x) = e x .
First consider f : R → R, f (x) = 2 x .
To ﬁnd the derivative of f we recall that:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
2 − 2x
x+h
= lim
h→0 h
2h − 1
= 2 x lim
h→0 h
= 2 x f (0)

We can investigate this limit numerically to find that f (0) ≈ 0.6931 and therefore
f (x) ≈ 0.6931 × 2 x
Now consider g : R → R, g(x) = 3 x . Then, as for f , it may be shown that g (x) = 3 x g (0).
We find g (0) ≈ 1.0986 and hence
g (x) ≈ 1.0986 × 3 x
The question now arises:
Can we find a number b between 2 and 3 such that, if f (x) = b x , then f (0) = 1
and therefore f (x) = b x ?
bh − 1
Using a calculator or a spreadsheet, we can investigate the limit as h → 0 of , for
h
various values of b between 2 and 3.
This investigation is carried out in the b f (0) b f (0)
spreadsheet shown on the right.
2.710 0.996949 2.7180 0.999896
Start by taking values for b between 2.711 0.997318 2.7181 0.999933
2.71 and 2.72 (first table) and finding 2.712 0.997686 2.7182 0.999970
f (0) for each of these values. From
2.713 0.998055 2.7183 1.000007
these results it may be seen that the
2.714 0.998424 2.7184 1.000043
required value of b lies between 2.718
2.715 0.998792 2.7185 1.000080
and 2.719.
2.716 0.999160 2.7186 1.000117
The investigation is continued with
2.717 0.999528 2.7187 1.000154
values of b between 2.718 and 2.719
2.718 0.999896 2.7188 1.000191
(second table). From this the required
value of b is seen to lie between 2.719 1.000264 2.7189 1.000227
2.7182 and 2.7183. 2.720 1.000632 2.7190 1.000264

The required value of b is in fact Euler’s number e, which was introduced in Chapter 5.
Our results can be recorded:

For f (x) = e x , f (x) = e x .

Next consider y = ekx where k ∈ R. The chain rule can be used to ﬁnd the derivative:
Let u = kx. Then y = eu . The chain rule yields
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
= eu · k
= kekx

For f (x) = ekx , f (x) = kekx , where k ∈ R.

The graph illustrates the case y

where k = 2:
the gradient of y = e x at the 8.00
Q (1, e2)
point P(1, e) is e
6.00 y = e2x y = ex
the gradient of y = e2x at the
point Q(1, e2 ) is 2e2 . 4.00

2.00 P (1, e)

x
-1.00 -0.50 O 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50

Example 25
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
1
a e3x b e−2x c e2x+1 d + e3x
e2x
Solution
dy dy
a Let y = e3x . Then = 3e3x . b Let y = e−2x . Then = −2e−2x .
dx dx
1
c Let y = e2x+1 . Then d Let y = + e3x . Then
e2x
y = e2x · e (index laws)
y = e−2x + e3x
=e·e 2x
dy
dy ∴ = −2e−2x + 3e3x
∴ = 2e · e2x dx
dx
= 2e2x+1

Example 26
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
b e x +4x
2 2
a ex

Solution
b Let y = e x +4x and u = x2 + 4x.
2 2
a Let y = e x and u = x2 .
Then y = eu and the chain rule yields Then y = eu and the chain rule yields
dy dy du dy dy du
= · = ·
dx du dx dx du dx
= eu · 2x = eu (2x + 4)
= (2x + 4) e x +4x
2 2
= 2xe x

In general, for h(x) = e f (x) , the chain rule gives h (x) = f (x) e f (x) .

Example 27
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = e2x + 4 at the point:
a (0, 5) b (1, e2 + 4)

Solution
dy
We have = 2e2x .
dx
dy dy
a When x = 0, = 2. b When x = 1, = 2e2 .
dx dx
The gradient at (0, 5) is 2. The gradient at (1, e2 + 4) is 2e2 .

Example 28
For each of the following, ﬁrst ﬁnd the derivative with respect to x. Then evaluate the
derivative at x = 2, given that f (2) = 0, f (2) = 4 and f (e2 ) = 5.
a e f (x) b f (e x )

Solution
a Let y = e f (x) and u = f (x). Then y = eu . b Let y = f (e x ) and u = e x . Then y = f (u).
By the chain rule: By the chain rule:
dy dy du dy dy du
= · = ·
dx du dx dx du dx
= eu f (x) = f (u) · e x
= e f (x) f (x) = f (e x ) · e x
dy dy
When x = 2, = e0 × 4 = 4. When x = 2, = f (e2 ) · e2 = 5e2 .
dx dx

Section summary
For f (x) = ekx , f (x) = kekx , where k ∈ R.

Exercise 7G

Example 25 1 Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:

a e5x b 7e−3x c 3e−4x + e x − x2
e2x − e x + 1 4e2x − 2e x + 1
d e f e2x + e4 + e−2x
ex 2e2x
Example 26 2 Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
a e−2x c e x −4x + 3x + 1
3 2 2
b e x + 3x + 1
1 1
d e x −2x+3 − x
2
e ex, x 0 f ex 2

x
Example 27 3 Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = e 2 + 4x at the point:
1
a (0, 1) b (1, e 2 + 4)

Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = e x +3x + 2x at the point:
2
4
a (0, 1) b (1, e4 + 2)

Example 28 5 Find the derivative with respect to x of:

a e2 f (x) b f (e2x )

6 Find the derivative with respect to x of:

√ √
a (e2x − 1)4 b e x
c ex − 1
2
x
x3
d e e e(x−1)(x−2) f ee

7H Differentiation of the natural logarithm function

For the function with rule f (x) = e x , we have seen that f (x) = e x .
This will be used to ﬁnd the derivative of g : R+ → R, g(x) = ln(kx) where k > 0.
Let y = ln(kx) and solve for x:
ey = kx
1
∴ x = ey
k
From our observation above:
dx 1 y
= e
dy k
Since ey = kx, this gives
dx kx
= =x
dy k
dy 1
∴ =
dx x

Let f : R+ → R, f (x) = ln(kx) where k > 0.

1
Then f : R+ → R, f (x) = .
x

Example 29
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
−3
a ln(5x), x > 0 b ln(5x + 3), x >
5

Solution
−3
a Let y = ln(5x) for x > 0. b Let y = ln(5x + 3) for x > .
5
dy 1 Let u = 5x + 3. Then y = ln u and
Then = .
dx x the chain rule gives
Alternatively, let u = 5x. Then dy dy du
= ×
y = ln u and the chain rule gives dx du dx
dy dy du 1 1
= × = ×5 = ×5
dx du dx u u
5 5
= =
u u
1 5
= =
x 5x + 3

−b dy a
In general, if y = ln(ax + b) for x > , then = .
a dx ax + b
dy 1 1
Note: Let y = ln(−x), x < 0. Using the chain rule with u = −x gives = × (−1) = .
dx −x x

Example 30
Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:
a ln(x2 + 2) b (ln x)2 , x > 0

Solution
a We use the chain rule. b We use the chain rule.
Let y = ln(x2 + 2) and u = x2 + 2. Let y = (ln x)2 and u = ln x.
Then y = ln u. Then y = u2 .
dy dy du dy dy du
∴ = · ∴ = ·
dx du dx dx du dx
1 1
= · 2x = 2u ·
u x
2x 2 ln x
= =
x2 + 2 x

Section summary
−b dy a
If y = ln(ax + b) for x > , then = .
a dx ax + b
f (x)
If h(x) = ln f (x) , then the chain rule gives h (x) = .
f (x)

Exercise 7H

Example 29 1 Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:

a y = 2 ln x b y = 2 ln(2x) c y = x2 + 3 ln(2x)
1
d y = 3 ln x + e y = 3 ln(4x) + x f y = ln(x + 1)
x
g y = ln(2x + 4) h y = ln(3x − 1) i y = ln(6x − 1)

Example 30 2 Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:

a y = ln(x3 ) b y = (ln x)3 c y = ln(x2 + x − 1)

d y = ln(x3 + x2 ) e y = ln (2x + 3)2 f y = ln (3 − 2x)2

3 For each of the following, ﬁnd f (x):

a f (x) = ln(x2 + 1) b f (x) = ln(e x )

4 Find the y-coordinate and the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point
corresponding to the given value of x:
a y = ln x, x > 0, at x = e b y = ln(x2 + 1) at x = e
c y = ln(−x), x < 0, at x = −e d y = x + ln x at x = 1
e y = ln(x2 − 2x + 2) at x = 1 f y = ln(2x − 1) at x = 23
√
5 Find f (1) if f (x) = ln x2 + 1 .

6 Diﬀerentiate ln(1 + x + x2 ).

7 If f (x) = ln(x2 + 1), ﬁnd f (3).

d
8 Given that f (0) = 2 and f (0) = 4, ﬁnd ln f (x) when x = 0.
dx

7I Derivatives of circular functions

In this section we ﬁnd the derivatives of the sine, cosine and tangent functions.
In the proofs for sine and tangent, we will be using the addition formulas for sine, which were
introduced in Mathematical Methods Year 11:
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

Note: The derivatives that we establish for sin θ, cos θ and tan θ only apply when the angle θ
is measured in radians.

The derivative of sin(kθ)

If f : R → R, f (θ) = sin θ, then f (θ) = cos θ.

Proof Consider points P(θ, sin θ) and Q θ + h, sin(θ + h) on the graph of f (θ) = sin θ. The
gradient of the secant PQ is
sin(θ + h) − sin θ sin θ cos h + cos θ sin h − sin θ
=
h h
sin θ · (cos h − 1) cos θ sin h
= +
h h
We now consider what happens as h → 0. We use two limit results (the second limit is
proved below and the ﬁrst limit then follows using a trigonometric identity):
cos h − 1 sin h
lim =0 and lim =1
h→0 h h→0 h
Therefore
sin θ · (cos h − 1) cos θ sin h
f (θ) = lim +
h→0 h h
= sin θ × 0 + cos θ × 1
= cos θ

We now prove the following result.

sin θ
lim =1
θ→0 θ

Proof Let K be a point on the unit circle as shown, y

and let ∠KOH = θ. The coordinates of K are
1
(cos θ, sin θ). Point H is on the x-axis such that
K L
∠KHO is a right angle.
Draw a tangent to the circle at A(1, 0). The q A x
line OK intersects this tangent at L(1, tan θ). -1 O H 1
The area of sector OAK is 12 θ.
Thus area OAK ≤ 12 θ ≤ area OAL
-1
i.e. 1
2 OA · HK ≤ 12 θ ≤ 12 OA · AL

This implies that sin θ ≤ θ ≤ tan θ.

For 0 < θ < π2 , we have sin θ > 0, and so we can divide both inequalities by sin θ to
obtain
θ 1
1≤ ≤
sin θ cos θ
sin θ
As θ approaches 0, the value of cos θ approaches 1, and so lim = 1.
θ→0 θ

We now turn our attention to the function f (θ) = sin(kθ). The graph of y = sin(kθ) is
1
obtained from the graph of y = sin θ by a dilation of factor from the y-axis (and so this
k
immediately suggests that the gradient will change by a factor of k).
We use the chain rule to determine f (θ).
Let y = sin(kθ) and let u = kθ. Then y = sin u and therefore
dy dy du
= · = cos u · k = k cos(kθ)
dθ du dθ

For f : R → R, f (θ) = sin(kθ)

f : R → R, f (θ) = k cos(kθ)

The derivative of cos(kθ)

We next ﬁnd the derivative of cos(kθ). We ﬁrst note the following:
π π
cos θ = sin − θ and sin θ = cos − θ
2 2
These results will be used in the following way.
π
Let y = cos θ = sin − θ .
2
π
Now let u = − θ. Then y = sin u. The chain rule gives
2
dy dy du
= · = cos u · (−1)
dθ du dθ π
= − cos − θ
2
= − sin θ
We have the following results:

For f : R → R, f (θ) = cos θ For f : R → R, f (θ) = cos(kθ)

f : R → R, f (θ) = − sin θ f : R → R, f (θ) = −k sin(kθ)

The derivative of tan(kθ)

For convenience, we introduce a new function, called secant, given by

1
sec θ =
cos θ
We can write sinn θ = (sin θ)n and cosn θ = (cos θ)n .
Here we ﬁnd the derivative of tan θ by ﬁrst principles. In Section 7K we show another
method.

If f (θ) = tan(kθ), then f (θ) = k sec2 (kθ).

Proof Consider points P(θ, tan θ) and Q θ + h, tan(θ + h) on the graph of f (θ) = tan θ. The
gradient of the secant PQ is
tan(θ + h) − tan θ sin(θ + h) sin θ 1
= − ×
h cos(θ + h) cos θ h
sin(θ + h) cos(θ) − cos(θ + h) sin(θ) 1
= ×
cos(θ + h) cos(θ) h
sin h
=
h cos(θ + h) cos(θ)
We now consider what happens as h → 0:
sin h
lim cos(θ + h) = cos θ and lim =1
h→0 h→0 h
Therefore
sin h 1
f (θ) = lim = = sec2 θ
h→0 h cos(θ + h) cos(θ) cos2 θ
We can use the chain rule to show that, if f (θ) = tan(kθ), then f (θ) = k sec2 (kθ).

Example 31
Find the derivative with respect to θ of each of the following:
a sin(2θ) b tan(3θ) c sin2 (2θ)
d sin2 (2θ + 1) e cos3 (4θ + 1) f tan(3θ2 + 1)

Solution
dy dy
a Let y = sin(2θ). Then = 2 cos(2θ). b Let y = tan(3θ). Then = 3 sec2 (3θ).
dθ dθ
c Let y = sin2 (2θ) and u = sin(2θ). d Let y = sin2 (2θ + 1) and u = sin(2θ + 1).
Then y = u2 . Using the chain rule: Then y = u2 . Using the chain rule:
dy dy du dy dy du
= · = ·
dθ du dθ dθ du dθ
= 2u · 2 cos(2θ) = 2u · 2 cos(2θ + 1)
= 4u cos(2θ) = 4 sin(2θ + 1) cos(2θ + 1)
= 4 sin(2θ) cos(2θ)

e Let y = cos3 (4θ + 1) and u = cos(4θ + 1). f Let y = tan(3θ2 + 1) and u = 3θ2 + 1.
Then y = u3 . Using the chain rule: Then y = tan u. Using the chain rule:
dy dy du dy dy du
= · = ·
dθ du dθ dθ du dθ
= 3u2 · (−4) sin(4θ + 1) = sec2 u · 6θ
= −12 cos2 (4θ + 1) sin(4θ + 1) = 6θ sec2 (3θ2 + 1)

Example 32
Find the y-coordinate and the gradient of the tangent at the points on the following curves
corresponding to the given values of θ:
π π π
a y = cos θ at θ = and θ = b y = tan θ at θ = 0 and θ =
4 2 4
Solution
dy
a Let y = cos θ. Then = − sin θ.
dθ π π −1
π 1 dy
When θ = , we have y = cos = √ and = − sin = √ .
4 4 2 dθ 4 2
π 1 −1
So the gradient at , √ is √ .
4 2 2
π dy π
When θ = , we have y = 0 and = −1. The gradient at , 0 is −1.
2 dθ 2
dy
b Let y = tan θ. Then = sec2 θ.
dθ
dy
When θ = 0, we have y = 0 and = 1. The gradient at (0, 0) is 1.
dθ
π dy π
When θ = , we have y = 1 and = 2. The gradient at , 1 is 2.
4 dθ 4

Section summary
If f : R → R, f (θ) = sin(kθ), then f : R → R, f (θ) = k cos(kθ).
If f : R → R, f (θ) = cos(kθ), then f : R → R, f (θ) = −k sin(kθ).
If f (θ) = tan(kθ), then f (θ) = k sec2 (kθ).

Exercise 7I

Example 31 1 Find the derivative with respect to x of each of the following:

a sin(5x) b cos(5x) c tan(5x) d sin2 x e tan(3x + 1)
π π π π
f cos(x2 + 1) g sin2 x − h cos2 x − i sin3 2x + j cos3 2x −
4 3 6 4
Example 32 2 Find the y-coordinate and the gradient of the tangent at the points on the following
curves corresponding to the given values of x:
π π π
a y = sin(2x) at x = b y = sin(3x) at x = c y = 1 + sin(3x) at x =
8 6 6
π π π
d y = cos2 (2x) at x = e y = sin (2x) at x =
2
f y = tan(2x) at x =
4 4 8
3 For each of the following, ﬁnd f (x):
a f (x) = 5 cos x − 2 sin(3x) b f (x) = cos x + sin x
c f (x) = sin x + tan x d f (x) = tan2 x

4 Find the derivative of each of the following. (Change degrees to radians first.)
a 2 cos x◦ b 3 sin x◦ c tan(3x)◦
dy dy
5 a If y = − ln(cos x), find . b If y = − ln(tan x), find .
dx dx
dy dy
6 a If y = e2 sin x , find . b If y = ecos(2x) , find .
dx dx

7J The product rule

In the next two sections, we introduce two more rules for differentiation. The first of these is
the product rule.
Let F(x) = f (x) · g(x). If f (x) and g (x) exist, then
F (x) = f (x) · g (x) + g(x) · f (x)
For example, consider F(x) = (x2 + 3x)(4x + 5). Then F is the product of two functions f
and g, where f (x) = x2 + 3x and g(x) = 4x + 5. The product rule gives:
F (x) = f (x) · g (x) + g(x) · f (x)
= (x2 + 3x) · 4 + (4x + 5) · (2x + 3)
= 4x2 + 12x + 8x2 + 22x + 15
= 12x2 + 34x + 15
This could also have been found by multiplying x2 + 3x by 4x + 5 and then differentiating.

The product rule (function notation)

Let F(x) = f (x) · g(x). If f (x) and g (x) exist, then
F (x) = f (x) · g (x) + g(x) · f (x)

Proof By the deﬁnition of the derivative of F, we have

F(x + h) − F(x)
F (x) = lim
h→0 h
f (x + h) g(x + h) − f (x) g(x)
= lim
h→0 h
Adding and subtracting f (x + h) g(x):

f (x + h) g(x + h) − f (x) g(x) + f (x + h) g(x) − f (x + h) g(x)
F (x) = lim
h→0 h
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim f (x + h) · + g(x) ·
h→0 h h
Since f and g are diﬀerentiable, we obtain
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x)

F (x) = lim f (x + h) · lim + lim g(x) · lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
= f (x) · g (x) + g(x) · f (x)

We can state the product rule in Leibniz notation and give a geometric interpretation.

The product rule (Leibniz notation)

If y = uv, where u and v are functions of x, then
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx

In the following ﬁgure, the white region represents y = uv and the shaded region δy, as
explained below.

δv uδv δuδv
v uv vδu
u δu

δy = (u + δu)(v + δv) − uv
= uv + vδu + uδv + δuδv − uv
= vδu + uδv + δuδv

δy δu δv δu δv
∴ =v +u + δx
δx δx δx δx δx
In the limit, as δx → 0, we have
δu du δv dv δy dy
= , = and =
δx dx δx dx δx dx
Therefore
dy du dv
=v +u
dx dx dx

Example 33
Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:
a (2x2 + 1)(5x3 + 16)
b x3 (3x − 5)4

Solution
a Let y = (2x2 + 1)(5x3 + 16). Let u = 2x2 + 1 and v = 5x3 + 16.
du dv
Then = 4x and = 15x2 .
dx dx
The product rule gives:
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
= (2x2 + 1) · 15x2 + (5x3 + 16) · 4x
= 30x4 + 15x2 + 20x4 + 64x
= 50x4 + 15x2 + 64x

b Let y = x3 (3x − 5)4 . Let u = x3 and v = (3x − 5)4 .

du dv
Then = 3x2 and = 12(3x − 5)3 , using the chain rule.
dx dx
The product rule gives:
dy dv du
=u +v = 12x3 (3x − 5)3 + (3x − 5)4 · 3x2
dx dx dx

= (3x − 5)3 12x3 + 3x2 (3x − 5)

= (3x − 5)3 12x3 + 9x3 − 15x2
= (3x − 5)3 (21x3 − 15x2 )
= 3x2 (7x − 5)(3x − 5)3

Example 34
For F : R \ {0} → R, F(x) = x−3 (10x2 − 5)3 , ﬁnd F (x).

Solution
Let f (x) = x−3 and g(x) = (10x2 − 5)3 .
Then f (x) = −3x−4 and g (x) = 60x(10x2 − 5)2 using the chain rule.
By the product rule:
F (x) = x−3 · 60x(10x2 − 5)2 + (10x2 − 5)3 · (−3x−4 )

= (10x2 − 5)2 60x−2 + (10x2 − 5) · (−3x−4 )
60x2 − 30x2 + 15
= (10x2 − 5)2
x4
(10x2 − 5)2 (30x2 + 15)
=
x4

Example 35
Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:
√
a e x (2x2 + 1) b ex x − 1

Solution
a Use the product rule. b Use the product rule and the chain rule.
√
Let y = e x (2x2 + 1). Then Let y = e x x − 1. Then
dy dy √ 1 1
= e x (2x2 + 1) + 4xe x = e x x − 1 + e x (x − 1)− 2
dx dx 2
√ ex
= e x (2x2 + 4x + 1) =e x−1+ √
x
2 x−1
2e x (x − 1) + e x
= √
2 x−1
2xe x − e x
= √
2 x−1

Example 36
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
a 2x2 sin(2x) b e2x sin(2x + 1) c cos(4x) sin(2x)

Solution
a Let y = 2x2 sin(2x). b Let y = e2x sin(2x + 1).
Applying the product rule: Applying the product rule:
dy dy
= 4x sin(2x) + 4x2 cos(2x) = 2e2x sin(2x + 1) + 2e2x cos(2x + 1)
dx dx

= 2e2x sin(2x + 1) + cos(2x + 1)
c Let y = cos(4x) sin(2x). Then the product rule gives
dy
= −4 sin(4x) sin(2x) + 2 cos(2x) cos(4x)
dx

Section summary
The product rule
Let F(x) = f (x) · g(x). If f (x) and g (x) exist, then
F (x) = f (x) · g (x) + g(x) · f (x)

Exercise 7J

Example 33, 34 1 Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x, using the product rule:
1
a (2x2 + 6)(2x3 + 1) b 3x 2 (2x + 1) c 3x(2x − 1)3
3 √
d 4x2 (2x2 + 1)2 e (3x + 1) 2 (2x + 4) f (x2 + 1) 2x − 4
√ √3
g x3 (3x2 + 2x + 1)−1 h x4 2x2 − 1 i x2 x2 + 2x
√5
j x−2 (5x2 − 4)3 k x−3 (x3 − 4)2 l x3 x3 − x

Example 35 2 Find f (x) for each of the following:

a f (x) = e x (x2 + 1) b f (x) = e2x (x3 + 3x + 1)
√
c f (x) = e4x+1 (x + 1)2 d f (x) = e−4x x + 1, x ≥ −1

3 For each of the following, ﬁnd f (x):

a f (x) = x ln x, x > 0 b f (x) = 2x2 ln x, x > 0
c f (x) = e x ln x, x > 0 d f (x) = x ln(−x), x < 0

4 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:

3 1 x
a x4 e−2x b e2x+3 c (e2x + x) 2 d e
x
1 2
e e2 x f (x2 + 2x + 2)e−x

5 Find each of the following:

d x d ex d f (x) d x
a e f (x) b c e d e f (x) 2
dx dx f (x) dx dx
Example 36 6 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:
a x3 cos x b (1 + x2 ) cos x c e−x sin x d 6x cos x e sin(3x) cos(4x)
2 sin x
f tan(2x) sin(2x) g 12x sin x h xe 2
i x cos x 2
j e x tan x

7 For each of the following, ﬁnd f (π):

a f (x) = e x sin x b f (x) = cos2 (2x)

8 Given that f (1) = 2 and f (1) = 4, ﬁnd the derivative of f (x) ln(x) when x = 1.

7K The quotient rule

f (x)
Let F(x) = , where g(x) 0. If f (x) and g (x) exist, then
g(x)
g(x) · f (x) − f (x) · g (x)
F (x) =
g(x) 2
For example, if
x3 + 2x
F(x) =
x5 + 2
then F can be considered as a quotient of two functions f and g, where f (x) = x3 + 2x and
g(x) = x5 + 2. The quotient rule gives
(x5 + 2)(3x2 + 2) − (x3 + 2x)5x4
F (x) =
(x5 + 2)2
3x7 + 6x2 + 2x5 + 4 − 5x7 − 10x5
=
(x5 + 2)2
−2x7 − 8x5 + 6x2 + 4
=
(x5 + 2)2

The quotient rule (function notation)

f (x)
Let F(x) = , where g(x) 0. If f (x) and g (x) exist, then
g(x)
g(x) · f (x) − f (x) · g (x)
F (x) =
g(x) 2

Proof The quotient rule can be proved from ﬁrst principles, but instead we will use the
product rule and the chain rule.

We can write F(x) = f (x) · h(x), where h(x) = g(x) −1 . Using the chain rule, we have

h (x) = − g(x) −2 · g (x)

Therefore, using the product rule, we obtain

F (x) = f (x) · h (x) + h(x) · f (x)

= − f (x) · g(x) −2 · g (x) + g(x) −1 · f (x)

= g(x) −2 − f (x) · g (x) + g(x) · f (x)
g(x) · f (x) − f (x) · g (x)
=
g(x) 2

The quotient rule (Leibniz notation)

u
If y = , where u and v are functions of x and v 0, then
v
du dv
dy v − u
= dx 2 dx
dx v

Example 37
x−2
Find the derivative of with respect to x.
x2 + 4x + 1
Solution
x−2
Let y = . The quotient rule gives
x2 + 4x + 1
dy x2 + 4x + 1 − (x − 2)(2x + 4)
=
dx (x2 + 4x + 1)2
x2 + 4x + 1 − (2x2 − 8)
=
(x2 + 4x + 1)2
−x2 + 4x + 9
=
(x2 + 4x + 1)2

Example 38
Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:
ex sin x
a 2x b , x −1
e +1 x+1
Solution
ex sin x
a Let y = . b Let y = for x −1.
e2x + 1 x+1
Applying the quotient rule: Applying the quotient rule:
dy (e2x + 1)e x − e x · 2e2x dy (x + 1) cos x − sin x
= =
dx (e2x + 1)2 dx (x + 1)2
e3x + e x − 2e3x
=
(e2x + 1)2
e x − e3x
=
(e2x + 1)2

Using the quotient rule to find the derivative of tan θ

sin θ
Let y = tan θ. We write y = and apply the quotient rule to ﬁnd the derivative:
cos θ
dy cos θ cos θ − sin θ · (− sin θ)
=
dθ (cos θ)2
cos2 θ + sin2 θ
=
cos2 θ
1
= (by the Pythagorean identity)
cos2 θ
= sec2 θ

Section summary
The quotient rule
f (x)
Let F(x) = , where g(x) 0. If f (x) and g (x) exist, then
g(x)
g(x) · f (x) − f (x) · g (x)
F (x) =
g(x) 2

Exercise 7K

Example 37 1 Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:

1
x x2 − 1 x2 (x + 2)3
a b 2 c d
x+4 x +1 1+x x2 + 1
x−1 x2 + 1 3x2 + 2x + 1 2x + 1
e f g h
x2 + 2 x2 − 1 x2 + x + 1 2x3 + 2x
2 Find the y-coordinate and the gradient at the point on the curve corresponding to the
given value of x:
√ 1
a y = (2x + 1)4 x2 at x = 1 b y = x2 x + 1 at x = 0 c y = x2 (2x + 1) 2 at x = 0
x 2x + 1
d y= at x = 1 e y= at x = 1
x2 +1 x2 + 1
3 For each of the following, find f (x):
√ √
a f (x) = (x + 1) x2 + 1 b f (x) = (x2 + 1) x3 + 1, x > −1
2x + 1
c f (x) = , x −3
x+3
Example 38 4 For each of the following, find f (x):
ex cos x ln x
a f (x) = 3x b f (x) = , x −1 c f (x) = , x>0
e +3 x+1 x+1
5 For each of the following, find f (x):
ln x ln x
a f (x) = , x>0 b f (x) = , x>0
x x2 + 1
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326 Chapter 7: Differentiation 7K

6 Find f (x) for each of the following:

e3x ex + 1 e2x + 2
a f (x) = 3x b f (x) = x c f (x) =
e +3 e −1 e2x − 2
7 For each of the following, ﬁnd f (π):
2x 3x2 + 1 ex sin x
a f (x) = b f (x) = c f (x) = d f (x) =
cos x cos x cos x x

7L Second derivatives
For the function f with rule f (x), the derivative is denoted by f and has rule f (x). This
notation is extended to taking the derivative of the derivative: the new function is denoted
by f and has rule f (x). This new function is known as the second derivative.
Consider the function g with rule g(x) = 2x3 − 4x2 . The derivative has rule g (x) = 6x2 − 8x,
and the second derivative has rule g (x) = 12x − 8.
Note: The second derivative might not exist at a point even if the ﬁrst derivative does.
4 4 1 4 2
For example, let f (x) = x 3 . Then f (x) = x 3 and f (x) = x− 3 .
3 9
We see that f (0) = 0, but the second derivative f (x) is not deﬁned at x = 0.
d2 y
In Leibniz notation, the second derivative of y with respect to x is denoted by .
dx2

Example 39
Find the second derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
a f (x) = 6x4 − 4x3 + 4x b y = e x sin x

Solution
a f (x) = 6x4 − 4x3 + 4x b y = e x sin x
f (x) = 24x3 − 12x2 + 4 dy
= e x sin x + e x cos x (by the product rule)
f (x) = 72x2 − 24x dx
d2 y
= e x sin x + e x cos x + e x cos x − e x sin x
dx2
= 2e x cos x

A CAS calculator has the capacity to ﬁnd the second derivative directly.

Using the TI-Nspire

Press t to obtain the second-derivative
2
d
template d .
Complete as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Enter and highlight the expression e x · sin(x).
Go to Interactive > Calculation > diff and change to order 2. Tap OK .

Example 40
If f (x) = e2x , ﬁnd f (0).

Solution
f (x) = e2x
f (x) = 2e2x
f (x) = 4e2x
Therefore f (0) = 4e0 = 4.

Example 41
Consider f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 6.
a Find f (x). b Solve the equation f (x) = 0 for x.

Solution
a f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 6 b f (x) = 0
f (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 4 6x − 4 = 0
f (x) = 6x − 4 ∴ x=
2
3

Example 42
Consider y = x2 e x .
d2 y d2 y
a Find 2 . b Solve the equation = 0 for x.
dx dx2
Solution
d2 y
a y = x2 e x b = 0 implies
dx2
dy
= 2xe x + x2 e x 2e x + 4xe x + x2 e x = 0
dx
e x (2 + 4x + x2 ) = 0
d2 y
= 2e x + 2xe x + 2xe x + x2 e x x2 + 4x + 2 = 0
dx2
√ √
= 2e x + 4xe x + x2 e x Therefore x = −2 + 2 or x = −2 − 2.

Section summary
The second derivative of a function f is the derivative of the derivative of f .
For a function f with rule f (x), the second derivative of f is denoted by f and has
rule f (x).
d2 y
In Leibniz notation, the second derivative of y with respect to x is denoted by 2 .
dx

Exercise 7L

Example 39 1 Find the second derivative of each of the following:

√
a 2x + 5 b x8 c x d (2x + 1)4 e sin x
1 π
f cos x g ex h ln x i j sin 2x +
x+1 4

2 Find the second derivative of each of the following:

√ x
a x5 b (x2 + 3)4 c sin
2
1
d 3 cos(4x + 1) e e2x+1 f ln(2x + 1)
2
g x4 + 3x2 − 7x + 2 h x3 e x i x ln x

3 For each of the following, ﬁnd f (x):

b f (x) = −8e−0.5x
2
a f (x) = 6e3−2x c f (x) = eln x
2
d f (x) = ln(x2 + 2x) e f (x) = 2(1 − 3x)5 f f (x) = e x
x−1 1
g f (x) = h f (x) = √ i f (x) = 5 sin(3 − x)
x+1 1−x
x x
j f (x) = cos(1 − 3x) k f (x) = sin l f (x) = cos
3 4
Example 40 4 For each of the following, ﬁnd f (0):
1 √
b f (x) = e− 2 x
2
a f (x) = esin x c f (x) = 1 − x2 d f (x) = cos(x2 )

Example 41 5 For each of the following, solve the equation f (x) = 0 for x:
a f (x) = 2x3 + 4x2
b f (x) = 5 − x − x2 + 5x3
c f (x) = x4 − 3x2 − 4x
d2 y
Example 42 6 For each of the following, solve the equation = 0 for x:
dx2
a y = 2xe x
b y = x2 e x − xe x
c y = x3 e x

7M Limits and continuity

Limits
It is not the intention of this course to provide a formal introduction to limits. We require only
an intuitive understanding of limits and some fairly obvious rules for how to handle them.

The notation lim f (x) = p says that the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is p. We can also
x→a
say: ‘As x approaches a, f (x) approaches p.’
This means that we can make the value of f (x) as close as we like to p, provided we
choose x-values close enough to a.

We have met a similar idea earlier in the course. For example, we have seen that lim f (x) = 4
x→∞
1
for the function with rule f (x) = + 4. The graph of y = f (x) can get as close as we like to
x
the line y = 4, just by taking larger and larger values of x.
As we will see, for many functions (in particular, for polynomial functions), the limit at a
particular point is simply the value of the function at that point.

Example 43
Find lim 3x2 .
x→2

Solution Explanation
lim 3x = 3(2) = 12
2 2
As x gets closer and closer to 2, the value
x→2
of 3x2 gets closer and closer to 12.

If the function is not deﬁned at the value for which the limit is to be found, a diﬀerent
procedure is used.

Example 44
2x2 − 5x + 2
For f (x) = , x 2, ﬁnd lim f (x).
x−2 x→2

Solution y
Observe that
2x2 − 5x + 2 3 f
f (x) =
x−2
(2x − 1)(x − 2)
=
x−2
= 2x − 1 (for x 2)
x
Hence lim f (x) = 3. O 1 2
x→2
-1
The graph of f : R \ {2} → R, f (x) = 2x − 1 is shown.

We can investigate Example 44 further by looking at the values of the function as we take
x-values closer and closer to 2.
Observe that f (x) is deﬁned for x ∈ R \ {2}. x<2 x>2
Examine the behaviour of f (x) for values of x
f (1.7) = 2.4 f (2.3) = 3.6
close to 2.
f (1.8) = 2.6 f (2.2) = 3.4
From the table, it is apparent that, as x takes
f (1.9) = 2.8 f (2.1) = 3.2
values closer and closer to 2 (regardless of
f (1.99) = 2.98 f (2.01) = 3.02
whether x approaches 2 from the left or from
the right), the values of f (x) become closer f (1.999) = 2.998 f (2.001) = 3.002
and closer to 3. That is, lim f (x) = 3.
x→2

Note that the limit exists, but the function is not deﬁned at x = 2.

Algebra of limits
The following important results are useful for the evaluation of limits.

Assume that both lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist.

x→a x→a

Sum: lim f (x) + g(x) = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
That is, the limit of the sum is the sum of the limits.
Multiple: lim k f (x) = k lim f (x), where k is a given real number.
x→a x→a

Product: lim f (x) g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
That is, the limit of the product is the product of the limits.
f (x) lim f (x)
x→a
Quotient: lim = , provided lim g(x) 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a
That is, the limit of the quotient is the quotient of the limits.

Example 45
Find:
5x + 2 x2 − 3x x2 − x − 2
a lim (3h + 4) b lim c lim d lim
h→0 x→3 x − 2 x→3 x−3 x→2 x−2
Solution
5x + 2
a lim (3h + 4) = lim (3h) + lim (4) b lim = lim (5x + 2) ÷ lim (x − 2)
h→0 h→0 h→0 x→3 x − 2 x→3 x→3

=0+4 = 17 ÷ 1
=4 = 17

x2 − 3x x(x − 3) x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
c lim = lim d lim = lim
x→3 x−3 x→3 x − 3 x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
= lim x = lim (x + 1)
x→3 x→2

=3 =3

Left and right limits

An idea which is useful in the following discussion is the existence of limits from the left and
from the right. This is particularly useful when talking about piecewise-deﬁned functions.
If the value of f (x) approaches the number p as x approaches a from the right-hand side,
then it is written as lim+ f (x) = p.
x→a
If the value of f (x) approaches the number p as x approaches a from the left-hand side,
then it is written as lim− f (x) = p.
x→a
The limit as x approaches a exists only if both the limit from the left and the limit from the
right exist and are equal. Then lim f (x) = p.
x→a

Piecewise-defined function
The following is an example of a piecewise-deﬁned function where the limit does not exist
for a particular value. y
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ x3 if 0 ≤ x < 1
⎪
⎪
⎪ 6
⎨
Let f (x) = ⎪ ⎪ 5 if x = 1
⎪
⎪
⎪ 5
⎪
⎩6 if 1 < x ≤ 2
4
It is clear from the graph of f that lim f (x) does not 3
x→1
exist. However, if x is allowed to approach 1 from 2
the left, then f (x) approaches 1. On the other hand, if 1
x is allowed to approach 1 from the right, then f (x) x
approaches 6. Also note that f (1) = 5. O 1 2

Rectangular hyperbola
As mentioned at the start of this section, the notation of limits is used to describe the
asymptotic behaviour of graphs.
1
Consider g : R \ {0} → R, g(x) = . The behaviour of g(x) as x approaches 0 from the left is
x
diﬀerent from the behaviour as x approaches 0 from the right.
With limit notation this is written as: y
lim g(x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = ∞
x→0− x→0+

Now examine this function as the magnitude of x becomes g(x) = 1x

very large. It can be seen that, as x increases without bound
x
through positive values, the corresponding values of g(x) O
approach zero. Likewise, as x decreases without bound
through negative values, the corresponding values of g(x)
also approach zero.
Symbolically this is written as:
lim g(x) = 0+ and lim g(x) = 0−
x→∞ x→−∞

Many functions approach a limiting value or limit as x approaches ±∞.

Continuity at a point
We only require an intuitive understanding of continuity.

A function with rule f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a if the graph of y = f (x) can be
drawn through the point with coordinates (a, f (a)) without a break. Otherwise, there is
said to be a discontinuity at x = a.

We can give a more formal deﬁnition of continuity using limits. A function f is continuous at
the point x = a provided f (a), lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) all exist and are equal.
x→a x→a
We can state this equivalently as follows:

A function f is continuous at the point x = a if the following conditions are met:

f (x) is deﬁned at x = a
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a

The function is discontinuous at a point if it is not continuous at that point.

A function is said to be continuous everywhere if it is continuous for all real numbers. All
the polynomial functions are continuous everywhere. In contrast, the function
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ x if x < 1
3
h(x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩6 if x ≥ 1
is deﬁned for all real numbers but is not continuous at x = 1.

Example 46
State the values for x for which the functions shown below have a discontinuity:
a y b y c y
3 3
3
2
2 1 2

1 x 1
-1 O 1
x x
–1 O 1 -1 O 1

Solution
a Discontinuity at x = 1, as f (1) = 3 but lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = 2.
x→1 x→1

b Discontinuity at x = −1, as f (−1) = 2 and lim − f (x) = 2 but lim + f (x) = −∞,
x→−1 x→−1
and a discontinuity at x = 1, as f (1) = 2 and lim− f (x) = 2 but lim+ f (x) = 3.
x→1 x→1

c Discontinuity at x = 1, as f (1) = 1 and lim− f (x) = 1 but lim+ f (x) = 2.

x→1 x→1

Example 47
For each function, state the values of x for which there is a discontinuity, and use the
deﬁnition of continuity in terms of f (a), lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) to explain why:
x→a x→a
⎧ ⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 2x if x ≥ 0 ⎨x
2
if x ≥ 0
a f (x) = ⎪
⎪ b f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩−2x + 1 if x < 0 ⎪
⎩−2x + 1 if x < 0
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ x if x ≤ −1 ⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨x + 1 if x ≥ 0
2
⎨ 2
c f (x) = ⎪
⎪ x if −1 < x < 0 d f (x) = ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩−2x + 1 if x < 0
⎪
⎩−2x + 1 if x ≥ 0
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨x if x ≥ 0
e f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩−2x if x < 0

Solution
a f (0) = 0 but lim− f (x) = 1, therefore there is a discontinuity at x = 0.
x→0
b f (0) = 0 but lim− f (x) = 1, therefore there is a discontinuity at x = 0.
x→0
c f (−1) = −1 but lim + f (x) = 1, therefore there is a discontinuity at x = −1.
x→−1
f (0) = 1 but lim− f (x) = 0, therefore there is a discontinuity at x = 0.
x→0

d No discontinuity. e No discontinuity.

Section summary
A function f is continuous at the point x = a if the following conditions are met:
• f (x) is deﬁned at x = a
• lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
A function is discontinuous at a point if it is not continuous at that point.
A function is said to be continuous everywhere if it is continuous for all real numbers.
All the polynomial functions are continuous everywhere.
Algebra of limits Assume that both lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist.
x→a x→a

• lim f (x) + g(x) = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
That is, the limit of the sum is the sum of the limits.
• lim k f (x) = k lim f (x), where k is a given real number.
x→a x→a

• lim f (x) g(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
That is, the limit of the product is the product of the limits.
f (x) lim f (x)
x→a
• lim = , provided lim g(x) 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a
That is, the limit of the quotient is the quotient of the limits.

Exercise 7M

Example 43–45 1 Find the following limits:

a lim 17 b lim (x − 3) c lim (2x − 5)
x→2 x→6 1
x→ 2

t+2 t2 + 2t + 1 (x + 2)2 − 4
d lim e lim f lim
t→−3 t − 5 t→2 t+1 x→0 x
t2 − 1 √ x2 − 2x
g lim h lim x + 3 i lim
t→1 t−1 x→9 x→0 x
x3 − 8 3x2 − x − 10 x2 − 3x + 2
j lim k lim l lim
x→2 x−2 x→2 x2 + 5x − 14 x→1 x2 − 6x + 5
Example 46 2 For each of the following graphs, give the values of x at which a discontinuity occurs.
Give reasons.
a y b y

6
2
x x
O 1 3 4 O 2 5 7

Example 47 3 For each of the following functions, state the values of x for which there is a
discontinuity and use the deﬁnition of continuity in terms of f (a), lim+ f (x) and
x→a
lim f (x) to explain why each stated value of x corresponds to a discontinuity:
x→a−
⎧ ⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨3x if x ≥ 0 ⎨x + 2
2
if x ≥ 1
a f (x) = ⎪ ⎪ b f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪−2x + 2 if x < 0
⎩ ⎪
⎩−2x + 1 if x < 1
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪−x if x ≤ −1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 2
c f (x) = ⎪
⎪ x if −1 < x < 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩−3x + 1 if x ≥ 0

4 The rule of a particular function is given below. For what values of x is the graph of this
function continuous?
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2, x<1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
y=⎪ ⎪ (x − 4) − 9, 1 ≤ x < 7
2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ x − 7, x≥7

7N When is a function differentiable?

f (a + h) − f (a)
A function f is said to be differentiable at x = a if lim exists.
h
h→0
Many of the functions considered in this chapter are differentiable for their implicit domains.
However, this is not true for all functions. We noted in Section 7D that f : R → R given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨x if x ≥ 0
f (x) = ⎪⎪
⎪
⎩−x if x < 0
is not differentiable at x = 0. The gradient is −1 to the left of 0, and 1 to the right of 0.
It was shown in the previous section that some piecewise-defined functions are continuous
everywhere. Similarly, some piecewise-defined functions are differentiable everywhere. The
smoothness of the ‘joins’ determines whether this is the case.

Example 48
For the function with following rule, ﬁnd f (x) and sketch the graph of y = f (x):
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ x + 2x + 1 if x ≥ 0
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩2x + 1 if x < 0

Solution y
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨2x + 2 if x ≥ 0
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ y = f′ (x)
⎪
⎩2 if x < 0
2
In particular, f (0) is deﬁned and is equal to 2.
x
The two sections of the graph of y = f (x) join smoothly at O
the point (0, 1).

Example 49
For the function with the following rule, state the set of values for which the derivative is
deﬁned, ﬁnd f (x) for this set of values and sketch the graph of y = f (x):
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ x + 2x + 1 if x ≥ 0
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩x + 1 if x < 0

Solution y
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨2x + 2 if x > 0
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ y = f′ (x)
⎪
⎩1 if x < 0
2
f (0) is not deﬁned as the limits from the left and right are
1
not equal. x
O
The function f is diﬀerentiable for R \ {0}.

If a function is diﬀerentiable at x = a, then it is also continuous at x = a. But the converse is

not true. The function f from Example 49 is continuous at x = 0, as lim f (x) = f (0), but f is
x→0
not diﬀerentiable at x = 0.

Example 50
1
For the function with rule f (x) = x 3 , state when the derivative is deﬁned. With the help of
your calculator, sketch the graph of the derivative function.

Solution Explanation
By the rule for differentiating powers, We can also see that f (0) is not defined
1 2
f (x) = x− 3 . The derivative is not from first principles:
3 1 1
defined at x = 0. f (0 + h) − f (0) (0 + h) 3 − 0 3
=
y h h
1
h3 2
= = h− 3
h
2 2
But h− 3 → ∞ as h → 0. Thus lim h− 3 does
h→0
y = f′ (x) not exist and so f (0) is not defined.
1
The function f (x) = x 3 is continuous
everywhere, but not differentiable at x = 0.
x
O

Section summary
f (a + h) − f (a)
A function f is said to be diﬀerentiable at x = a if lim exists.
h→0 h
If a function is diﬀerentiable at a point, then it is also continuous at that point.

Exercise 7N

1 In each of the following ﬁgures, the graph of a function f is given. Sketch the graph
of f . Obviously your sketch of f cannot be exact; but f (x) should be zero at values
of x for which the gradient of f is zero, and f (x) should be negative where the original
graph slopes downwards, and so on.
a y b y

f f
x x
–1 O 1 -4 -2 O 2 4

c y d y

x x
-1 O 1 -1 O 1
f

e y f y

f f
x x
-1 O 1 -1 O 1

Example 48 2 For the function with following rule, ﬁnd f (x) and sketch the graph of y = f (x):
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨−x + 3x + 1 if x ≥ 0
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩3x + 1 if x < 0

Example 49 3 For the function with the following rule, state the set of values for which the derivative
is deﬁned, ﬁnd f (x) for this set of values and sketch the graph of y = f (x):
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ x + 2x + 1 if x ≥ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩−2x + 3 if x < 1

4 For the function with the following rule, state the set of values for which the derivative
is deﬁned, ﬁnd f (x) for this set of values and sketch the graph of y = f (x):
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨−x − 2x + 1 if x ≥ −1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩−2x + 3 if x < −1

Example 50 5 For each of the following, give the set of values for which the derivative is deﬁned, give
the derivative and sketch the graph of the derivative function:
1 1
a f (x) = (x − 1) 3 b f (x) = x 5
2 2
c f (x) = x 3 d f (x) = (x + 2) 5

Review
The chain rule

• If q(x) = f (g(x)), then q (x) = f g(x) g (x)
dy dy du
• = ·
dx du dx
The product rule
• If F(x) = f (x) · g(x), then F (x) = f (x) · g (x) + g(x) · f (x)
dy dv du
• If y = uv, then =u +v
dx dx dx
The quotient rule
f (x) g(x) · f (x) − f (x) · g (x)
• If F(x) = , then F (x) =
g(x) g(x) 2
du dv
u dy v dx − u dx
• If y = , then =
v dx v2
The second derivative
The second derivative of a function f is the derivative of the derivative of f , and it is
denoted by f .
d2 y
In Leibniz notation, the second derivative of y with respect to x is denoted by 2 .
dx
Continuity and differentiability
A function f is continuous at the point x = a if:
• f (x) is deﬁned at x = a
• lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
A function is discontinuous at a point if it is not continuous at that point.
f (a + h) − f (a)
A function f is diﬀerentiable at the point x = a if lim exists.
h→0 h

Short-answer questions
1 For y = x2 + 1:
a Find the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [3, 5].
b Find the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at the point where
x = −4.

2 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:

√
√ 4x + 1 √ 2+ x
a x + 1 − x2 b 2 c 1 + 3x d
x +3 x
√ √ x2 − 1 x
e (x − 9) x − 3 f x 1 + x2 g 2 h 2
x +1 x +1
1 2x + 1 2
i (2 + 5x )
2 3
j 2 k (3x2 + 2) 3
x +2

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340 Chapter 7: Differentiation
Review
3 For each of the following functions, ﬁnd the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the
point corresponding to the given x-value:
x−1
a y = 3x2 − 4 at x = −1 b y= 2 at x = 0
x +1
1
c y = (x − 2)5 at x = 1 d y = (2x + 2) 3 at x = 3

4 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:

x
d e x −2x
2
a ln(x + 2) b sin(3x + 2) c cos
2
√
e ln(3 − x) f sin(2πx) g sin2 (3x + 1) h ln x, x > 1
2 ln(2x)
i j x2 sin(2πx)
x
5 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:
ln x
a e x sin(2x) b 2x2 ln x c 3 d sin(2x) cos(3x)
x
sin(2x)
e f cos3 (3x + 2) g x2 sin2 (3x)
cos(2x)

6 Find the gradient of each of the following curves at the stated value of x:
b y = e x +1 , x = 0
2
a y = e2x + 1, x = 1
c y = 5e3x + x2 , x = 1 d y = 5 − e−x , x = 0

7 Diﬀerentiate each of the following with respect to x:

eax
a eax b eax+b c ea−bx d beax − aebx e
ebx
8 Sketch the graph of the derivative function for each of the following functions:
a y b y c y

x x x
O 1
O 1 2 –1 O 1 2
1.5

9 2
9 Find the derivative of 4x + and ﬁnd the values of x at which the derivative is zero.
x

2x − 3 dy 8 + 6x − 2x2
10 a For y = , show that = .
x2 + 4 dx (x2 + 4)2
dy
b Find the values of x for which both y and are positive.
dx

Review
11 Find the derivative of each of the following, given that the function f is diﬀerentiable
for all real numbers:
1 x x2
a x f (x) b c d
f (x) f (x) f (x) 2

12 Let f (x) = 2x3 − 1 and g(x) = cos x.

a Find the rule for f ◦ g. b Find the rule for g ◦ f . c Find the rule for g ◦ f .
π π
d Find the rule for (g ◦ f ) . e Find f g . f Find ( f ◦ g) .
3 3

d2 y
13 For each of the following, ﬁnd :
dx2
b y = e x +1
2
a y = (2x − 1)3 c y = x sin x

Multiple-choice questions
1 The average rate of change of the function with rule f (x) = e x + x3 for x ∈ [0, 1] is
e3 + 1
A e B e3 + 1 C D e+1 E e x + 3x2
2
4x4 − 12x2
2 If f (x) = , then f (x) is equal to
3x
16x3 − 24x 16x3 − 24x 8x2 − 16x
A B 4x2 − 4 C D 4x2 − 8x E
3 3x 3x
5
3 If f : R \ {7} → R where f (x) = 5 + , then f (x) > 0 for
(7 − x)2
A x ∈ R \ {7} B x∈R C x<7 D x>7 E x>5

dy
4 Let y = f (g(x)) where g(x) = 2x4 . Then is equal to
dx
A 8x3 f (2x4 ) B 8x2 f (4x3 ) C 8x4 f (x) f (x3 )
D 2 f (x) f (x3 ) E 8x3
1
5 Which of the following is not true for the curve of y = f (x) where f (x) = x 3 ?
A The gradient is deﬁned for all real numbers.
B The curve passes through the origin.
C The curve passes through the points with coordinates (1, 1) and (−1, −1).
D For x > 0, the gradient is positive.
E For x > 0, the gradient is decreasing.
k
6 The graph of the function with rule y = has gradient 1 when x = 1. The value
2(x3 + 1)
of k is
−8 −1 −1
A 1 B C D −4 E
3 2 4

Cambridge Senior Maths AC ISBN 978-1-316-63582-7 © Evans et al. 2017 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
342 Chapter 7: Differentiation
Review
7 For the graph shown, the gradient is positive for y
A −3 < x < 2
B −3 ≤ x ≤ 2 (-3, 5)
C x < −3 or x > 2
D x ≤ −3 or x ≥ 2
E −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 x
-5 1 3
(2, -4)

8 For the function f (x) = 4x(2 − 3x), f (x) < 0 for

1 2 1 1 2
A x< B 0<x< C x= D x> E x = 0,
3 3 3 3 3
dy
9 If y =3 − 2 f (x), then is equal to
dx

2 f (x) −1 1
A B C 3 − 2 f (x)
3 − 2 f (x) 2 3 − 2 f (x) 2
3 − f (x)
D E
2 3 − 2 f (x) 3 − 2 f (x)

10 The point on the curve deﬁned by the equation y = (x + 3)(x − 2) at which the gradient
is −7 has coordinates
A (−4, 6) B (−4, 0) C (−3, 0) D (−3, −5) E (−2, 0)

11 The function y = ax2 − bx has zero gradient only for x = 2. The x-axis intercepts of the
graph of this function are
A 1
2, − 12 B 0, 4 C 0, −4 D 0, 1
2 E 0, − 12

12 The derivative of e−2ax cos(ax) with respect to x is

A −ae−2ax cos(ax) − 2ae−2ax sin(ax) B ae−2ax cos(ax) − 2ae−2ax sin(ax)
C −2ae−2ax cos(ax) − ae−2ax sin(ax) D 2ae−2ax cos(ax) + 2ae−2ax sin(ax)
E −ae−2ax cos(ax) − 2ae2ax sin(ax)
cos x
13 If f (x) = , where a is a constant, then f (x) is
x−a
sin x cos x sin x cos x sin x cos x
A + B − − C −
x − a (x − a) 2 x − a (x − a)2 x − a (x − a)2
x sin x x cos x sin x cos x
D + E −
x−a (x − a)2 x x

14 Let g(x) = e f (x) , where the function f is twice diﬀerentiable. Then g (x) is equal to

A f (x)e f (x) B f (x)e f (x) + f (x) 2 e f (x) C e f (x) D f (x)e f (x)
E f (x)e f (x) + f (x)e f (x)

Review
Extended-response questions
1 a For functions f and g, which are deﬁned and diﬀerentiable for all real numbers, it is
known that:
f (1) = 6, g(1) = −1, g(6) = 7 and f (−1) = 8
f (1) = 6, g (1) = −2, f (−1) = 2 and g (6) = −1
Find: f g
i ( f ◦ g) (1) ii (g ◦ f ) (1) iii ( f g) (1) iv (g f ) (1) v (1) (1) vi
g f
b It is known that f is a cubic function with rule f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d. Find the
values of a, b, c and d.

2 For a function f , which is diﬀerentiable for R, it is known that:

f (x) = 0 for x = 1 and x = 5
f (x) > 0 for x > 5 and x < 1
f (x) < 0 for 1 < x < 5
f (1) = 6 and f (5) = 1
a For y = f (x + 2), find the values of x for which:
dy dy
i =0 ii >0
dx dx
dy
b Find the coordinates of the points on the graph of y = f (x − 2) where = 0.
dx
dy
c Find the coordinates of the points on the graph of y = f (2x) where = 0.
dx
x dy
d Find the coordinates of the points on the graph of y = f where = 0.
2 dx
x dy
e Find the coordinates of the points on the graph of y = 3 f where = 0.
2 dx
3 Let f (x) = (x − α)n (x − β)m , where m and n are positive integers with m > n and β > α.
a Solve the equation f (x) = 0 for x.
b Find f (x).
c Solve the equation f (x) = 0 for x.
d i If m and n are odd, find the set of values for which f (x) > 0.
ii If m is odd and n is even, find the set of values for which f (x) > 0.
xn
4 Consider the function with rule f (x) = , where n is an even positive integer.
1 + xn
1
a Show that f (x) = 1 − n .
x +1
b Find f (x).
c Show that 0 ≤ f (x) < 1 for all x.
d State the set of values for which f (x) = 0.
e State the set of values for which f (x) > 0.
f Show that f is an even function.

Applications of
differentiation

Objectives
To find the equations of the tangent and the normal at a given point on a curve.
To use the derivative of a function in rates of change problems.
To use linear approximation to estimate the change in the value of a function.
To be able to find the stationary points on the curves of certain polynomial functions and
state the nature of such points.
To define and investigate points of inflection.
To use differentiation techniques to sketch graphs.
To solve maximum and minimum problems.

In this chapter we continue our study of differential calculus. There are two main aspects of
this chapter. One is to apply our knowledge of the derivative to sketching graphs and solving
maximum and minimum problems. The other is to see that the derivative can be used to
define instantaneous rate of change.
The new techniques for sketching graphs of polynomial functions are a useful addition to
the skills that were introduced in Chapter 3. At that stage, rather frustratingly, we were only
able to determine the coordinates of turning points of cubic and quartic functions using
technology. The new techniques are also used for determining maximum or minimum values
for problems set in a ‘real world’ context.
The use of the derivative to determine instantaneous rates of change is a very important
application of calculus. One of the first areas of applied mathematics to be studied in the
seventeenth century was motion in a straight line. The problems of kinematics were the
motivation for Newton’s work on calculus.

8C Linear approximation
In the graph, the line is the tangent to the y
curve at the point P(x, f (x)). y = f (x)
The gradient of the tangent is f (x).
(x + h, f(x + h)) ℓ
From the diagram, it can be seen that if
h is small, then f (x + h) ≈ f (x) + h f (x).
P(x, f(x)) hf ′(x)
θ
This can also be seen by considering the
h
deﬁnition of the derivative:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x) x
f (x) ≈ for small h O x+h
h
∴ f (x + h) ≈ f (x) + h f (x) for small h

For a small number h, the change in the value of y = f (x) as x changes from a to a + h can
be approximated by
f (a + h) − f (a) ≈ h f (a)

Note: We can express this using Leibniz notation by setting δx = h and δy = f (a + h) − f (a),
so that δx represents a small change in x and δy the corresponding change in y.
δy dy dy
Then we have ≈ and so δy ≈ × δx.
δx dx dx
The linear approximation of a function may be regarded as using the tangent to the curve at a
point to approximate the curve in the immediate neighbourhood of this point.

Example 11
Let f (x) = x4 − x3 . Find the approximate change in f (x) as x changes from 2 to 2 + h,
where h is small.
Solution Explanation
f (x) = x − x
4 3 Alternatively, using Leibniz notation
we have
f (x) = 4x3 − 3x2
δy dy
∴ f (2) = 4 × 23 − 3 × 22 ≈
δx dx
= 20 dy
∴ δy ≈ × δx
The approximate change in f (x) is given by dx
f (2 + h) − f (2) ≈ h f (2) For x = 2 and δx = h, this gives
= 20h δy ≈ 20 × h = 20h

The following table of values indicates the accuracy of the approximation in Example 11.

Linear approximation of f (x) = x4 − x3 near x = 2

h 2+h f (2 + h) f (2) + 20h

−0.01 1.99 7.8018 7.8
0 2 8 8
0.01 2.01 8.2018 8.2
0.02 2.02 8.4073 8.4
0.05 2.05 9.0459 9
0.1 2.1 10.1871 10

In practical problems, you may be required to ﬁnd the percentage change in a quantity
resulting from a given change in another quantity.
The percentage change in f (x) between x = a and x = a + h is deﬁned to be
f (a + h) − f (a)
× 100 %
f (a)
provided f (a) 0. Using the approximation f (a + h) − f (a) ≈ h f (a), we obtain
100h f (a)
percentage change ≈ %
f (a)

Example 12
The time for a pendulum of length cm to complete one swing is given by the function
√
with rule f () = c , where c is a constant. If an error is made in the measurement of
the length so that the measured length is 2.5% greater than the actual length, ﬁnd the
approximate percentage error if the function f is used to calculate the time of a swing.

Solution
Let a cm be the actual length of the pendulum. Then
100h f (a)
percentage error ≈
f (a)
1 1 −1 2.5 a
where f (a) = ca 2 , f (a) = ca 2 and h = ×a= . Therefore
2 100 40
a 1 1 1
percentage error ≈ 100 × × ca− 2 ÷ ca 2
40 2
5 1 1
= ca 2 ÷ ca 2
4
5
=
4
The estimated error is 1.25%.

Example 13
5
Given that y = 10 − and that the value of y increases from 5 by a small amount k, ﬁnd:
x
a the approximate change in x b the corresponding percentage change in x.

Solution
5 dy 5 k
a y = 10 − and = 2 b For x = 1 and δx ≈ , the percentage
x dx x 5
change in x is
dy
When y = 5, x = 1 and so = 5. δx k
dx × 100% ≈ × 100 %
Thus, for y = 5 and δy = k, we have x 5
δy dy = 20k%
≈
δx dx
k
∴ ≈5
δx
k
∴ δx ≈
5

Example 14
1 1
By diﬀerentiating √ with respect to x, ﬁnd an approximate value for √ .
x 100.5
Solution
1 dy 1 3
Let y = x− 2 . Then = − x− 2 .
dx 2
When x = 100,
1 dy 1 3 1
y= and = − (100)− 2 = −
10 dx 2 2000

δy dy
Using ≈
δx dx
dy
gives δy ≈ × δx
dx
1
=− × 0.5 (for x = 100 and δx = 0.5)
2000
1
∴ δy = −
4000
1 1 1
Hence √ ≈ −
100.5 10 4000
399
=
4000
= 0.09975

Example 15
Given that f (x) = x − e2x , ﬁnd the approximate change in f (x) as x changes from 0 to h,
where h is small.
Solution
f (x) = x − e2x
f (x) = 1 − 2e2x
f (0) = 1 − 2 = −1
Therefore
f (h) − f (0) = f (0 + h) − f (0)
≈ h f (0)
= −h

Section summary
For a small number h, the change in the value of y = f (x) as x changes from a to a + h can
be approximated by
f (a + h) − f (a) ≈ h f (a)
Using Leibniz notation, we can write this as
dy
δy ≈ × δx
dx

Exercise 8C

Example 11 1 Let f (x) = x4 − 5x3 . Find the approximate change in f (x) as x changes from 2 to 2 + h,
where h is small.

2 The equation of a curve is y = 4x3 − 8x2 + 10.

dy dy
a Find . b Find the value of when x = 2.
dx dx
c Find the approximate change in y as x changes from 2 to 2.02.

5x2 + 8 dy
3 A curve has equation y = . Find an expression for and hence ﬁnd the
x dx
approximate increase in y as x increases from 2 to 2 + h, where h is small.

4 For each of the following, write down an expression for the approximate change in y
when x changes from a to a + h, where h is small:
√ 2
a y = 3x + 7 b y= x c y= d y = (2x + 1)4
3x + 1
x2 + 2x + 6 √3 6x + 1
e y = (6x2 − 1)3 f y= g y = x2 + 10 h y=
x +1
2 x+1

dy
5 Given that = 6x − 4, calculate the approximate change in the value of y when the
dx
value of x changes from −2 to −1.97.

6 for one complete swing of a pendulum of length m is given by

The time, T seconds,

the rule T = 2π , where g is a constant.
g
dT
a Find .
d
b Find the approximate increase in T when is increased from 1.6 to 1.7. Give the
answer in terms of g.

7 Find the approximate increase in the radius of a circular disc if its area increases from
100π cm2 to 101π cm2 .

Example 12 8 A 2% error is made in measuring the radius of a sphere. Find the approximate
percentage error in the surface area. (The surface area of a sphere is A = 4πr2 .)

Example 13 9 Let y = 6 − 4x + 5x2 . If the value of x increases from 5 by a small amount h, determine
in terms of h:
a the approximate change in y b the corresponding percentage change in y.
1
10 Let f (x) = x− 2 .
a i Find f (x). ii Find f (100).
b Find the approximate change in f (x) as x changes from 100 to 103.
1
c Find an approximate value for √ .
103
1
d Find an approximation for √ , where h is small.
a+h
1 1
Example 14 11 By diﬀerentiating y = x− 3 , determine an approximate value for √3 .
0.9
12 The radius r of a circle is 5 cm. Find the approximate increase in the area, A cm2 , of the
circle when the radius expands by h cm, where h is small.

13 The length of a rectangle is three times its width. If the perimeter increases by 2%, what
is the approximate percentage increase in the area?
1
14 Let f (x) = .
1−x
a i Find f (x). ii Find f (0).
b Show that f (h) ≈ 1 + h when h is small. Hint: Use f (0 + h) ≈ f (0) + h f (0).
√
15 Let f (x) = 1 + x.
a i Find f (x). ii Find f (0).
h
b Show that f (h) ≈ 1 + when h is small.
2

1 1 x
16 Show that f (x) = can be approximated by g(x) = + for x close to 0.
2−x 2 4
17 The radius of a sphere is measured as 4 cm with a possible error of 0.05 cm.
a What is the approximate error for the surface area? (Use S = 4πr2 .)
4
b What is the approximate error for the volume? (Use V = πr3 .)
3
Example 15 18 Given that h is small, ﬁnd the approximate increase in y = e2x if x increases from 0 to h.

19 Consider the function f : R → R, f (x) = eax .

a Find f (x).
b Find an approximation for f (h), where h is small, in terms of h and a.
c Find an approximation for f (b + h), where h is small, in terms of f (b), h and a.

20 For each of the following, write down an expression for the approximate change in y
when x changes from a to a + h, where h is small:
x x
a y = 2e 2 b y = 3 − 2e x c y = xe x d y= x
e
21 For y = ln(1 + x2 ), ﬁnd the approximate increase in y as x increases from 0 to h, where
h is a small positive number.
√
22 For y = ln 1 + x + x2 , ﬁnd the approximate increase in y as x increases from 0 to h,
where h is a small positive number.

23 Find an approximation for ln(1.01).

24 For each of the following, write down an expression for the approximate change in y
when x changes from a to a + h, where h is small:
x
a y = cos(2x) b y = sin c y = tan(2x)
2
x π −x
d y = 1 − tan e y = cos − x f y = sin
2 4 2
25 Let y = tan θ.
a i If θ is increased by a small amount h, find an estimate for the corresponding
increase in y in terms of h and θ.
π
ii If θ = , find an estimate for the increase in y in terms of h.
4
b Estimate the value of tan(46◦ ) using the results of a.
π π
26 a Given f : R → R, where f (x) = cos x, find f and f .
4 4
b Use the results of a to find an approximate value for:
π
i cos + h where h is small
4
ii cos 0.8

Integration

Objectives
I To use numerical methods to estimate the area under the graph of a function.
I To be able to calculate definite integrals.
I To use the definite integral to find the exact area under the graph of a function.
I To integrate polynomial functions, exponential functions and circular functions.
I To use integration to determine areas under curves.
I To use integration to solve problems.

We have used the derivative to find the gradients of tangents to curves, and in turn this has
been used in graph sketching. The derivative has also been used to define instantaneous rate
of change and to solve problems involving motion in a straight line.
It comes as a surprise that a related idea can be used to determine areas. In this chapter
we define an area function A for a given function f on an interval [a, b], and show that
the derivative of the area function is the original function f . Hence, you can go from the
function f to its area function by a process which can loosely be described as ‘undoing’
the derivative. This result is so important that it carries the title fundamental theorem
of calculus.
The result was developed over many centuries: a method for determining areas described in
the last section of this chapter is due to Archimedes. The final result was brought together
by both Leibniz and Newton in the seventeenth century. The wonder of it is that the two
seemingly distinct ideas – calculation of areas and calculation of gradients – were shown to
be so closely related.

9A The area under a graph

Consider a function f : R → R and its graph y = f (x). We want to find the area under the
graph. For now we’ll assume that the graph y = f (x) is always above the x-axis, and we will
determine the area between the graph y = f (x) and the x-axis. We set left and right endpoints
and determine the area between those endpoints.

I Estimating the area under a graph

Below is the graph of
f (x) = 9 − 0.1x2
We consider two methods for estimating the area under this graph between x = 2 and x = 5.

The left-endpoint estimate

We first find an approximation for the area under the graph between x = 2 and x = 5 by
dividing the region into rectangles as illustrated. The width of each rectangle is 0.5.

8
f(x) = 9 − 0.1x2
6

4 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6

x
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Areas of rectangles:
Area of R1 = 0.5 × f (2.0) = 0.5 × 8.60 = 4.30 square units
Area of R2 = 0.5 × f (2.5) = 0.5 × 8.38 = 4.19 square units
Area of R3 = 0.5 × f (3.0) = 0.5 × 8.10 = 4.05 square units
Area of R4 = 0.5 × f (3.5) = 0.5 × 7.78 = 3.89 square units
Area of R5 = 0.5 × f (4.0) = 0.5 × 7.40 = 3.70 square units
Area of R6 = 0.5 × f (4.5) = 0.5 × 6.98 = 3.49 square units
The sum of the areas of the rectangles is 23.62 square units.
This is called the left-endpoint estimate for the area under the graph.
The left-endpoint estimate will be larger than the actual area for a graph that is decreasing
over the interval, and smaller than the actual area for a graph that is increasing.

The right-endpoint estimate

8
f(x) = 9 − 0.1x2
6

4 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6

x
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Areas of rectangles:
Area of R1 = 0.5 × f (2.5) = 0.5 × 8.38 = 4.19 square units
Area of R2 = 0.5 × f (3.0) = 0.5 × 8.10 = 4.05 square units
Area of R3 = 0.5 × f (3.5) = 0.5 × 7.78 = 3.89 square units
Area of R4 = 0.5 × f (4.0) = 0.5 × 7.40 = 3.70 square units
Area of R5 = 0.5 × f (4.5) = 0.5 × 6.98 = 3.49 square units
Area of R6 = 0.5 × f (5.0) = 0.5 × 6.50 = 3.25 square units
The sum of the areas of the rectangles is 22.67 square units.
This is called the right-endpoint estimate for the area under the graph.

For f decreasing over [a, b]: left-endpoint estimate ≥ true area ≥ right-endpoint estimate
For f increasing over [a, b]: left-endpoint estimate ≤ true area ≤ right-endpoint estimate

It is clear that, if narrower strips are chosen, we obtain an estimate that is closer to the true
value. This is time-consuming to do by hand, but a computer program or spreadsheet makes
the process quite manageable.
In general, to estimate the area under the graph of y = f (x) between x = a and x = b, we
divide the interval [a, b] on the x-axis into n equal subintervals [a, x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], [x2 , x3 ], . . . ,
[xn−1 , b] as illustrated.
y
Left-endpoint estimate
b−ah i
Ln = f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) + · · · + f (xn−1 )
n
Right-endpoint estimate
x
b−ah O x0 = a x1 x2 x3 b = xn
i
Rn = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn )
n
These two methods are not limited to situations in which the graph is either increasing or
decreasing for the whole interval. They may be used to determine the area under the curve for
any continuous function on an interval [a, b].

Example 1
Approximate the area under the curve y = x3 between x = 1 and x = 2 by finding the sum
of the areas of the shaded rectangles:
a y b y
(2, 8)
(2, 8)
3, 27 3, 27
2 8 2 8
(1, 1) (1, 1)
x x
O 1 1.5 2 O 1 1.5 2

Solution
1 1 27 1 27 1
a Area = ×1+ × b Area = × + ×8
2 2 8 2 8 2
1 27 27
= + = +4
2 16 16
= 2 16
3
square units = 5 16
11
square units

(This is the left-endpoint method.) (This is the right-endpoint method.)

If f is a continuous function such that f (x) is positive for all x in the interval [a, b], and if the
interval [a, b] is partitioned into arbitrarily small subintervals, then the area under the curve
between x = a and x = b can be defined by this limiting process.
The diagram on the right shows y
rectangles formed from a partition.
The rectangles can be of varying
width, but in the limit the
width of all the rectangles must
approach zero.

x
O a b

I The definite integral

Suppose that f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b] and that f (x) is positive for
all x in this interval. Then the area under the graph of y = f (x) from x = a to x = b is called
the definite integral of f (x) from x = a to x = b, and is denoted by
b
a
f (x) dx
The function f is called the integrand, and a and b are the lower and upper limits of the
integral.

By using summation notation (discussed in Appendix A), this limiting process can be
expressed as
b n
X
a
f (x) dx = lim f (xi ) δxi
δx→0
i=1
where the interval [a, b] is partitioned into n subintervals, with the ith subinterval of
length δxi and containing xi , and δx = max{ δxi : i = 1, 2, . . . , n }.
For a linear function or a piecewise-defined function with linear components, the area under
the graph may be found using geometric techniques.

Example 2
Evaluate each of the following by using an area formula:
3 3 1 2
a 1
x − 1 dx b 1
(x − 1) dx + −1
(1 − x) dx c 1
x + 1 dx

Solution y
1
a Area of triangle = × 2 × 2
2
= 2 square units
3
Therefore x − 1 dx = 2 x
1 O 1 3

b Area = A1 + A2 y
1
=2+ ×2×2
2
= 4 square units A2 A1
3 1 x
Therefore 1
(x − 1) dx + −1
(1 − x) dx = 4 −1 O 1 3

c The required region is a trapezium.

y
1
Area = × 1 × (2 + 3)
2
5
= square units
2
2 5 x
Therefore 1
x + 1 dx = O 1 2
2

A calculus method for determining areas will be introduced in Section 9E.

Section summary
Estimating area y
Divide the interval [a, b] on the x-axis
into n equal subintervals [a, x1 ], [x1 , x2 ],
[x2 , x3 ], . . . , [xn−1 , b] as illustrated.
Estimates for the area under the graph of
x
y = f (x) between x = a and x = b: O x0 = a x1 x2 x3 b = xn
• Left-endpoint estimate
b−ah i
Ln = f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) + · · · + f (xn−1 )
n
• Right-endpoint estimate
b−ah i
Rn = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn )
n
Exact area
Let f be a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b] such that f (x) is positive for
all x ∈ [a, b]. The exact area under the graph of y = f (x) from x = ato x = b is called
b
the definite integral of f (x) from x = a to x = b, and is denoted by a f (x) dx.

Exercise 9A

Example 1 1 Use two rectangles to approximate the area contained between the curve and the x-axis.
Use the method indicated and give your answer correct to two decimal places.
1 y
a y = x2 between x = 2 and x = 3
2
using the right-endpoint method

x
O 2 2.5 3
π y
b y = cos x between x = 0 and x =
2
using the left-endpoint method

x
O π π
4 2

1
c y = x3 between x = 1 and x = 3 y
2
using the right-endpoint method

x
O 1 2 3

2 To approximate the area of the shaded region, use y

the subintervals shown to calculate:
a the left-endpoint estimate (1, 5)
b the right-endpoint estimate. (2, 3.5)
(3, 2.5)
(4, 2.2)
(5, 2)
x
O 1 2 3 4 5

3 Calculate an approximation to the area under the graph of y = x(4 − x) between x = 0

and x = 4 using:
a 4 strips of width 1.0 (Do this by hand.)
b 20 strips of width 0.2 (You can use a calculator program if you wish.)

1
4 The graph is that of y = . It is known that y
1 + x2
π
the area of the shaded region is .
4
a Apply the right-endpoint rule with strips of 1
width 0.25 to estimate the area under the curve.
b Hence find an approximate value for π.
x
How could you improve the approximation? O 1

5 A table of values is given for the rule y = f (x).

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 3 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.7 3.3 2.9

Find the area enclosed by the graph of y = f (x), the lines x = 0 and x = 10, and
the x-axis by using:
a the left-endpoint estimate b the right-endpoint estimate.

6 Calculate, by using the right-endpoint estimate, an approximation to the area under the
graph of y = 2 x between x = 0 and x = 3, using strips of width 0.5. Write your answer
correct to two decimal places.

7 The graph shows the velocity (in m/s) of an object at time t seconds.
a Use the left-endpoint rule to estimate the area of the shaded region.
b What does this area represent?

Velocity
(m/s)
10
8
6
4
2

O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 t (seconds)

Example 2 8 Evaluate each of the following by using an area formula:

5 2 5 2
a 2
x − 2 dx b −1
(2 − x) dx + 2
(x − 2) dx c 1
2x + 1 dx

9B Antidifferentiation: indefinite integrals

Later in this chapter, we will see how to find the exact area under a graph using the technique
of ‘undoing’ the derivative. In this section, we formalise the idea of ‘undoing’ a derivative.
The derivative of x2 with respect to x is 2x. Conversely, given that an unknown expression
has derivative 2x, it is clear that the unknown expression could be x2 . The process of finding
a function from its derivative is called antidifferentiation.
Now consider the functions f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x2 − 7.
We have f 0 (x) = 2x and g0 (x) = 2x. So the two different functions have the same derivative
function.
Both x2 + 1 and x2 − 7 are said to be y
antiderivatives of 2x. y= x2+1
If two functions have the same derivative y = x2
function, then they differ by a constant. So the y = x2 − 1
graphs of the two functions can be obtained
from each other by translation parallel to 1
the y-axis. y = x2 − 7
x
The diagram shows several antiderivatives 0
of 2x. distance −1
7 units distance
Each of the graphs is a translation of y = x2
parallel to the y-axis. 7 units
−7

Notation
The general antiderivative of 2x is x2 + c, where c is an arbitrary real number. We use the
notation of Leibniz to state this with symbols:

2x dx = x2 + c
This is read as ‘the general antiderivative of 2x with respect to x is equal to x2 + c’ or as
‘the indefinite integral of 2x with respect to x is x2 + c’.
To be more precise, the indefinite integral is the set of all antiderivatives and to emphasise
this we could write:

2x dx = { f (x) : f 0 (x) = 2x } = { x2 + c : c ∈ R }
This set notation is not commonly used, but it should be clearly understood that there is not a
unique antiderivative for a given function. We will not use this set notation, but it is advisable
to keep it in mind when considering further results.
In general:

If F 0 (x) = f (x), then f (x) dx = F(x) + c, where c is an arbitrary real number.

The reason why the symbol is the same as that used for the definite integral in Section 9A
will become evident in Section 9E.

I The antiderivative of xr where r , −1

We know that:
f (x) = x3 implies f 0 (x) = 3x2 f (x) = x8 implies f 0 (x) = 8x7
3 3 1
f (x) = x 2 implies f 0 (x) = x2 f (x) = x−4 implies f 0 (x) = −4x−5
2
Reversing this process gives:
2
3x dx = x3 + c where c is an arbitrary constant
7
8x dx = x + c
8
where c is an arbitrary constant
3 1 3
x 2 dx = x 2 + c where c is an arbitrary constant
2

−4x−5 dx = x−4 + c where c is an arbitrary constant
We also have:
1 3 1 2 3 1
x2 dx =x +c x 2 dx = x2 + c x−5 dx = − x−4 + c
3 3 4
Generalising, it is seen that:

xr+1
xr dx = + c, r ∈ Q \ {−1}
r+1
Note: This result can only be applied for suitable values of x for a given value of r.
For example, if r = 12 , then x ∈ R+ is a suitable restriction. If r = −2, we can take
x ∈ R \ {0}, and if r = 3, we can take x ∈ R.
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9B Antidifferentiation: indefinite integrals 429

We also record the following results, which follow immediately from the corresponding
results for differentiation:

Sum f (x) + g(x) dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx

Difference f (x) − g(x) dx = f (x) dx − g(x) dx

Multiple k f (x) dx = k f (x) dx, where k is a real number

Example 3
Find the general antiderivative (indefinite integral) of each of the following:
a 3x5 b 3x2 + 4x−2 + 3

Solution

a 3x5 dx b 3x2 + 4x−2 + 3 dx

=3 x5 dx =3 x2 dx + 4 x−2 dx + 3 1 dx
6 3 −1
x 3x 4x 3x
=3× +c = + + +c
6 3 −1 1
x6 4
= +c = x3 − + 3x + c
2 x

Example 4
Find y in terms of x if:
dy 1 dy √ dy 3 3
a = b =3 x c = x 4 + x− 4
dx x2 dx dx
Solution
1 √ 1 4 7 1
a 2
dx = x−2 dx b 3 x dx = 3 x 2 dx c y= x 4 + 4x 4 + c
x 7
3
x−1 x2
= +c =3× +c
−1 3
2
−1 3
∴ y= +c ∴ y = 2x 2 + c
x

Given extra information, we can find a unique antiderivative.

Example 5
It is known that f 0 (x) = x3 + 4x2 and f (0) = 0. Find f (x).

Solution
x4 4x3
x3 + 4x2 dx = + +c
4 3
x4 4x3
∴ f (x) = + +c
4 3
x4 4x3
As f (0) = 0, we have c = 0. Hence f (x) = + .
4 3

Example 6
If the gradient of the tangent at a point (x, y) on a curve is given by 2x and the curve passes
through the point (−1, 4), find the equation of the curve.

Solution
Let the curve have equation y = f (x). Then f 0 (x) = 2x.
2x2
2x dx = + c = x2 + c
2
∴ f (x) = x2 + c
But f (−1) = 4 and therefore 4 = (−1)2 + c.
Hence c = 3 and so f (x) = x2 + 3.

Section summary
Antiderivative of xr , for r ∈ Q \ {−1}:
xr+1
xr dx = +c
r+1
Properties of antidifferentiation:

• f (x) + g(x) dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx

• f (x) − g(x) dx = f (x) dx − g(x) dx

• k f (x) dx = k f (x) dx, where k is a real number

Exercise 9B

Skillsheet 1 Find:
1 4
Example 3 a x3 dx b 5x3 − 2x dx c x3 − 3x2 dx d (2 − z)(3z + 1) dz
2 5
Example 4 2 Find y in terms of x if:
dy 1 dy √ dy 1 3
a = b = 43 x c = x 4 + x− 5
dx x3 dx dx
3 Find:

a 3x−2 dx b 2x−4 + 6x dx c 2x−2 + 6x−3 dx
1 5 3 1 3 5
d 3x 3 − 5x 4 dx e 3x 4 − 7x 2 dx f 4x 5 + 12x 3 dx

Example 5 4 Find y in terms of x for each of the following:

dy dy
a = 2x − 3 and y = 1 when x = 1 b = x3 and y = 6 when x = 0
dx dx
dy 1
c = x 2 + x and y = 6 when x = 4
dx

5 Find:
√ 3z4 + 2z 5x3 + 2x2
a x (2 + x) dx b dz c dx
z3 x
√ √3
d x (2x + x2 ) dx e x2 (2 + 3x2 ) dx f x (x + x4 ) dx

1
Example 6 6 A curve with equation y = f (x) passes through the point (2, 0) and f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 2 .
x
Find f (x).
ds 8
7 Find s in terms of t if = 3t − 2 and s = 1 12 when t = 1.
dt t
8 A curve y = f (x) for which f 0 (x) = 16x + k, where k is a constant, has a stationary point
at (2, 1). Find:
a the value of k b the value of f (x) when x = 7.

9C The antiderivative of (ax + b)r

Case 1: r , −1
For f (x) = (ax + b)r+1 , where r , −1, we can use the chain rule to find
f 0 (x) = a(r + 1)(ax + b)r
Thus it follows that:
1
(ax + b)r dx = (ax + b)r+1 + c, r , −1
a(r + 1)

This result does not hold for r = −1.

Example 7
Find the general antiderivative of:
a (3x + 1)5 b (2x − 1)−2

Solution
1 1
a (3x + 1)5 dx = (3x + 1)6 + c b (2x − 1)−2 dx = (2x − 1)−1 + c
3×6 2 × (−1)
1 1
= (3x + 1)6 + c = − (2x − 1)−1 + c
18 2

Using the TI-Nspire

Use > Calculus > Integral to find the
menu
integral of (2x − 1)−2 .
Note: The integral template can also be
accessed using the 2D-template palette
t or shift + .

Using the Casio ClassPad

Enter and highlight the expression (2x − 1)−2 .
Select Interactive > Calculation > ∫ .
Note: The two boxes on the integral allow for
definite integrals to be evaluated. This is
covered later in the chapter.

Case 2: r = −1
1
But what happens when r = −1? In other words, what is dx?
ax + b
d 1 1
Remember that ln x = . Thus dx = ln x + c provided that x > 0.
dx x x
More generally:

For ax + b > 0,
1 1
dx = ln(ax + b) + c
ax + b a

For x < 0, we have

d 1 1
ln(−x) = × (−1) =
dx −x x
1
and so dx = ln(−x).
x
More generally, for ax + b < 0, we have
d 1 a
ln(−ax − b) = × (−a) =
dx −ax − b ax + b
1 1
and so dx = ln(−ax − b).
ax + b a
We can summarise these results as:
1
ln(ax + b) + c for ax + b > 0



1 a


dx = 

ax + b 
 1
 ln(−ax − b) + c for ax + b < 0



a

Example 8
2 2
a Find the general antiderivative of for x > .
3x − 2 3
2 2
b Find the general antiderivative of for x < .
3x − 2 3
dy 3
c Given = for x > 0 and y = 10 when x = 1, find an expression for y in terms of x.
dx x
dy 3
d Given = for x < 0 and y = 10 when x = −1, find an expression for y in terms of x.
dx x
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Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
9C The antiderivative of (ax + b)r 433

Solution
2 2
a For x > , b For x < ,
3 3
2 1 2 1
dx = × 2 ln(3x − 2) + c dx = × 2 ln(2 − 3x) + c
3x − 2 3 3x − 2 3
2 2
= ln(3x − 2) + c = ln(2 − 3x) + c
3 3
3 3
c y= dx = 3 ln x + c d y= dx = 3 ln(−x) + c
x x
When x = 1, y = 10 and so When x = −1, y = 10 and so
10 = 3 ln 1 + c 10 = 3 ln 1 + c
10 = 0 + c 10 = 0 + c
∴ c = 10 ∴ c = 10
Hence y = 3 ln x + 10. Hence y = 3 ln(−x) + 10.

The situation is simplified by using the absolute value function, which is not part of the
curriculum for Mathematical Methods Year 12. It is defined by

x if x ≥ 0


|x| = 

−x if x < 0



For example, |−2| = |2| = 2.

For the type of example we are working with here, we have

ax + b if ax + b ≥ 0


|ax + b| = 

−ax − b if ax + b < 0



Thus:

For ax + b , 0,
1 1
dx = ln |ax + b| + c
ax + b a

Note: We can now deal with parts a and b of Example 8 simultaneously by writing
2 2
dx = ln |3x − 2| + c. For parts c and d, write y = 3 ln |x| + c.
3x − 2 3

Using the TI-Nspire

Use > Calculus > Integral to find an
menu
3
antiderivative of .
x 3
Add c to find the general antiderivative of .
x
Use solve( ) to determine the value of c as
shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

3
Enter and highlight the expression .
x
Select Interactive > Calculation > ∫ .
Note that the ClassPad does not add c to the
indefinite integral.
Copy and paste the answer to the next line.
Replace the x with 1 and add c to complete the
equation 3 ln |1| + c = 10.
Select Interactive > Equation/Inequality > solve
and ensure the variable is set to c.

Example 9
2
a Find the general antiderivative of .
2 − 3x
dy 2
b Given = and y = 10 when x = 1, find an expression for y in terms of x.
dx x
dy 2
c Given = and y = 10 when x = −1, find an expression for y in terms of x.
dx x

Solution
2 1
a dx = − × 2 ln |2 − 3x| + c
2 − 3x 3
2
= − ln |2 − 3x| + c
3
2 2
b y= dx = 2 ln |x| + c c y= dx = 2 ln |x| + c
x x
When x = 1, y = 10 and so When x = −1, y = 10 and so
10 = 2 ln |1| + c 10 = 2 ln |−1| + c
10 = 0 + c 10 = 0 + c
∴ c = 10 ∴ c = 10
Hence y = 2 ln |x| + 10. Hence y = 2 ln |x| + 10.

Section summary
If r ∈ Q \ {−1}, then
1
(ax + b)r dx = (ax + b)r+1 + c
a(r + 1)
For ax + b > 0, For ax + b < 0,
1 1 1 1
dx = ln(ax + b) + c dx = ln(−ax − b) + c
ax + b a ax + b a

Or more conveniently:
For ax + b , 0,
1 1
dx = ln |ax + b| + c
ax + b a

Exercise 9C

Skillsheet 1 Find:

Example 7 a (2x − 1)2 dx b (2 − t)3 dt c (5x − 2)3 dx

d (4x − 6)−2 dx e (6 − 4x)−3 dx f (4x + 3)−3 dx
1 1 7
g (3x + 6) 2 dx h (3x + 6)− 2 dx i (2x − 4) 2 dx
4 √
j (3x + 11) 3 dx k 2 − 3x dx l (5 − 2x)4 dx

Example 8 2 Find an antiderivative of each of the following:

1 1 2 4 1
a , x>0 b , x>− c , x>−
2x 3x + 2 3 1 + 4x 4
5 2 3 1 3
d , x> e , x< f , x<4
3x − 2 3 1 − 4x 4 2 − 2x

Example 9 3 Find (using the absolute value function in your answer):

5 3 10
a dx b dx c dx
x x−4 2x + 1
6
d dx e 6(1 − 2x)−1 dx f (4 − 3x)−1 dx
5 − 2x
4 Find an antiderivative of each of the following. (Where appropriate, use the absolute
value function in your answer.)
3x + 1 x+1 1
a b c
x x (x + 1)2
(x + 1)2 3 1 − 2x
d e f
x (x − 1)3 x
Example 8, 9 5 Find y in terms of x for each of the following:
dy 1 dy 2
a = and y = 2 when x = e2 b = and y = 10 when x = 2
dx 2x dx 5 − 2x
10
6 A curve with equation y = f (x) passes through the point (5 + e, 10) and f 0 (x) = .
x−5
Find the equation of the curve.

7 Find an antiderivative of each of the following. (Where appropriate, use the absolute
value function in your answer.)
x 1 − 2x 2x + 1
a b c
x+1 x+1 x+1

dy 3
8 Given that = and y = 10 when x = 0, find an expression for y in terms of x.
dx x − 2
dy 5
9 Given that = and y = 10 when x = −2, find an expression for y in terms of x.
dx 2 − 4x
dy 5
10 Given that = and y = 10 when x = 1, find an expression for y in terms of x.
dx 2 − 4x

9D The antiderivative of ekx

In Chapter 7 we found that, if f (x) = ekx , then f 0 (x) = kekx .
Thus:
1 kx
ekx dx = e + c, k,0
k

Example 10
Find the general antiderivative of each of the following:
a e4x b e5x + 6x c e3x + 2 d e−x + e x

Solution
1 4x 1 5x
a e4x dx = e +c b e5x + 6x dx = e + 3x2 + c
4 5
1
c e3x + 2 dx = e3x + 2x + c d e−x + e x dx = −e−x + e x + c
3

Example 11
If the gradient of the tangent at a point (x, y) on a curve is given by 5e2x and the curve
passes through the point (0, 7.5), find the equation of the curve.

Solution
Let the curve have equation y = f (x). Then f 0 (x) = 5e2x .
2x 5
5e dx = e2x + c
2
5 2x
∴ f (x) =
e +c
2
But f (0) = 7.5 and therefore
5
7.5 = e0 + c
2
= 2.5 + c
∴ c=5
5 2x
Hence f (x) = e + 5.
2

Section summary
1 kx
ekx dx = e + c, k,0
k

Exercise 9D

Skillsheet 1 Find the general antiderivative of each of the following:

Example 10 a e6x b e2x + 3x c e−3x + 2x d e−2x + e2x

2 Find:
x e2x + 1
a e2x − e 2 dx b dx c 2e3x − e−x dx
ex
x x 2x 7x 4x 2x
d 5e 3 − 2e 5 dx e 3e 3 − 3e 5 dx f 5e 3 − 3e 3 dx

Example 11 3 Find y in terms of x for each of the following:

dy
a = e2x − x and y = 5 when x = 0
dx
dy 3 − e2x
b = and y = 4 when x = 0
dx ex
dy dy
4 Given that = ae−x + 1 and that when x = 0, = 3 and y = 5, find the value of y
dx dx
when x = 2.
dy
5 A curve for which = ekx , where k is a constant, is such that the tangent at (1, e2 )
dx
passes through the origin. Find the gradient of this tangent and hence determine:
a the value of k b the equation of the curve.

dy
6 A curve for which = −ekx , where k is a constant, is such that the tangent at (1, −e3 )
dx
passes through the origin. Find the gradient of this tangent and hence determine:
a the value of k b the equation of the curve.

9E The fundamental theorem of calculus and the

definite integral
The integrals that you have learned to evaluate in the previous sections are known as
indefinite integrals because constant: for
they are only defined to within an arbitrary
example, we have 3x dx = x + c. In general terms, we can write f (x) dx = F(x) + c;
2 3

that is, the integral of f (x) is F(x) plus a constant, where F(x) is an antiderivative of f (x).
We now resume our consideration of the definite integral and investigate its connection with
the indefinite integral.

I Signed area
We first look at regions below the x-axis as well as y
those above the x-axis.
3 y=x+1
Consider the graph of y = x + 1 shown to the right.
2
A1 = 1
2 × 3 × 3 = 4 12 (area of a triangle)
A2 = 1
2 ×1×1= 1
2
1 A1
The total area is A1 + A2 = 5. −2 −1
x
A2 O 1 2
The signed area is A1 − A2 = 4.
−1

Regions above the x-axis have y

positive signed area.
Regions below the x-axis have
negative signed area. A1 A3
The total area of the shaded x
O A2 A4
region is A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 .
The signed area of the shaded
region is A1 − A2 + A3 − A4 .

b
For any continuous function f on an interval [a, b], the definite integral a f (x) dx gives
the signed area enclosed by the graph of y = f (x) between x = a and x = b.

In this more general setting, the definite integral can still be determined by a limiting process
as discussed in the first section of this chapter.

I The fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus provides a connection between the area definition of the
definite integral and the antiderivatives discussed previously. An outline of the proof is given
in the final section of this chapter.

Fundamental theorem of calculus

If f is a continuous function on an interval [a, b], then
b
a
f (x) dx = G(b) − G(a)
where G is any antiderivative of f .

To facilitate setting out, we sometimes write

G(b) − G(a) = G(x) ba

Example 12
2
Evaluate the definite integral 1
x dx.

Solution
1 2
We have x dx =
x + c and so
2
2 1 1
1
x dx = × 2 2
+ c − × 1 2
+ c
2 2
1 3
=2− =
2 2
Note: The arbitrary constant cancels out. Because of this, we ignore it when evaluating
definite integrals. We also use the more compact notation G(b) − G(a) = G(x) ba

to help with setting out:

2 x2 2 22 12 3
1
x dx = = − =
2 1 2 2 2

Example 13
Evaluate each of the following the definite integrals:
3 2 1 1 3
a 2
x2 dx b 3
x2 dx c 0
x 2 + x 2 dx

Solution
3 2 1 1 3
a 2
x2 dx b 3
x2 dx c 0
x 2 + x 2 dx
x 3 3 x 3 2 2 3 2 5 1
= = = x2 + x2
3 2 3 3 3 5 0
27 8 8 27 2 2
= − = − = +
3 3 3 3 3 5
19 19 16
= =− =
3 3 15

Example 14
Evaluate each of the following definite integrals:
1 4 4 1 x
a 0
2e−2x dx b 0
e2x + 1 dx c 1
2x 2 + e 2 dx

Solution
1 2 1 4 1 4
a 0
2e−2x dx = e−2x b 0
e2x + 1 dx = e2x + x
−2 0 2 0
= −1(e −2×1
− e−2×0 ) 1 8 1
= e + 4 − e0 + 0
= −1(e−2 − 1) 2 2
1
= 1 − e−2 = (e8 + 7)
2

4 1 x 4 3 x 4
c 1
2x 2 + e 2 dx = x 2 + 2e 2
3 1
4 4 1
= × 8 + 2e2 − + 2e 2
3 3
28 1
= + 2e2 − 2e 2
3
14 1
=2 + e2 − e 2
3

Example 15
Evaluate each of the following definite integrals:
8 1 5 1
a 6 dx b 4 dx
x−5 2x − 5
Solution
8 1 h i8 5 1 1h i5
a 6
dx = ln(x − 5) b 4
dx = ln(2x − 5)
x−5 6 2x − 5 2 4

= ln 3 − ln 1 1
= ln 5 − ln 3

= ln 3 2
1 5
= ln
2 3

Important properties of the definite integral are listed in the summary below.

Section summary
b
For any continuous function f on an interval [a, b], the definite integral a
f (x) dx
gives the signed area enclosed by the graph of y = f (x) between x = a and x = b.
Fundamental theorem of calculus
If f is a continuous function on the interval [a, b], then
b
f (x) dx = G(x) ba = G(b) − G(a)

a

where G is any antiderivative of f .

Properties of the definite integral
b c b
• f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
aa a c

• a
f (x) dx = 0
b b
• a
k f (x) dx = k a
f (x) dx
b b b
• a
f (x) ± g(x) dx = a
f (x) dx ± a
g(x) dx
b a
• a
f (x) dx = − b
f (x) dx

Exercise 9E
Skillsheet 1 Evaluate each of the following:
2 3 1
Example 12, 13 a 1
x2 dx b −1
x3 dx c 0
x3 − x dx
2 2 1 4 1
d (x + 1)2 dx e dx f x 2 + 2x2 dx
−1 1 x2 1
2 4 3
g 0
x3 + 2x2 + x + 2 dx h 1
2x 2 + 5x3 dx

2 Evaluate each of the following:

1 2 1 2
a 0
(2x + 1)3 dx b 0
(4x + 1)− 2 dx c 1
(1 − 2x)2 dx
1 2 1
d 0
(3 − 2x)−2 dx e 0
(3 + 2x)−3 dx f −1
(4x + 1)3 dx
1√ 4 1 1 1
g 0 2 − x dx h √ dx i dx
3
2x − 4 0 (3 + 2x)2
Example 14 3 Evaluate each of the following:
1 1 1 x 2 ex + e−x
a 0
e2x dx b 0
e−2x + 1 dx c 0
2e 3 + 2 dx d −2
dx
2
4
4 Given that h(x) dx = 5, evaluate:
4 0
4 0
a 0
2h(x) dx b 0
h(x) + 3 dx c 4
h(x) dx
4 4
d 0
h(x) + 1 dx e 0
h(x) − x dx
4 1 4 1 6 3
Example 15 5 a Find dx. b Find dx. c Find dx.
0 x−6 2 2x − 3 5 2x + 7

9F Finding the area under a curve

b
Recall that the definite integral a
f (x) dx gives the net signed area ‘under’ the curve.
y
I Finding the area of a region
If f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], then the area A of the region y = f(x)
contained between the curve, the x-axis and the lines
x = a and x = b is given by
b
A= a
f (x) dx x
O a b
If f (x) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], then the area A of the y
region contained between the curve, the x-axis and the
a b
lines x = a and x = b is given by x
b
A=− a
f (x) dx
a y = f (x)
= b
f (x) dx

If c ∈ (a, b) with f (c) = 0 and f (x) ≥ 0 for y

x ∈ (c, b] and f (x) ≤ 0 for x ∈ [a, c), then
the area A of the shaded region is given by y = f (x)
b c
A = c f (x) dx + − a f (x) dx a
x
O c b

Note: In determining the area ‘under’ a curve y = f (x), the sign of f (x) in the given interval
is the critical factor.

Example 16
y
a Find the area of the region between the x-axis,
the line y = x + 1 and the lines x = 2 and x = 4. y=x+1
Check the answer by working out the area of
the trapezium.
b Find the area under the line y = x + 1 between
x = −4 and x = −2.
1
−1
x
O 1 2 4

Solution
4 x2 4
a Area = 2
x + 1 dx = +x
2 2
42 22
= +4 − +2
2 2
= 12 − 4 = 8
The area of the shaded region is 8 square units.
3+5
Check: Area of trapezium = average height × base = ×2=8
2
−2 x2 −2
b Area = − x + 1 dx = − +x y
−4 2 −4
= −(0 − 4) = 4
The area of the shaded region is 4 square units. 1
−4 −2 −1
x
Note: The negative sign is introduced as the O
integral gives the signed area from −4
to −2, which is negative.

y=x+1

Example 17
y
Find the exact area of the shaded region. y = x2 − 4

1
x
O 2 4
(0, −4)

Solution
4 2
Area = 2
(x2 − 4) dx + − 1
(x2 − 4) dx
x3 4 x 3 2
= − 4x − − 4x
3 2 3 1
64 8 8 1 !
= − 16 − −8 − −8 − −4
3 3 3 3
56 7 37
= −8− −4 =
3 3 3
37
The area is square units.
3

Example 18
Find the exact area of the regions enclosed by the graph of y = x(2 − x)(x − 3) and
the x-axis.
Solution
y
y = x(−x2 + 5x − 6)
= −x3 + 5x2 − 6x

3 2 x
Area = 2
(−x3 + 5x2 − 6x) dx + − 0
(−x3 + 5x2 − 6x) dx O 2 3
−x4 5x3 6x2 3 −x4 5x3 6x2 2
= + − − + −
4 3 2 2 4 3 2 0
−81 40 40
= + 45 − 27 − −4 + − 12 − −4 + − 12
4 3 3
−81 80
= + 18 + 32 −
4 3
243 + 320 37
= 50 − =
12 12
37
The area is square units.
12
Note: There is no need to find the coordinates of stationary points.

Section summary
Finding areas:

contained between the curve,

If f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], then the area of the region
b
the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is given by a
f (x) dx.
If f (x) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], then the area of the region contained between the curve,
b
the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is given by − a
f (x) dx.
If c ∈ (a, b) with f (c) = 0 and f (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ (c, b] and y
b x ∈ [a, c), then the
f (x) ≤ 0 for area of
the shaded region is
c
given by c f (x) dx + − a f (x) dx .
a
x
O c b

Exercise 9F

Example 16, 17 1 Sketch the graph and find the exact area of the region(s) bounded by the x-axis and the
graph of each of the following:
a y = 3x2 + 2 between x = 0 and x = 1
b y = x3 − 8 between x = 2 and x = 4
c y = 4 − x between:
i x = 0 and x = 4 ii x = 0 and x = 6

Example 18 2 Find the exact area bounded by the x-axis and the graph of each of the following:
a y = x2 − 2x b y = (4 − x)(3 − x) c y = (x + 2)(7 − x)
d y = x2 − 5x + 6 e y = 3 − x2 f y = x3 − 6x2

3 For each of the following, sketch a graph to illustrate the region for which the definite
integral gives the area:
4 3 4
a 1
2x + 1 dx b 0
3 − x dx c 0
x2 dx
1 4 √ 1
d −1
4 − 2x2 dx e 2
x dx f 0
(1 − x)(1 + x)2 dx

4 Find the exact area of the region bounded by the curve y = 3x + 2x−2 , the lines x = 2
and x = 5 and the x-axis.

5 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 1 + x3 and find the exact area of the region bounded by the
curve and the axes.

6 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 4e2x + 3 and find the exact area of the region enclosed by the
curve, the axes and the line x = 1.

7 Sketch the graph of y = x(2 − x)(x − 1) and find the exact area of the region enclosed by
the curve and the x-axis.

4
8 a Evaluate −1 x(3 − x) dx. y
b Find the exact area of the shaded region in
the figure.

−1 4
x
O 3

9 a In the figure, the graph of y2 = 9(1 − x) is y

shown. Find the coordinates of A and B.
b Find the exact area of the shaded region by A
evaluating
b y2 x
0
1− dy O B
9
for a suitable choice of b.

1
10 Sketch the graph of y = and find the exact area of the region enclosed by the
2 − 3x
curve, the x-axis and the lines with equations x = −3 and x = −2.
1
11 Sketch the graph of y = 2 + and find the exact area of the region enclosed by the
x+4
curve, the axes and the line x = −2.

12 Let a > 0 with a , 1.

a Show that a x = e x(ln a) .
b Hence find the derivative and an antiderivative of a x .
c Hence, or otherwise, show that the area under the curve y = a x between the lines
1 b
x = 0 and x = b is (a − 1).
ln a

9G Integration of circular functions

Recall the following results from Chapter 7:
If f (x) = sin(kx + a), then f 0 (x) = k cos(kx + a).
If g(x) = cos(kx + a), then g0 (x) = −k sin(kx + a).
Thus:
1
sin(kx + a) dx = − cos(kx + a) + c
k
1
cos(kx + a) dx = sin(kx + a) + c
k

Example 19
Find an antiderivative of each of the following:
π 1
a sin 3x + b sin(4x)
4 4
Solution
1 π 1
a − cos 3x + +c b − cos(4x) + c
3 4 16

Example 20
Find the exact value of each of the following definite integrals:
π π
a 0
4 sin(2x) dx b 0
2 2 cos x + 1 dx

Solution
π π
a 0
4
sin(2x) dx b 0
2 2 cos x + 1 dx
−1 π h iπ
= cos(2x)
4
= 2 sin x + x 2
0
2 0 π π
−1 = 2 sin + − (2 sin 0 + 0)
π −1
= cos − cos 0 2 2
2 2 2
π
1 1 =2+
=0+ = 2
2 2

Example 21
Find the exact area of the shaded region for each graph:
a y b y

y = sin 12 x π
y = sin θ −
A1 4
x θ
O 2π 4π O π 5π 9π
4 4 A2 4

Solution
1 2π
a Area = 0 sin x dx
2
1 2π
= −2 cos x
2 0
= −2 cos π − (−2 cos 0)
=4
∴ Area of shaded region is 4 square units.

b Regions A1 and A2 must be considered separately:

5π π 9π π
Area A1 = π 4 sin θ − dθ Area A2 = − 5π4 sin θ − dθ
4 4 4
4
5π 9π
π 4 π 4
= − cos θ − = − − cos θ −
4 π4 4 5π 4
= −(cos π − cos 0) = cos(2π) − cos π
=2 =2
∴ Total area of shaded region is 4 square units.

Section summary
1
sin(kx + a) dx = − cos(kx + a) + c
k
1
cos(kx + a) dx = sin(kx + a) + c
k

Exercise 9G

Example 19 1 Find an antiderivative of each of the following:

1
a cos(3x) b sin x c 3 cos(3x)
2
1 π
d 2 sin x e sin 2x − f cos(3x) + sin(2x)
2 3
1 1 π
g cos(4x) − sin(4x) h − sin(2x) + cos(3x) i − cos 2x +
2 2 3
j sin(πx)

Example 20 2 Find the exact value of each of the following definite integrals:
π π
a 4 sin x dx b 4 cos(2x) dx
0 0
π π
c 4
π cos θ dθ d 0
2 sin θ + cos θ dθ
−2
π π
e 0
2 sin(2θ) dθ cos(3θ) + sin(3θ) dθ
f 0
3

π π π x x
g 0 3 cos(3θ) + sin θ − dθ h 0 sin + cos dx
3 4 4
π π π x
i 0 4 sin 2x − dx j 0 cos(2x) − sin dx
3 2
1
Example 21 3 Calculate the exact area of the region bounded by the curve y = sin x , the x-axis and
2
π
the lines x = 0 and x = .
2

4 For each of the following, draw a graph to illustrate the area given by the definite
integral and evaluate the integral:
π π π
6
a 4 cos x dx b 3 sin(2x) dx c cos(2x) dx
0 0 −π
6
π π π
d 0
2 cos θ + sin θ dθ e 0
2 sin(2θ) + 1 dθ f 4
−π 1 − cos(2θ) dθ
4

5 Find the exact value of each of the following definite integrals:

π π π π
a 0 2 sin 2x + dx b 0 3 cos 3x + dx
4 6
π π π
c 0 3 cos 3x + dx d 0 4 cos(3π − x) dx
3
2π
6 Sketch the curve y = 2 + sin(3x) for the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ and calculate the exact area
3
π
enclosed by the curve, the x-axis and the lines x = 0 and x = .
3

9H Further integration techniques

In this section we look at some further integrals to provide additional practice and introduce
new approaches.

Example 22
Let f (x) = ln(x2 + 1).
2x 2 x
a Show that f 0 (x) = . b Hence evaluate dx.
x2 +1 0 x2 +1
Solution
2 x 1 2 2x
a Let y = ln(x2 + 1) and u = x2 + 1. b dx = dx
0 x2 + 1 2 0 x2 + 1
Then y = ln u. By the chain rule:
1h i2
dy dy du = ln(x2 + 1)
= · 2 0
dx du dx
1
1 =

ln 5 − ln 1
= · 2x 2
u
1
2x = ln 5
∴ f (x) = 2
0
2
x +1

We can generalise the previous example as follows. Let g(x) = ln( f (x)), where f (x) > 0.
f 0 (x)
Then the chain rule gives g0 (x) = , and therefore we have
f (x)
f 0 (x)
dx = ln( f (x)) + c, for f (x) > 0
f (x)

This result is used in the following example.

Example 23
Find an antiderivative for each of the following:
6x sin x ex
a 2 b , for cos x > 0 c
x +1 cos x ex + 1
Solution
6x sin x ex
a dx b dx c dx
x2 + 1 cos x ex + 1
2x − sin x = ln(e x + 1) + c
=3 dx =− dx
x2 + 1 cos x
= 3 ln(x2 + 1) + c = − ln(cos x) + c

Example 24
cos x
Let f (x) = .
sin x
−1 π
1
a Show that f 0 (x) = . b Hence evaluate π
2
dx.
sin2 x 4 sin2 x
Solution #π
π
1
"
cos x 2
a Using the quotient rule: b π
2
dx = −
4 sin2 x sin x π
− sin2 x − cos2 x 4
f 0 (x) = cos π2 cos π4

sin2 x =− +
sin π2 sin π4

−(sin2 x + cos2 x)
= =1
sin2 x
−1
=
sin2 x

Example 25

a If f (x) = x ln(kx), find f 0 (x) and hence find ln(kx) dx, where k is a positive constant.

b If f (x) = x2 ln(kx), find f 0 (x) and hence find x ln(kx) dx, where k is a positive
constant.

Solution
1
a f 0 (x) = ln(kx) + x ×
x
= ln(kx) + 1
Antidifferentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x:

f 0 (x) dx = ln(kx) dx + 1 dx

x ln(kx) + c1 = ln(kx) dx + x + c2

Thus ln(kx) dx = x ln(kx) − x + c1 − c2
= x ln(kx) − x + c

1
b f 0 (x) = 2x ln(kx) + x2 ×
x
= 2x ln(kx) + x
Antidifferentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x:

f 0 (x) dx = 2x ln(kx) dx + x dx
x2
x2 ln(kx) + c1 = 2x ln(kx) dx + + c2
2
1 2 x2
Thus x ln(kx) dx = x ln(kx) − +c
2 4

It is not possible to find rules for antiderivatives of all continuous functions: for example,
2
for e−x . However, for these functions we can find approximations of definite integrals.
For some functions, a CAS calculator can be used to find exact values of definite integrals
where finding an antiderivative by hand is beyond the scope of the course. The following
example illustrates this case.

Example 26
2 1
Use a CAS calculator to find 1
√ dx.
x2 − 1

Using the TI-Nspire

Use the Integral template from the Calculus
menu and complete as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

1
Enter and highlight the expression √ .
−1 x2
Go to Interactive > Calculation > ∫ and select
Definite.
Enter the lower limit and upper limit and tap OK .

Exercise 9H

1 Find the exact value of each of the following:

4√ 1 8 √3
a 1 x dx b −1 (1 + x)2 dx c 0
x dx
π x 2 4 π x x
d 0 3 cos(2x) − sin dx e 1 e2x + dx f 0
sin + cos dx
2 x 4 4
π 4 1 2 1
g 0 2 5x + sin(2x) dx h 1 2+ dx i 0
x2 (1 − x) dx
x

2 Find the exact area of the region bounded by the graph of f (x) = sin x, the x-axis and
π
the lines x = 0 and x = .
3
2 x
Example 22 3 Differentiate ln(3x2 + 7) and hence evaluate 0 dx.
3x2 + 7
Example 23 4 Find an antiderivative for each of the following:
x2 x+2 e2x
a 3 , for x3 + 3 > 0 b 2 , for x2 + 4x > 0 c
x +3 x + 4x 3 + e2x
x2 + 1 5 2
d 3 , for x3 + 3x > 0 e , for x >
x + 3x 3x − 2 3
sin x 1
Example 24 5 a Differentiate and hence find an antiderivative of .
cos x cos2 x
cos(2x) 1
b Differentiate and hence find an antiderivative of 2
.
sin(2x) sin (2x)
π
c Differentiate x sin x and hence evaluate 4 x cos x dx.
0

Example 25 6 a If f (x) = x ln(2x), find f 0 (x) and hence find ln(2x) dx.

b If f (x) = x2 ln(2x), find f 0 (x) and hence find x ln(2x) dx.
√ √
c Find the derivatives of x + 1 + x2 and ln x + 1 + x2 .

1 1
By simplifying your last result if necessary, evaluate 0
√ dx.
1 + x2
2e x
√
d √x
7 Find e and hence evaluate 1 √ dx.
dx x
d 3 π
8 Find sin (2x) and hence evaluate 0 4 sin2 (2x) cos(2x) dx.
dx
Example 26 9 Find the value of each of the following definite integrals, correct to two decimal places:
20 πx x 5 ex 3π2 cos x
a 0 10 cos e 80 dx b 2 dx c π dx
40 (x − 1)2 2 (x − 1)2

2x + 3 5 4 2x + 3
10 a Show that =2+ . b Hence evaluate 2
dx.
x−1 x−1 x−1
5x − 4 6 4 5x − 4
11 a Show that =5+ . b Hence evaluate 3
dx.
x−2 x−2 x−2

Cambridge Senior Maths AC ISBN 978-1-316-63582-7 © Evans et al. 2017 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
452 Chapter 9: Integration 9H
1 4π
12 Find a function f such that f 0 (x) = sin x and f = 2.
2 3
13 For each of the following, find f (x):
3
a f 0 (x) = cos(2x) and f (π) = 1 b f 0 (x) = and f (1) = 6
x
x
c f 0 (x) = e 2 and f (0) = 1

d π
14 Find x sin(3x) and hence evaluate 0 6 x cos(3x) dx.
dx
πx
15 The curve with equation y = a + b sin passes through the points (0, 1) and (3, 3).
2
Find a and b. Find the area of the region enclosed by this curve, the x-axis and the lines
x = 0 and x = 1.

16 For each of the following, find the area of the shaded region correct to three decimal
places:
a y b y
x=1
x
y = e− (10 ) sin (2x)
y = ln((x − 1)2)

1.3
x x
O 2 3 O π π
2

π x
17 Evaluate 0
e− 10 sin(2x) dx, correct to four decimal places.

18 The gradient of a curve with equation y = f (x) is given by f 0 (x) = x + sin(2x) and
f (0) = 1. Find f (x).

19 Let f (x) = g0 (x) and h(x) = k0 (x), where g(x) = (x2 + 1)3 and k(x) = sin(x2 ). Find:

a f (x) dx b h(x) dx c f (x) + h(x) dx

d − f (x) dx e f (x) − 4 dx f 3h(x) dx

2 3 2
20 Sketch the graph of y = + 4 and evaluate 2 + 4 dx.
x−1 x−1
Indicate on your graph the region for which you have determined the area.
√ 3√
21 Sketch the graph of y = 2x − 4 + 1 and evaluate 2 2x − 4 + 1 dx.
Indicate on your graph the region for which you have determined the area.

22 Evaluate each of the following:

4√ 2√ 1 1
a 3 x − 2 dx b 2 − x dx c dx
0 0 3x + 1
2 1 3 √ 4 1
d 1
+ 3 dx e 2.5
2x − 5 − 6 dx f 3
√ dx
2x − 1 x−2

9I The area of a region between two curves

Let f and g be continuous functions on the y
interval [a, b] such that
f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b]
Then the area of the region bounded by the y = f (x)
two curves and the lines x = a and x = b can
be found by evaluating y = g (x)
b b b x
a
f (x) dx − a
g(x) dx = a
f (x) − g(x) dx O a b

Example 27
Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line y = 2x.

Solution
We first find the coordinates of the point P: y
x2 = 2x
x(x − 2) = 0 P
∴ x = 0 or x = 2
Therefore the coordinates of P are (2, 4).
2
Required area = 2x − x2 dx
0 x
x 3 2 O
= x2 −
3 0
8 4
=4− =
3 3
4
The area is square units.
3

Example 28
Calculate the area of the region enclosed by the curves with equations y = x2 + 1 and
y = 4 − x2 and the lines x = −1 and x = 1.

Solution
1
Required area = 4 − x2 − (x2 + 1) dx y
−11
= 3 − 2x2 dx
−1
2x3 1
= 3x −
3 −1
2 2
= 3 − − −3 +
3 3
x
14 −1 O 1
=
3

In Examples 27 and 28, the graph of one function is always ‘above’ the graph of the other for
the intervals considered. What happens if the graphs cross?

y
g

x
a c1 O c2 c3 b

To find the area of the shaded region, we must consider the intervals [a, c1 ], [c1 , c2 ], [c2 , c3 ]
and [c3 , b] separately. Thus, the shaded area is given by
c1 c2 c3 b
a
f (x) − g(x) dx + c1
g(x) − f (x) dx + c2
f (x) − g(x) dx + c3
g(x) − f (x) dx

Example 29
Find the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of f (x) = x3 and g(x) = x.

Solution
The graphs intersect where f (x) = g(x): y
x =x
3

x3 − x = 0 1

x(x2 − 1) = 0
x = 0 or x = ±1 x
∴
−1 O 1
We see that:
−1
f (x) ≥ g(x) for −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
f (x) ≤ g(x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

Thus the area is given by

0 1 0 1
−1
f (x) − g(x) dx + 0
g(x) − f (x) dx = −1
x3 − x dx + 0
x − x3 dx
x4x 2 0 x 2 x 4 1
= − + −
4 2 −1 2 4 0
1 1
=− − +
4 4
1
=
2
1
The area is square unit.
2

Example 30
Find the area of the shaded region. y

y = cos x y = sin x

x
O π π 3π 2π
2 2

Solution
First find the x-coordinates of the two points of intersection.
π 5π
If sin x = cos x, then tan x = 1 and so x = or x = .
4 4
5π
Area = π
4
sin x − cos x dx
4
h i 5π
= − cos x − sin x π4
4
5π 5π π π
= − cos − sin − − cos − sin
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
= √ +√ +√ +√
2 2 2 2
4 √
= √ =2 2
2
√
The area is 2 2 square units.

Section summary
To find the area of the shaded region bounded by y
the two curves and the lines x = a and x = b, use
b b b y = f (x)
a
f (x) dx − a
g(x) dx = a
f (x) − g(x) dx
y = g(x)
where f and g are continuous functions on [a, b]
x
such that f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. O a b

Exercise 9I

Example 27 1 Find the exact area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = 12 − x − x2 and y = x + 4.

Example 28 2 Find the exact area of the region bounded by the graphs of f (x) = 5 − x2 and
g(x) = (x − 1)2 .

Example 29 3 Find the exact area of the region bounded by the graphs with equations:
a y = x + 3 and y = 12 + x − x2 b y = 3x + 5 and y = x2 + 1
c y = 3 − x2 and y = 2x2 d y = x2 and y = 3x
e y2 = x and x − y = 2
y
4 a Find the area of region P.
y = ex
b Find the area of region Q.
y=e
(1, e)
P
Q
y = e−x
1 x
O 1

5 The figure shows part of the curve y = sin x. y

Calculate the area of the shaded region,
correct to three decimal places.

O π
x
1 7π, 1
− −
2 6 2

Example 30 6 Using the same axes, sketch the curves y = sin x and y = sin(2x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
Calculate the smaller of the two areas enclosed by the curves.

7 Find the area of the shaded region. y

y = cos x y = sin (2x)

x
O π π
6 2

8 Find the coordinates of P, the point of intersection of the curves y = e x and y = 2 + 3e−x .
If these curves cut the y-axis at points A and B respectively, calculate the area bounded
by AB and the arcs AP and BP. Give your answer correct to three decimal places.

9J Applications of integration
In this section we look at three applications of integration.

I Average value of a function

y
The average value of a function f for an interval [a, b] is
defined as:
y = f (x)
1 b
f (x) dx
b−a a
In terms of the graph of y = f (x), the average value is
x
the height of a rectangle having the same area as the O a b
area under the graph for the interval [a, b].

Example 31
Find the average value of f (x) = x2 for the interval [0, 2]. Illustrate with a horizontal line
determined by this value.

Solution
1 2 2 y
Average = x dx
2−0 0
1 x 3 2
= (2, 4)
2 3 0

1 8 4 y = f(x)
= × 3
2 3
x
=
4 O
3
2
Note: Area of rectangle = 0
f (x) dx

I Motion in a straight line

We may be given a rule for acceleration and, by the use of antidifferentiation and some
additional information, we can deduce rules for both velocity and position.

Example 32
A body starts from O and moves in a straight line. After t seconds (t ≥ 0) its velocity,
v m/s, is given by v = 2t − 4. Find:
a its position x in terms of t
b its position after 3 seconds
c its average velocity in the first 3 seconds
d the distance travelled in the first 3 seconds
e its average speed in the first 3 seconds.

Solution
a Antidifferentiate v to find the expression for position, x m, at time t seconds:
x = t2 − 4t + c
When t = 0, x = 0, and so c = 0.
∴ x = t2 − 4t

b When t = 3, x = −3. The body is 3 m to the left of O.

−3 − 0
c Average velocity = = −1 m/s
3
d First find when the body is at rest: v = 0 implies 2t − 4 = 0, i.e. t = 2.
When t = 2, x = −4. Therefore the body goes from x = 0 to x = −4 in the first
2 seconds, and then back to x = −3 in the next second.
Thus it has travelled 5 m in the first 3 seconds.
5
e Average speed = m/s
3

It is useful to observe that, for a time interval [t1 , t2 ],

1 t2
Average velocity = t1
v(t) dt
t2 − t1
where v(t) is the velocity at time t.

Example 33
A particle starts from rest 3 metres from a fixed point and moves in a straight line with an
acceleration of a = 6t + 8. Find its position and velocity at time t seconds.

Solution
We are given the acceleration:
dv
a= = 6t + 8
dt
Find the velocity by antidifferentiating:
v = 3t2 + 8t + c
At t = 0, v = 0, and so c = 0.
∴ v = 3t2 + 8t
Find the position by antidifferentiating again:
x = t3 + 4t2 + d
At t = 0, x = 3, and so d = 3.
∴ x = t3 + 4t2 + 3

Example 34
A stone is projected vertically upwards from the top of a building 20 m high with an initial
velocity of 15 m/s. Find:
a the time taken for the stone to reach its maximum height
b the maximum height reached by the stone
c the time taken for the stone to reach the ground
d the velocity of the stone as it hits the ground.
In this case we only consider the stone’s motion in a vertical direction, so we can treat it
as motion in a straight line. Also we will assume that the acceleration due to gravity is
approximately −10 m/s2 . (Note that downwards is considered the negative direction.)

Solution
Antidifferentiating a = −10 gives v = −10t + c.
At t = 0, v = 15 and therefore v = −10t + 15.
Antidifferentiating v gives x = −5t2 + 15t + d.
At t = 0, x = 20 and so x = −5t2 + 15t + 20.

a The stone will reach its maximum height when v = 0:

−10t + 15 = 0
∴ t = 1.5
The stone takes 1.5 seconds to reach its maximum height.

b At t = 1.5, x = −5(1.5)2 + 15(1.5) + 20

= 31.25
The maximum height reached by the stone is 31.25 metres.

c The stone reaches the ground when x = 0:

−5t2 + 15t + 20 = 0
−5(t2 − 3t − 4) = 0
−5(t − 4)(t + 1) = 0
∴ t=4
(The solution t = −1 is rejected as t ≥ 0.)
The stone takes 4 seconds to reach the ground.

d At t = 4, v = −10(4) + 15
= −25
The velocity on impact is −25 m/s.

I Rates of change
Given the rate of change of a quantity, we can obtain information about how the quantity
varies. For example, we have seen that if the velocity of an object travelling in a straight line
is given at time t, then the position of the object at time t can be determined using information
about the initial position of the object.

Example 35
The rate of change of temperature with respect to time of a liquid which has been boiled
and then allowed to cool is given by
dT
= −0.5(T − 30)
dt
where T is the temperature (◦ C) at time t (minutes).
dT
a Sketch the graph of against T for T > 30.
dt
dt
b Sketch the graph of against T for T > 30.
dT
c i Find the area of the region enclosed by the graph of b, the x-axis and the lines
T = 35 and T = 120. Give your answer correct to two decimal places.
ii What does this area represent?

Solution
a dT dT b dt dt −2
= -0.5(T - 30) T = 30 =
dt dt dT dT (T − 30)

30 35 120
O T O T

120 −2
c i Area = − 35
dT = 5.78
T − 30
ii The area represents the time taken for the liquid to cool from 120◦ C to 35◦ C.

We can use integration to find the total change in a quantity from the rate of change of
the quantity. The result below follows directly from the fundamental theorem of calculus.

Given the rule for f 0 (x), the total change in the value of f (x) between x = a and x = b
can be found using
b
f (b) − f (a) = a
f 0 (x) dx

35 dt 35 −2
Note: In Example 35, the definite integral 120
dT = 120
dT = 5.78 gives the
dT T − 30
change in t between T = 120 and T = 35.

Exercise 9J

Example 31 1 Find the average value of each of the following functions for the stated interval:
a f (x) = x(2 − x), x ∈ [0, 2] b f (x) = sin x, x ∈ [0, π]
h πi h 2π i
c f (x) = sin x, x ∈ 0, d f (x) = sin(nx), x ∈ 0,
2 n
e f (x) = e x + e−x , x ∈ [−2, 2]
−t
2 An object is cooling and its temperature, T ◦ C, after t minutes is given by T = 50e 2 .
What is its average temperature over the first 10 minutes of cooling?

3 Find the average speed over the given interval for each of the following speed functions.
For each of them, sketch a graph and mark in the average as a horizontal line. Time is
in seconds and speed in metres per second.
1
a v = 20t, t ∈ [0, 5] b v = 24 sin πt , t ∈ [0, 4] c v = 5(1 − e−t ), t ∈ [0, 5]
4
4 An object falls from rest. Its velocity, v m/s, at time t seconds is given by v = 9.8t. Find
the average velocity of the object over the first 3 seconds of its motion.

5 Find the mean value of x(a − x) from x = 0 to x = a.

6 A quantity of gas expands according to the law pv0.9 = 300, where v m3 is the volume
of the gas and p N/m2 is the pressure.
a What is the average pressure as the volume changes from 12 m3 to 1 m3 ?
b If the change in volume in terms of t is given by v = 3t + 1, what is the average
pressure over the time interval from t = 0 to t = 1?

Example 32 7 An object starts from point O and moves in a straight line. After t seconds (t ≥ 0) its
velocity, v m/s, is given by v = 2t − 3. Find:
a its position x in terms of t
b its position after 3 seconds
c its average velocity in the first 3 seconds
d the distance travelled in the first 3 seconds
e its average speed in the first 3 seconds.

8 The velocity of a particle, v m/s, at time t seconds (t ≥ 0) is given by v = 2t2 − 8t + 6.

It is initially 4 m to the right of a point O. Find:
a its position and acceleration at time t
b its position when the velocity is zero
c its acceleration when the velocity is zero.

9 An object moves in a straight line with an acceleration of 8 m/s2 . If after 1 second

it passes through point O and after 3 seconds it is 30 metres from O, find its initial
position relative to O.

Example 33 10 A particle moves in a straight line so that its acceleration, a m/s2 , after t seconds (t ≥ 0)
is given by a = 2t − 3. If the initial position of the object is 2 m to the right of a point O
and its initial velocity is 3 m/s, find the particle’s position and velocity after 10 seconds.

Example 34 11 An object is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 25 m/s. (Its acceleration
due to gravity is −10 m/s2 .) Find:
a the object’s velocity at time t
b its height above the point of projection at time t
c the time it takes to reach its maximum height
d the maximum height reached
e the time taken to return to the point of projection.

Example 35 12 Heat escapes from a storage tank such that the rate of heat loss, in kilojoules per day, is
given by
dH 3 πt
= 1 + sin , 0 ≤ t ≤ 200
dt 4 60
where H(t) is the total accumulated heat loss at time t days after noon on 1 April.
dH
a Sketch the graph of against t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 200.
dt dH
b Find the values of t for which the rate of heat loss, i.e. , is greater than 1.375.
dt
c Find the values of t for which the rate of heat loss reaches its maximum.
d Find the heat lost between:
i t = 0 and t = 120
ii t = 0 and t = 200
dV
13 The rate of flow of water from a reservoir is given by = 1000 − 30t2 + 2t3 for
dt
0 ≤ t ≤ 15, where V is measured in millions of litres and t is the number of hours after
the sluice gates are opened.
a Find the rate of flow (in million litres per hour) when t = 0 and t = 2.
b i Find the times when the rate of flow is a maximum.
ii Find the maximum flow.
dV
c Sketch the graph of against t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 15.
dt
d i Find the area beneath the graph between t = 0 and t = 10.
ii What does this area represent?

14 The population of penguins on an island off the coast of Tasmania is increasing steadily.
The rate of growth is given by the function R : [0, ∞) → R, R(t) = 10 ln(t + 1). The rate
is measured in number of penguins per year. The date 1 January 1875 coincides with
t = 0.
a Find the rate of growth of penguins when t = 5, t = 10, t = 100.
b Sketch the graph of y = R(t).
c Using a CAS calculator, find the area under the graph of y = R(t) between t = 0 and
t = 100. What does this area represent?

15 The roof of an exhibition hall has the shape y

of the function f : [−20, 20] → R where (metres)
f (x) = 25 − 0.02x2 . The hall is 80 metres long. 25
A cross-section of the hall is shown in the figure.
20
An air-conditioning company wishes to find the
volume of the hall so that a suitable system may 10
be installed. Find this volume.
-20 -10 O 10 20 x (metres)

16 A long trough with a parabolic cross-section is 1 12 metres wide at the top and 2 metres
deep. Find the depth of water when the trough is half full.

17 A sculpture has cross-section as shown.

x The y
equation of the curve is y = 3 − 3 cos for
3
x ∈ [−3π, 3π]. All measurements are in metres.
a Find the maximum value of the function and
hence the height of the sculpture.
b The sculpture has a flat metal finish on one face, x
which in the diagram is represented by the region −3π O 3π
between the curve and the x-axis. Find the area of
this region.
c There is a strut that meets the right side of the curve at right angles and passes
through the point (9, 0).
i Find the equation of the normal to the curve where x = a.
ii Find, correct to three decimal places, the value of a if the normal passes
through (9, 0).

18 The graph shows the number of litres per minute dV

of water flowing through a pipe against the dt
number of minutes since the machine started. 12
The pipe is attached to the machine, which 10
requires the water for cooling. 8
The curve has equation 6
4
dV 2
πt πt
= 3 cos + sin +2 t
dt 2 2 O 5 10 15 20
a What is the rate of flow of water when:
i t=0 ii t = 2 iii t = 4?
b Find, correct to three decimal places, the maximum and minimum flow through
the pipe.
c Find the volume of water which flows through the pipe in the first 8 minutes.

9K The fundamental theorem of calculus

I The derivative of the area function
Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function such that f (x) ≥ 0 y
for all x ∈ [a, b]. y = f(x)
We define the function A geometrically by saying that A(x) is
the measure of the area under the curve y = f (x) between a
and x. We thus have A(a) = 0. We will see that A0 (x) = f (x), x
O a x b
and thus A is an antiderivative of f .
A(x + h) − A(x)
First consider the quotient for h > 0.
h
By our definition of A(x), it follows that A(x + h) − A(x) is the y
area between x and x + h.
Let c be the point in the interval [x, x + h] such that f (c) ≥ f (z)
for all z ∈ [x, x + h], and let d be the point in the same interval
such that f (d) ≤ f (z) for all z ∈ [x, x + h]. x
O x c d x+h
Thus f (d) ≤ f (z) ≤ f (c) for all z ∈ [x, x + h].
Therefore h f (d) ≤ A(x + h) − A(x) ≤ h f (c).
That is, the shaded region has an area less than the area of the rectangle with base h and
height f (c) and an area greater than the area of the rectangle with base h and height f (d).
Dividing by h gives
A(x + h) − A(x)
f (d) ≤ ≤ f (c)
h
As h → 0, both f (c) and f (d) approach f (x).
Thus we have shown that A0 (x) = f (x), and therefore A is an antiderivative of f .
Now let G be any antiderivative of f . Since both A and G are antiderivatives of f , they must
differ by a constant. That is,
A(x) = G(x) + k
where k is a constant. First let x = a. We then have
0 = A(a) = G(a) + k
and so k = −G(a).
Thus A(x) = G(x) − G(a), and letting x = b yields
A(b) = G(b) − G(a)

The area under the curve y = f (x) between x = a and x = b is equal to G(b) − G(a), where
G is any antiderivative of f .

A similar argument could be used if f (x) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], but in this case we must take
A(x) to be the negative of the area under the curve. In general:

Fundamental theorem of calculus

If f is a continuous function on an interval [a, b], then
b
a
f (x) dx = G(b) − G(a)
where G is any antiderivative of f .

I Signed-area functions
We have used the fundamental theorem of calculus to find signed areas using antiderivatives.
We can also use the theorem to define antiderivatives using signed-area functions.
For a continuous function f and a constant a, define A(x) to be the signed area under the
graph of y = f (x) between a and x. Using a dummy variable t, we can write
x
A(x) = a
f (t) dt
We have seen that A0 (x) = f (x), and therefore A is an antiderivative of f .

Example 36
x1
Plot the graph of the signed-area function F(x) = 1
dt for x > 1.
t

Using the TI-Nspire

In a Graphs page, enter the function
x1
f 1(x) = 1 dt
t
Note: The integral template can be obtained
from the 2D-template palette t.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Enter and define the function as shown.

Graph the function with the restricted domain.

x1
Note: The natural logarithm function can be defined by ln(x) = dt. 1
t
The number e can then be defined to be the unique real number a such that ln(a) = 1.

I The area as the limit of a sum

Finally, we consider the limit of a sum in a special case. This discussion gives an indication
of how the limiting process can be undertaken in general.

Notation
We first introduce a notation to help us express sums. We do this through examples:
3
X
i2 = 12 + 22 + 32
i=1
5
X
xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5
i=1
n
X
xi f (xi ) = x1 f (x1 ) + x2 f (x2 ) + x3 f (x3 ) + · · · + xn f (xn )
i=1
P
The symbol is the uppercase Greek letter ‘sigma’, which is used to denote sum.

The area under a parabola

y
Consider the graph of y = x2 . We will find the y = x2
area under the curve from x = 0 to x = b using a
technique due to Archimedes.
Divide the interval [0, b] into n equal subintervals:
b b 2b 2b 3b (n − 1)b
0, , , , , , ..., ,b
n n n n n n
Each subinterval is the base of a rectangle with x
O b 2b 3b b
height determined by the right endpoint of the n n n
subinterval.
b b 2 2b 2 3b 2 nb 2
Area of rectangles = + + + ··· +
n n n n n
2 2 2 2 2
b b
4b 9b nb
= + 2 + 2 + ··· + 2
n n2 n n n
b3
= 1 + 4 + 9 + · · · + n2

n3

There is a rule for working out the sum of the first n square numbers:
n
X n
i2 = (n + 1)(2n + 1)
i=1
6

n
b3 X 2
Area of rectangles = i
n3 i=1
b3 n
= × (n + 1)(2n + 1)
n3 6
b3
= (2n2 + 3n + 1)
6n2
b3 3 1
= 2+ + 2
6 n n
3 1
As n becomes very large, the terms and 2 become very small. We write:
n n
3 3
b 3 1 b
lim 2+ + 2 =
n→∞ 6 n n 3
b3
We read this as: the limit of the sum as n approaches infinity is .
3
b3
Using n left-endpoint rectangles, and considering the limit as n → ∞, also gives the area .
3
The signed area enclosed by a curve
This technique may be applied in general to a continuous function f on an interval [a, b]. For
convenience, we will consider an increasing function.
Divide the interval [a, b] into n equal subintervals. y
Each subinterval is the base of a rectangle with y = f (x)
its ‘height’ determined by the left endpoint of the
subinterval.
The contribution of rectangle R1 is (x1 − x0 ) f (x0 ).
a = x0 x1
Since f (x0 ) < 0, the result is negative and so we x
O R1 b
have found the signed area of R1 .
The sum of the signed areas of the rectangles is
n−1
b−aX
f (xi )
n i=0

If the limit as n → ∞ exists, then we can make the following definition:

b n−1
b − a X
a
f (x) dx = lim f (x i )
n→∞ n i=0
We could also have used the right-endpoint estimate: the left- and right-endpoint estimates
will converge to the same limit as n approaches infinity. Definite integrals may be defined
as the limit of suitable sums, and the fundamental theorem of calculus holds true under this
definition.

Section summary
Fundamental theorem of calculus
b
If f is a continuous function on an interval [a, b], thena
f (x) dx = G(b) − G(a),
where G is any antiderivative of f .
x
If f is a continuous function and the function F is defined by F(x) = a f (t) dt,
then F is an antiderivative of f .

Exercise 9K

1 In each of the following, the rule of the function is defined as an area function. Find
F(x) in each case.
x1 11
a F(x) = 1 dt, for x > 1 b F(x) = x dt, for 0 < x < 1
t t
y y

1
y= 1
t y=
t

t t
O 1 t=x O x 1

x x
c F(x) = 0
et dt, for x ∈ R d F(x) = 0
sin t dt, for x ∈ R

y y

y = sin t
y = et

t
O x

2
2 Show that the area under the curve y = 2x2 from x = 0 to x = 1 is square units by
3
using the right-endpoint method with n rectangles and considering the limit as n → ∞.

contained between the curve,

• If f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], then the area of the region
b
the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is given by a
f (x) dx.
• If f (x) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], then the area of the region contained between the curve,
b
the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is given by − a
f (x) dx.
• If c ∈ (a, b) with f (c) = 0 and f (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ (c, b] and y
b x ∈ [a, c), then the
f (x) ≤ 0 for area of
the shaded region is
c
given by c f (x) dx + − a f (x) dx .
a
x
O c b

• To find the area of the shaded region bounded by y

the two curves and the lines x = a and x = b, use
b b b y = f (x)
a
f (x) dx − a
g(x) dx = a
f (x) − g(x) dx
y = g(x)
where f and g are continuous functions on [a, b]
x
such that f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. O a b

Properties of the definite integral:

b c b
• f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a
a
a c

• a
f (x) dx = 0
b b
• a
k f (x) dx = k a
f (x) dx
b b b
• a
f (x) ± g(x) dx = a
f (x) dx ± a
g(x) dx
b a
• a
f (x) dx = − b
f (x) dx
1 b
The average value of a continuous function f for an interval [a, b] is f (x) dx.
b−a a
b
The total change in the value of f for an interval [a, b] is f (b) − f (a) = a
f 0 (x) dx.

Short-answer questions
1 Evaluate each of the following definite integrals:
3 π
a 2
x3 dx b 2
−π sin θ dθ
2
4a 1 1
c a
(a 2 − x 2 ) dx, where a is a positive constant
4 3 √ −
3 π
d √ − 5 x − x 2 dx e 4 cos(2θ) dθ
1 x 0

e1 π π π
f 1
dx g 0
2 sin 2 θ + dθ h 0
sin(4θ) dθ
x 4

2 2

Review
2 Find −1
x + 2 f (x) dx if −1
f (x) dx = 5.
5 1 5
3 Find 1
f (x) dx if 0
f (x) dx = −2 and 0
f (x) dx = 1.
−2 1 3
4 Find 3
f (x) dx if −2
f (x) dx = 2 and 1
f (x) dx = −6.
2
5 Evaluate 0
(x + 1)7 dx.
1
6 Evaluate 0
(3x + 1)3 dx.
3 9
7 Find 0
f (3x) dx if 0
f (x) dx = 5.
1 4
8 Find 0
f (3x + 1) dx if 1
f (x) dx = 5.

9 Set up a sum of definite integrals that represents the total shaded area between the
curves y = f (x) and y = g(x).
y

y = g(x)
y = f(x)
x
O a b c d

10 The figure shows the curve y = x2 and the y

straight line 2x + y = 15. Find:
a the coordinates of P and Q
b the area of the shaded region.

x
O Q

11 The figure shows part of the y

10
curve y = 2 . Find:
x
a the area of region A
b the value of p for which
the regions B and C are of
equal area.
A B C x
O 1 2 p 5

1
y= 2x-1

x=2 x=5
x
O 2 4 5

13 The figure shows part of the curve x = 6y − y2 y

and part of the line y = x.
a Find the coordinates of A and B. A
B
b Find the area of region P.
c Find the area of region Q. P
Q

x
O

14 a Sketch the graph of y = e x + 1 and clearly indicate, by shading the region, the area
2
given by the definite integral 0 e x + 1 dx.
2
b Evaluate 0
e x + 1 dx.

15 a Sketch the graphs of y = e−x and y = e x on

2the one setof0 axes and clearly indicate,
by shading the region, the area given by 0 e−x dx + −2 e x dx.
2 0
b Evaluate 0
e−x dx + −2
e x dx.
1
16 a Evaluate 0 e x dx. y
b By symmetry, find the area of the region
shaded in the figure. y = ex

x
O 1

y = −ex

17 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2e2x + 3 and find the area of the region enclosed between the
curve, the axes and the line x = 1.

18 Sketch the graph of y = x(x − 2)(x + 1) and find the area of the region contained between
the graph and the x-axis. (Do not attempt to find the coordinates of the turning points.)

Review
19 Evaluate each of the following definite integrals:
2 −1 1
a 0
e−x + x dx b −2
x+ dx
x−1
π −5 1
c 0
2 sin x + x dx d −4 e x + dx
2 − 2x

Multiple-choice questions
2
1 3 f (x) + 2 dx =
0
2 2 2
A 3 0
f (x) dx + 3x B 3 0
f (x) dx + x C 3 0
f (x) dx + 4
2
D 3 f 0 (x) + 4 E 0
f (x) dx + 4

b
(ax − b)3 for x >
p
2 For a and b positive real constants, the antiderivative of is
a
3 1 1 2 5
A (ax − b) 2 + c B √ +c C (ax − b) 2 + c
2 5 ax − b 5a
1p 2
D (ax − b)5 + c E p +c
5a 5 (ax − b)5
3 An expression using integral notation for the y
area of the shaded region shown is
6
A f (x) − g(x) dx y = g (x)
3 6
0
y = f (x)
B f (x) − g(x) dx + g(x) − f (x) dx
4
0 3 (6, 4)
C f (x) − g(x) dx
2 4
0
(3, 2)
f (x) − g(x) dx + x
D f (x) − g(x) dx O

0 2
2 4
E 0
f (x) − g(x) dx + 2
g(x) − f (x) dx

b
4 a
c dx, where a, b and c are distinct real number constants, is equal to
A ca B cb − ca C ca − b D cb − a E c(a + b)

dy ax
5 An expression for y if = + 1 and y = 1 when x = 0 is
dx 2
ax2
A y= +x+1 B y=a C y = ax2 + x − 1
4
D y = ax2 + x + a E y = ax2 + ax + a
2π
6 The function f such that f 0 (x) = −6 sin(3x) and f = 3 is given by f (x) =
3
A −18 cos(3x) + 21 B −2 cos(2x) + 5 C −2 sin(3x) + 1
D 2 cos(3x) + 1 E 2 sin(4x) + 3

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474 Chapter 9: Integration
Review
7 The area of the region enclosed by the curve y = e5x − 2 sin(4x), the x-axis and the lines
x = −1 and x = 1, correct to two decimal places, is
A 0.17 B 29.55 C 29.68 D 29.85 E 30.02

dy dy
8 If = ae−x + 2 and when x = 0, = 5 and y = 1, then when x = 2, y =
dx dx
3 3 3
A − 2 +2 B − 2 +4 C − 2 +8 D 3e2 + 4 E 3e2 + 8
e e e
9 The rate of flow of water from a tap follows the rule R(t) = 5e−0.1t , where R(t) litres
per minute is the rate of flow after t minutes. The number of litres, to the nearest litre,
which flowed out in the first 3 minutes is
A 0 B 5 C 13 D 50 E 153

10 The graph represents the y

function y = sin x where
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. The total area of
the shaded regions is
A 12 cos a
π−a 2π
B 2 cos a x
O π π+a
C 12 (1 − cos a)
D 2(1 − cos a)
E 2 sin2 a

Extended-response questions
1 The diagram shows part of the curve with equation y
1
y= x− 2
x A
The point C has coordinates (2, 0). Find:
a the equation of the tangent to the curve at point A
b the coordinates of the point T where this tangent B C x
O (2, 0)
meets the x-axis
c the coordinates of the point B where the curve meets the x-axis
d the area of the region enclosed by the curve and the lines AT and BT
e the ratio of the area found in part d to the area of the triangle ATC.

2 a In the figure, the point P is on the curve y = x2 . y

y = x2
Prove that the curve divides the rectangle OMPN into
two regions whose areas are in the ratio 2:1. N P

x
O M
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Chapter 9 review 475

Review
b In the figure, the point P is on the curve y = x 2 . y
Prove that the area of the shaded region is two-thirds
the area of the rectangle OMPN. P 1
N y = x2

x
O M
c Consider a point P on the curve y = xn , with PM and PN the perpendiculars
from P to the x-axis and the y-axis respectively. Prove that the area of the region
1
enclosed between PM, the x-axis and the curve is equal to of the area of the
n+1
rectangle OMPN.

3 a Find the area enclosed between the parabolas y

y = xn
y = x2 and y2 = x. x = yn
b Show that the curves with equations y = xn and N
P
yn = x intersect at (1, 1), where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
c Show that the area of the region contained
n−1
between the curves y = xn and yn = x is .
n+1
d Find the area of the region indicated by x
horizontal shading in the diagram. O M
e Use your result from c to find the area of the region between the curves for n = 10,
n = 100 and n = 1000.
f Describe the result for n very large.

4 It is thought that the temperature, θ, of a piece of charcoal in a barbecue will increase at

dθ dθ
a rate given by = e2.6t , where θ is in degrees and t is in minutes.
dt dt
a If the charcoal starts at a temperature of 30◦ C, find the expected temperature of the
charcoal after 3 minutes.
b Sketch the graph of θ against t.
c At what time does the temperature of the charcoal reach 500◦ C?
d Find the average rate of increase of temperature from t = 1 to t = 2.

5 It is believed that the velocity of a certain subatomic particle t seconds after a collision
will be given by the expression
dx
= ve−t , v = 5 × 104 m/s
dt
where x is the distance travelled in metres.
a What is the initial velocity of the particle?
b What happens to the velocity as t → ∞ (i.e. as t becomes very large)?
c How far will the particle travel between t = 0 and t = 20?
d Find an expression for x in terms of t.
e Sketch the graph of x against t.

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476 Chapter 9: Integration
Review
6 a Differentiate e−3x sin(2x) and e−3x cos(2x) with respect to x.
b Hence show that
−3x
e−3x sin(2x) + c1 = −3 e sin(2x) dx + 2 e−3x cos(2x) dx
−3x −3x
and e−3x cos(2x) + c2 = −3 e cos(2x) dx − 2 e sin(2x) dx

c Use the two equations from b to determine e−3x sin(2x) dx.

7 The curves y = 3 sin x and y = 4 cos x, y

where 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 , intersect at a point A.
a If x = a at the point of intersection of the 4
two curves: 3
i Find tan a. A
ii Hence find sin a and cos a.
b Hence find the area of the shaded region
in the diagram. B x
O π
2

8 A teacher attempts to draw a quarter circle y

of radius 10 on the white board. However, 10
the first attempt results in a curve with
x
equation y = e 10 (10 − x). √ y = √100 - x2
The quarter circle has equation y = 100 − x2 . x
dy y = e10 (10 - x)
a Find for both functions.
dx
b Find the gradient of each of the functions
when x = 0. x
x
O 10
c Find the gradient of y = e 10 (10 − x) when
x = 10.
d Find the area of the shaded region correct to two decimal places using a calculator.
e Find the percentage error for the calculation of the area of the quarter circle.
f The teacher draws in a chord from (0, 10) to y
(10, 0). Find the area of the shaded region
10
using a calculator.
g i Use the result that the derivative of
x x 1 x
e 10 (10 − x) is −e 10 + e 10 (10 − x)
10 x 10
to find 0 e 10 (10 − x) dx by analytic
techniques.
x
ii Find the exact area of the original O 10
shaded region and compare it to the
answer of d.

dy e

Review
9 a If y = x ln x, find . Hence find the value of 1 ln x dx.
dx
dy
b If y = x(ln x) , where n is a positive integer, find
n
.
e dx
c Let In = 1 (ln x)n dx. For n > 1, show that In + nIn−1 = e.
e
d Hence find the value of 1
(ln x)3 dx.

10 The curves y2 = ax and x2 = by, where a and b are both positive, intersect at the origin
and at the point (r, s). Find r and s in terms of a and b. Prove that the two curves divide
the rectangle with corners (0, 0), (0, s), (r, s), (r, 0) into three regions of equal area.

11 A water-cooling device has a system of water circulation for the first 30 minutes of its
operation. The circulation follows the following sequence:
For the first 3 minutes water is flowing in.
For the second 3 minutes water is flowing out.
For the third 3 minutes water is flowing in.
This pattern is continued for the first 30 minutes. The rate of flow of water is given by
the function
−t πt
R(t) = 10e 10 sin
3
where R(t) litres per minute is the rate of flow at time t minutes. Initially there are
4 litres of water in the device.
a i Find R(0). ii Find R(3).
0
b Find R (t).
c i Solve the equation R0 (t) = 0 for t ∈ [0, 12].
ii Find the coordinates of the stationary points of y = R(t) for t ∈ [0, 12].
d Solve the equation R(t) = 0 for t ∈ [0, 12].
e Sketch the graph of y = R(t) for t ∈ [0, 12].
f i How many litres of water flowed into the device for t ∈ [0, 3]?
ii How many litres of water flowed out of the device for t ∈ [3, 6]?
iii How many litres of water are in the device when t = 6? (Remember there are
initially 4 litres of water.)
g How many litres of water are there in the device when t = 30?

12 a Use the identities cos(2x) = 2 cos2 x − 1 and cos(2x) = 1 − 2 sin2 x to show that
1 − cos(2x)
= sec2 x − 1
1 + cos(2x)
π
1 − cos(2x)
b Hence evaluate 4 dx.
0 1 + cos(2x)

Discrete random
variables and their
probability distributions

Objectives
To review the basic concepts of probability.
To define discrete random variables.
To define the probability distribution of a discrete random variable.
To calculate and interpret expected value (mean) for a discrete random variable.
To calculate and interpret variance and standard deviation for a discrete random variable.
To illustrate the property that for many random variables approximately 95% of the
distribution is within two standard deviations of the mean.

Uncertainty is involved in much of the reasoning we undertake every day of our lives. We
are often required to make decisions based on the chance of a particular occurrence. Some
events can be predicted from our present store of knowledge, such as the time of the next
high tide. Others, such as whether a head or tail will show when a coin is tossed, are not
predictable.
Ideas of uncertainty are pervasive in everyday life, and the use of chance and risk models
makes an important impact on many human activities and concerns. Probability is the study
of chance and uncertainty.
In this chapter we will extend our knowledge of probability by introducing the concept of the
probability distribution (also known as the probability mass function) for a discrete random
variable. Using this distribution we can determine the theoretical values of two important
parameters which describe the random variable: the mean and the standard deviation. We will
see that together the mean and the standard deviation tell us a lot about the distribution of the
variable under consideration.

11A Sample spaces and probability

In this section we will review the fundamental concepts of probability, the numerical value
which we assign to give a measure of the likelihood of an outcome of an experiment.
Probability takes a value between 0 and 1, where a probability of 0 means that the outcome
is impossible, and a probability of 1 means that it is certain. Generally, the probability of
an outcome will be somewhere in between, with a higher value meaning that the outcome is
more likely.

Sample spaces and events

When a six-sided die is rolled, the possible outcomes are the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Rolling
a six-sided die is an example of a random experiment, since while we can list all the
possible outcomes, we do not know which one will be observed.
The possible outcomes are generally listed as the elements of a set, and the set of all possible
outcomes is called the sample space and denoted by the Greek letter ε (epsilon). Thus, for
this example:
ε = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

An event is a subset of the sample space, usually denoted by a

A
capital letter. If the event A is deﬁned as ‘an even number when
a six-sided die is rolled’, we write 4 3
2
A = {2, 4, 6} 6
5 1
If A and B are two events, then the union of A and B, denoted
by A ∪ B, is equivalent to either event A or event B or both
occurring.
Thus, if event A is ‘an even number when a six-sided die is
A B
rolled’ and event B is ‘a number greater than 2 when a six-sided
die is rolled’, then A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6} and 4 3
2
A ∪ B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} 6
5 1

The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is equivalent to

A B
both event A and event B occurring.
4 3
Thus, using the events A and B already described: 2
6
A ∩ B = {4, 6} 5 1

In some experiments, it is helpful to list the elements of the sample space systematically by
means of a tree diagram.

Example 1
Find the sample space when three coins are tossed and the results noted.

Solution
To list the elements of the sample space, construct a tree diagram:

First Second Third Outcome

coin coin coin
H HHH
T HHT
H
H HTH
H T T HTT

T H H THH
T THT
T
H TTH
T TTT

Each path along the branches of the tree identiﬁes an outcome, giving the sample space as
ε = {HHH, HHT , HT H, HT T , T HH, T HT , T T H, T T T }

Determining probabilities for equally likely outcomes

Probability is a numerical measure of the chance of a particular event occurring. There are
many approaches to determining probability, but often we assume that all of the possible
outcomes are equally likely.
We require that the probabilities of all the outcomes in the sample space sum to 1, and that
the probability of each outcome is a non-negative number. This means that the probability
of each outcome must lie in the interval [0, 1]. Since six outcomes are possible when rolling
a die, we can assign the probability of each outcome to be 16 . That is,
1
Pr(1) = Pr(2) = Pr(3) = Pr(4) = Pr(5) = Pr(6) =
6
When the sample space is ﬁnite, the probability of an event is equal to the sum of the
probabilities of the outcomes in that event.
For example, let A be the event that an even number is rolled on the die. Then A = {2, 4, 6}
and Pr(A) = Pr(2) + Pr(4) + Pr(6) = 12 . Since the outcomes are equally likely, we can calculate
this more easily as
number of outcomes in A 3 1
Pr(A) = = =
total number of outcomes 6 2

Equally likely outcomes

In general, if the sample space ε for an experiment contains n outcomes, all of which are
1
equally likely to occur, we assign a probability of to each of these outcomes.
n
Then the probability of any event A which contains m of these outcomes is the ratio of the
number of elements in A to the number of elements in ε. That is,
n(A) m
Pr(A) = =
n(ε) n
where the notation n(S ) is used to represent the number of elements in set S .

We will see that there are other methods of determining probabilities. But whichever method
is used, the following rules of probability will hold:

Pr(A) ≥ 0 for all events A ⊆ ε

Pr(ε) = 1
The sum of the probabilities of all outcomes of an experiment is 1.
Pr(∅) = 0, where ∅ represents the empty set
Pr(A ) = 1 − Pr(A), where A is the complement of A
Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B), the addition rule

When two events A and B have no outcomes in common, i.e. when they cannot occur
together, they are called mutually exclusive events. In this case, we have Pr(A ∩ B) = 0
and so the addition rule becomes:
Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B), the addition rule when A and B are mutually exclusive
We illustrate some of these rules in the following example.

Example 2
If one card is chosen at random from a well-shuﬄed deck of 52 cards, what is the
probability that the card is:
a an ace b not a heart c an ace or a heart d either a king or an ace?

Solution
a Let A be the event ‘the card drawn is an ace’. A standard deck of cards contains
four aces, so
4 1
Pr(A) = =
52 13
b Let H be the event ‘the card drawn is a heart’. There are 13 cards in each suit, so
13 1
Pr(H) = =
52 4
and therefore
1 3
Pr(H ) = 1 − Pr(H) = 1 − =
4 4

c Using the addition rule:

Pr(A ∪ H) = Pr(A) + Pr(H) − Pr(A ∩ H)
1
Now Pr(A ∩ H) = , since the event A ∩ H corresponds to drawing the ace of hearts.
52
Therefore
1 1 1 4
Pr(A ∪ H) = + − =
13 4 52 13
d Let K be the event ‘the card drawn is a king’. We observe that K ∩ A = ∅. That is, the
events K and A are mutually exclusive. Hence
1 1 2
Pr(K ∪ A) = Pr(K) + Pr(A) = + =
13 13 13

Example 3
500 people were questioned and classiﬁed according to age and whether or not they
regularly use social media. The results are shown in the table.

Do you regularly use social media?

Age < 25 Age ≥ 25 Total

Yes 200 100 300
No 40 160 200
Total 240 260 500

One person is selected from these 500. Find the probability that:
a the person regularly uses social media
b the person is less than 25 years of age
c the person is less than 25 years of age and does not regularly use social media.

Solution Explanation
300 3
a Pr(Yes) = = There are 300 out of 500 people who say yes.
500 5

240 12
b Pr(Age < 25) = = There are 240 out of 500 people who are less
500 25
than 25 years of age.
40 2
c Pr(No ∩ Age < 25) = = There are 40 out of 500 people who are less
500 25
than 25 years of age and say no.

Other methods of determining probabilities

When we are dealing with a random experiment which does not have equally likely
outcomes, other methods of determining probability are required.

Subjective probabilities
Sometimes, the probability is assigned a value on the basis of judgement. For example, a
farmer may look at the weather conditions and determine that there is a 70% chance of rain
that day, and take appropriate actions. Such probabilities are called subjective probabilities.

Probabilities from data

A better way to estimate an unknown probability is by experimentation: by performing the
random experiment many times and recording the results. This information can then be used
to estimate the chances of the event happening again in the future. The proportion of trials
that resulted in this event is called the relative frequency of the event. (For most purposes
we can consider proportion and relative frequency as interchangeable.) That is,
number of times event A occurs
Relative frequency of event A =
number of trials
This information can then be used to estimate the probability of the event.

When the number of trials is suﬃciently large, the observed relative frequency of an
event A becomes close to the probability Pr(A). That is,
number of times event A occurs
Pr(A) ≈ for a large number of trials
number of trials

If the experiment was repeated, it would generally be found that the results were slightly
diﬀerent. One might conclude that relative frequency is not a very good way of estimating
probability. In many situations, however, experiments are the only way to get at an unknown
probability. One of the most valuable lessons to be learnt is that such estimates are not exact,
and will in fact vary from sample to sample.
Understanding the variation between estimates is extremely important in the study of
statistics, and this is the topic of Chapter 15. At this stage it is valuable to realise that the
variation does exist, and that the best estimates of the probabilities will result from using as
many trials as possible.

Example 4
Suppose that a die is tossed 1000 times and the following outcomes observed:

Outcome 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 135 159 280 199 133 97

a Use this information to estimate the probability of observing a 6 when this die is rolled.
b What outcome would you predict to be most likely the next time the die is rolled?

Solution
97
a Pr(6) ≈ = 0.097 b The most likely outcome is 3, since it has
1000
the highest relative frequency.

Probabilities from area

When we use the model of equally likely outcomes to determine probabilities, we count
both the outcomes in the event and the outcomes in the sample space, and use the ratio to
determine the probability of the event.
This idea can be extended to calculate probabilities when areas are involved, by assuming
that the probabilities of all points in the region (which can be considered to be the sample
space) are equally likely.

Example 5
A dartboard consists of a square of side length 2 metres
containing a blue one-quarter of a circular disc centred at the
bottom-left vertex of the square, as shown.
If a dart thrown at the square is equally likely to hit any part of
the square, and it hits the square every time, ﬁnd the probability
of it hitting the blue region.

Solution
1 2 1
Area of blue region = πr = π × 4 = π m2
4 4
Area of dartboard = 2 × 2 = 4 m2
area of blue region
Pr(hitting blue region) =
area of dartboard
π
=
4

Probability tables
A probability table is an alternative to a Venn A B
diagram when illustrating a probability problem
diagrammatically. Consider the Venn diagram A′ ∩ B ′
which illustrates two intersecting sets A and B.
From the Venn diagram it can be seen that the A ∩ B′ A∩B A′ ∩ B
sample space is divided by the sets into four
disjoint regions: A ∩ B, A ∩ B , A ∩ B and
A ∩ B . These regions may be represented in
a table as follows. Such a table is sometimes
referred to as a Karnaugh map.

B B
A A∩B A ∩ B
A A ∩ B A ∩ B

In a probability table, the entries give the probabilities of each of these events occurring.

B B
A Pr(A ∩ B) Pr(A ∩ B )
A Pr(A ∩ B) Pr(A ∩ B )

Summing the rows and columns, we can complete the table as shown.

B B
A Pr(A ∩ B) Pr(A ∩ B ) Pr(A)
A Pr(A ∩ B) Pr(A ∩ B ) Pr(A )
Pr(B) Pr(B ) 1

These tables can be useful when solving problems involving probability, as shown in the next
example.

Example 6
Simone visits the dentist every 6 months for a checkup. The probability that she will
need her teeth cleaned is 0.35, the probability that she will need a ﬁlling is 0.1 and the
probability that she will need both is 0.05.
a What is the probability that she will not need her teeth cleaned on a visit, but will need
a ﬁlling?
b What is the probability that she will not need either of these treatments?

Solution
The information in the question may be entered into a table as shown, where we use C to
represent ‘cleaning’ and F to represent ‘ﬁlling’.

F F
C 0.05 0.35

C
0.1 1

All the empty cells in the table may now be ﬁlled in by subtraction:

F F
C 0.05 0.3 0.35

C 0.05 0.6 0.65
0.1 0.9 1

a The probability that she will not need her teeth cleaned but will need a ﬁlling is given
by Pr(C ∩ F) = 0.05.
b The probability that she will not need either of these treatments is Pr(C ∩ F ) = 0.6.

Section summary
The sample space, ε, for a random experiment is the set of all possible outcomes.

An event is a subset of the sample space. The probability of an event A occurring is

denoted by Pr(A).
Equally likely outcomes If the sample space ε for an experiment contains n outcomes,
1
all of which are equally likely to occur, we assign a probability of to each outcome.
n
Then the probability of an event A is given by
number of outcomes in A n(A)
Pr(A) = =
total number of outcomes n(ε)
Estimates of probability When a probability is unknown, it can be estimated by the
relative frequency obtained through repeated trials of the random experiment under
consideration. In this case,
number of times event A occurs
Pr(A) ≈ for a large number of trials
number of trials
Whichever method of determining probability is used, the rules of probability hold:
• Pr(A) ≥ 0 for all events A ⊆ ε
• Pr(∅) = 0 and Pr(ε) = 1
• The sum of the probabilities of all outcomes of an experiment is 1.
• Pr(A ) = 1 − Pr(A), where A is the complement of A
• Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B), the addition rule

If two events A and B are mutually exclusive (i.e. if A and B have no outcomes in
common), then Pr(A ∩ B) = 0 and therefore Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B).

Exercise 11A

Example 1 1 An experiment consists of rolling a die and tossing a coin. Use a tree diagram to list the
sample space for the experiment.

2 Two coins are tossed and a die is rolled. Use a tree diagram to show all the possible
outcomes.

Example 2 3 If one card is chosen at random from a well-shuﬄed deck of 52 cards, what is the
probability that the card is:
a a queen
b not a club
c a queen or a heart
d either a king or a queen?

4 A blank six-sided die is marked with a 1 on two sides, a 2 on one side, and a 3 on the
remaining three sides. Find the probability that when the die is rolled:
a a 3 shows b a 2 or a 3 shows.

5 Suppose that the probability that a student owns a smartphone is 0.7, the probability
that they own a laptop is 0.6, and the probability that they own both is 0.5. What is the
probability that a student owns either a smartphone or a laptop or both?

6 At a particular university, the probability that an Arts student studies a language is 0.3,
literature is 0.6, and both is 0.25. What is the probability that an Arts student studies
either a language or literature or both?

7 A computer manufacturer notes that 5% of their computers are returned owing to faulty
disk drives, 2% are returned owing to faulty keyboards, and 0.3% are returned because
both disk drives and keyboards are faulty. Find the probability that the next computer
manufactured will be returned with:
a a faulty disk drive or a faulty keyboard
b a faulty disk drive and a working keyboard.

8 A new drug has been released and produces some minor side effects: 8% of users suffer
only loss of sleep, 12% of users suffer only nausea, and 75% of users have no side
effects at all. What percentage of users suffer from both loss of sleep and nausea?

9 In a particular town, the probability that an adult owns a car is 0.7, while the probability
that an adult owns a car and is employed is 0.6. If a randomly selected adult is found to
own a car, what is the probability that he or she is also employed?

Example 3 10 An insurance company analysed the records of 500 drivers to determine the relationship
between age and accidents in the last year.

Accidents in the last year

Age 0 1 2 3 Over 3
Under 20 19 35 25 17 10
20–29 30 45 33 39 17
30–39 40 33 15 6 2
40–49 18 15 10 3 1
Over 49 21 25 17 13 11

What is the probability that a driver chosen from this group at random:
a is under 20 years old and has had three accidents in the last year
b is from 40 to 49 years old and has had no accidents in the last year
c is from 20 to 29 years old
d has had more than three accidents in the last year?

11 200 people were questioned and classiﬁed according to sex and whether or not they
think private individuals should be allowed to carry guns. The results are shown in
the table.
Do you think private individuals should be allowed to carry guns?
Male Female Total
Yes 70 60 130
No 50 20 70
Total 120 80 200

One person is selected at random from these 200.

a What is the probability that the person thinks private individuals should be allowed
to carry guns?
b What is the probability that the person is male and thinks private individuals should
be allowed to carry guns?

Example 4 12 Use the given data to estimate the probability of the speciﬁed event occurring:
a Pr(head) if a coin is tossed 200 times and 114 heads observed
b Pr(ten) if a spinner is spun 380 times and lands on the ‘ten’ 40 times
c Pr(two heads) if two coins are tossed 200 times and two heads are observed on
54 occasions
d Pr(three sixes) if three dice are rolled 500 times and three sixes observed only twice

Example 5 13 Suppose that a square dartboard consists of a white square of side

length 30 cm inside a larger blue square of side length 50 cm, as
shown. If a dart thrown at the board has equal chance of landing
anywhere on the board, what is the probability it lands in the white
area? (Ignore the possibility that it might land on the line or miss
the board altogether.)

14 A spinner is as shown in the diagram. Find the probability that

when spun the pointer will land on: 60°
a the green section 180° 60°
b the yellow section 60°
c any section except the yellow section.

Example 6 15 In a particular country it has been established that the probability that a person drinks
tea is 0.45, the probability that a person drinks coffee is 0.65, and the probability
that a person drinks neither tea nor coffee is 0.22. Use the information to complete a
probability table and hence determine the probability that a randomly selected person in
that country:
a drinks tea but not coffee b drinks tea and coffee.

16 A chocolate is chosen at random from a box of chocolates. It is known that in this box:
the probability that the chocolate is dark but not soft-centred is 0.15
the probability that the chocolate is not dark but is soft-centred is 0.42
the probability that the chocolate is not dark is 0.60.
Find the probability that the randomly chosen chocolate is:
a dark b soft-centred c not dark and not soft-centred.

17 Records indicate that, in Australia, 65% of secondary students participate in sport,

and 71% of secondary students are Australian by birth. They also show that 53% of
students are Australian by birth and participate in sport. Use this information to ﬁnd the
probability that a student selected at random:
a does not participate in sport
b is Australian by birth and does not participate in sport
c is not Australian by birth and participates in sport
d is not Australian by birth and does not participate in sport.

11B Conditional probability and independence

The probability of an event A occurring when it is known that some event B has occurred is
called conditional probability and is written Pr(A | B). This is usually read as ‘the probability
of A given B’, and can be thought of as a means of adjusting probability in the light of new
information.
Sometimes, the probability of an event is not affected by knowing that another event has
occurred. For example, if two coins are tossed, then the probability of the second coin
showing a head is independent of whether the first coin shows a head or a tail. Thus,
Pr(head on second coin | head on first coin)
= Pr(head on second coin | tail on first coin)
= Pr(head on second coin)
For other situations, however, a previous result may alter the probability. For example, the
probability of rain today given that it rained yesterday will generally be different from the
probability that it will rain today given that it didn’t rain yesterday.

The conditional probability of an event A, given that event B has already occurred, is
given by
Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A | B) = if Pr(B) 0
Pr(B)
This formula may be rearranged to give the multiplication rule of probability:
Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A | B) × Pr(B)

The probabilities associated with a multi-stage experiment can be calculated by constructing

an appropriate tree diagram and multiplying along the relevant branches (from the
multiplication rule).

Example 7
In a certain town, the probability that it rains on any Monday is 0.21. If it rains on
Monday, then the probability that it rains on Tuesday is 0.83. If it does not rain on
Monday, then the probability of rain on Tuesday is 0.3. For a given week, ﬁnd the
probability that it rains:
a on both Monday and Tuesday
b on Tuesday.

Solution
Let M represent the event ‘rain on Monday’ and T represent the event ‘rain on Tuesday’.
The situation described in the question can be represented by a tree diagram. You can
check that the probabilities are correct by seeing if they add to 1.

0.83 T⎮M Pr(T ∩ M) = 0.21 × 0.83 = 0.1743

0.21 M Pr(T ∩ M) = 0.21 × 0.17 = 0.0357

0.17 T′⎮M

0.3 Pr(T ∩ M ) = 0.79 × 0.3 = 0.237

T⎮M′
0.79 M′
0.7 T′⎮M′ Pr(T ∩ M ) = 0.79 × 0.7 = 0.553

a The probability that it rains on both Monday and Tuesday is given by

Pr(T ∩ M) = 0.21 × 0.83
= 0.1743
b The probability that it rains on Tuesday is given by
Pr(T ) = Pr(T ∩ M) + Pr(T ∩ M )
= 0.1743 + 0.237
= 0.4113

The solution to part b of Example 7 is an application of a rule known as the law of total
probability. This can be expressed in general terms as follows:

The law of total probability states that, in the case of two events A and B,
Pr(A) = Pr(A | B) Pr(B) + Pr(A | B ) Pr(B )

Example 8
Adrienne, Regan and Michael are doing the dishes. Since Adrienne is the oldest, she
washes the dishes 40% of the time. Regan and Michael each wash 30% of the time. When
Adrienne washes the probability of at least one dish being broken is 0.01, when Regan
washes the probability is 0.02, and when Michael washes the probability is 0.03. Their
parents don’t know who is washing the dishes one particular night.
a What is the probability that at least one dish will be broken?
b Given that at least one dish is broken, what is the probability that the person washing
was Michael?

Solution
Let A be the event ‘Adrienne washes the dishes’, let R be the event ‘Regan washes the
dishes’ and let M be the event ‘Michael washes the dishes’. Then
Pr(A) = 0.4, Pr(R) = 0.3, Pr(M) = 0.3
Let B be the event ‘at least one dish is broken’. Then
Pr(B | A) = 0.01, Pr(B | R) = 0.02, Pr(B | M) = 0.03
This information can be summarised in a tree diagram as shown:

0.01 B Pr(A)Pr(B|A) = 0.004

A
0.99 B′
0.4
0.02 B Pr(R)Pr(B|R) = 0.006
0.3
R
0.98 B′
0.3 0.03 B Pr(M)Pr(B|M) = 0.009
M

0.97 B′

a The probability of at least one dish being broken is

Pr(B) = Pr(B ∩ A) + Pr(B ∩ R) + Pr(B ∩ M)
= Pr(A) Pr(B | A) + Pr(R) Pr(B | R) + Pr(M) Pr(B | M)
= 0.004 + 0.006 + 0.009
= 0.019
b The required probability is
Pr(M ∩ B)
Pr(M | B) =
Pr(B)
0.009 9
= =
0.019 19

Example 9
As part of an evaluation of the school Year
canteen, all students at a Senior
Rating 10 11 12 Total
Secondary College (Years 10–12)
Poor 30 20 10 60
were asked to rate the canteen as
poor, good or excellent. The results Good 80 65 35 180
are shown in the table. Excellent 60 65 35 160
What is the probability that a student Total 170 150 80 400
chosen at random from this college:
a is in Year 12
b is in Year 12 and rates the canteen as excellent
c is in Year 12, given that they rate the canteen as excellent
d rates the canteen as excellent, given that they are in Year 12?

Solution Explanation
Let T be the event ‘the student is
in Year 12’ and let E be the event
‘the rating is excellent’.
80 1
a Pr(T ) = = From the table, we can see that there are 80 students
400 5
in Year 12 and 400 students altogether.
35 7
b Pr(T ∩ E) = = From the table, there are 35 students who are in
400 80
Year 12 and also rate the canteen as excellent.
35 7
c Pr(T | E) = = From the table, a total of 160 students rate the
160 32
canteen as excellent, and of these 35 are in Year 12.
35 7
d Pr(E | T ) = = From the table, there are 80 students in Year 12, and
80 16
of these 35 rate the canteen as excellent.

Note: The answers to parts c and d could also have been found using the rule for conditional
probability, but here it is easier to determine the probability directly from the table.

Independent events
Two events A and B are independent if the probability of A occurring is the same, whether or
not B has occurred.

Independent events
For events A and B with Pr(A) 0 and Pr(B) 0, the following three conditions are all
equivalent conditions for the independence of A and B:
Pr(A | B) = Pr(A)
Pr(B | A) = Pr(B)
Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B)

Notes:
Sometimes this deﬁnition of independence is referred to as pairwise independence.
In the special case that Pr(A) = 0 or Pr(B) = 0, the condition Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B)
holds since both sides are zero, and so we say that A and B are independent.

Example 10
The probability that Monica remembers to do her homework is 0.7, while the probability
that Patrick remembers to do his homework is 0.4. If these events are independent, then
what is the probability that:
a both will do their homework
b Monica will do her homework but Patrick forgets?

Solution
Let M be the event ‘Monica does her homework’ and let P be the event ‘Patrick does his
homework’. Since these events are independent:
a Pr(M ∩ P) = Pr(M) × Pr(P) b Pr(M ∩ P ) = Pr(M) × Pr(P )
= 0.7 × 0.4 = 0.7 × 0.6
= 0.28 = 0.42

Section summary
Conditional probability
• The probability of an event A occurring when it is known that some event B has
already occurred is called conditional probability and is written Pr(A | B).
• In general, the conditional probability of an event A, given that event B has already
occurred, is given by
Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A | B) = if Pr(B) 0
Pr(B)
This formula may be rearranged to give the multiplication rule of probability:
Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A | B) × Pr(B)
Law of total probability
The law of total probability states that, in the case of two events A and B,
Pr(A) = Pr(A | B) Pr(B) + Pr(A | B ) Pr(B )
Independence
Two events A and B are independent if the occurrence of one event has no eﬀect on
the probability of the occurrence of the other, that is, if
Pr(A | B) = Pr(A)
Events A and B are independent if and only if
Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B)

Exercise 11B
Skillsheet
1 In a certain town, the probability that it rains on any Saturday is 0.25. If it rains on
Example 7 Saturday, then the probability of rain on Sunday is 0.8. If it does not rain on Saturday,
then the probability of rain on Sunday is 0.1. For a given week, ﬁnd the probability that:
a it rains on both Saturday and Sunday
b it rains on neither day
c it rains on Sunday.

2 Given that for two events A and B, Pr(A) = 0.6, Pr(B) = 0.3 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.1, ﬁnd:
a Pr(B | A)
b Pr(A | B)

3 Given that for two events A and B, Pr(A) = 0.6, Pr(B) = 0.3 and Pr(B | A) = 0.1, ﬁnd:
a Pr(A ∩ B)
b Pr(A | B)

4 In Alia’s school, the probability that a student studies French is 0.5, and the probability
that they study both French and Chinese is 0.3. Find the probability that a student
studies Chinese, given that they study French.

Example 8 5 The chance that a harvest is poorer than average is 0.5, but if it is known that a certain
disease D is present, this probability increases to 0.8. The disease D is present in 30%
of harvests. Find the probability that, when a harvest is observed to be poorer than
average, the disease D is present.

Example 9 6 A group of 1000 eligible voters were asked their age and their preference in an
upcoming election, with the following results.

Age
Preference 18–25 26–40 Over 40 Total
Candidate A 200 100 85 385
Candidate B 250 230 50 530
No preference 50 20 15 85
Total 500 350 150 1000

What is the probability that a person chosen from this group at random:
a is 18–25 years of age
b prefers candidate A
c is 18–25 years of age, given that they prefer candidate A
d prefers candidate A, given that they are 18–25 years of age?

7 The following data was derived from accident records on a highway noted for its
above-average accident rate.

Probable cause
Type of accident Speed Alcohol Other Total
Fatal 42 61 12 115
Non-fatal 88 185 60 333
Total 130 246 72 448

Use the table to ﬁnd:

a the probability that speed is the cause of the accident
b the probability that the accident is fatal
c the probability that the accident is fatal, given that speed is the cause
d the probability that the accident is fatal, given that alcohol is the cause.

Example 10 8 The probability of James winning a particular tennis match is independent of Sally
winning another particular tennis match. If the probability of James winning is 0.8 and
the probability of Sally winning is 0.3, ﬁnd:
a the probability that they both win
b the probability that either or both of them win.

9 An experiment consists of drawing a number at random from {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and C = {4, 6, 8, 9}.
a Are A and B independent?
b Are A and C independent?
c Are B and C independent?

10 If A and B are independent events such that Pr(A) = 0.5 and Pr(B) = 0.4, ﬁnd:
a Pr(A | B) b Pr(A ∩ B) c Pr(A ∪ B)

11 Nathan knows that his probability of kicking more than four goals on a wet day is 0.3,
while on a dry day it is 0.6. The probability that it will be wet on the day of the next
game is 0.7. Calculate the probability that Nathan will kick more than four goals in the
next game.

12 Find the probability that, in three tosses of a fair coin, there are three heads, given that
there is at least one head.

13 The test used to determine if a person suﬀers from a particular disease is not perfect.
The probability of a person with the disease returning a positive result is 0.95, while
the probability of a person without the disease returning a positive result is 0.02.
The probability that a randomly selected person has the disease is 0.03. What is the
probability that a randomly selected person will return a positive result?

14 Anya goes through three sets of traffic lights when she cycles to school each morning.
The probability she stops at the first set is 0.6. If she stops at any one set, the
probability that she has to stop at the next is 0.9. If she doesn’t have to stop at any one
set, the probability that she doesn’t have to stop at the next is 0.7. Use a tree diagram to
find the probability that:
a she stops at all three sets of lights b she stops only at the second set of lights
c she stops at exactly one set of lights.

15 There are four red socks and two blue socks in a drawer. Two socks are removed at
random. What is the probability of obtaining:
a two red socks b two blue socks c one of each colour?

16 A car salesperson was interested in Marital status

the relationship between the size of
Size of car Married Single Total
the car a customer purchased and
Large 60 20 80
their marital status. From the sales
records, the table on the right was Medium 100 60 160
constructed. Small 90 70 160
What is the probability that a person Total 250 150 400
chosen at random from this group:
a drives a small car
b is single and drives a small car
c is single, given that they drive a small car
d drives a small car, given that they are single?

17 Jenny has two boxes of chocolates. Box A contains three white chocolates and four
dark chocolates. Box B contains two white chocolates and ﬁve dark chocolates. Jenny
ﬁrst chooses a box at random and then selects a chocolate at random from it. Find the
probability that:
a Jenny selects a white chocolate
b given that Jenny selects a white chocolate, it was chosen from box A.

18 At a particular petrol station, 30% of customers buy premium unleaded, 60% buy
standard unleaded and 10% buy diesel. When a customer buys premium unleaded, there
is a 25% chance they will fill the tank. Of the customers buying standard unleaded, 20%
fill their tank. Of those buying diesel, 70% fill their tank.
a What is the probability that, when a car leaves the petrol station, it will not have a
full tank?
b Given that a car leaving the petrol station has a full tank, what is the probability that
the tank contains standard unleaded petrol?

19 A bag contains three red, four white and ﬁve black balls. If three balls are taken without
replacement, what is the probability that they are all the same colour?

11C Discrete random variables

Suppose that three balls are drawn at random from a jar containing four white and six black
balls, with replacement (i.e. each selected ball is replaced before the next draw). The sample
space for this random experiment is as follows:
ε = {WWW, WW B, W BW, BWW, W BB, BW B, BBW, BBB}
Suppose the variable of interest is the number of white balls in the sample. This corresponds
to a simpler sample space whose outcomes are numbers.
If X represents the number of white balls in the sample, then the possible values of X are 0, 1,
2 and 3. Since the actual value that X will take is the result of a random experiment, we say
that X is a random variable.

A random variable is a function that assigns a number to each outcome in the sample
space ε.

A random variable can be discrete or continuous:

A discrete random variable is one that can take only a countable number of values.
For example, the number of white balls in a sample of size three is a discrete random
variable which may take one of the values 0, 1, 2, 3. Other examples include the number
of children in a family, and a person’s shoe size. (Note that discrete random variables do
not have to take only whole-number values.)
A continuous random variable is one that can take any value in an interval of the real
number line, and is usually (but not always) generated by measuring. Height, weight, and
the time taken to complete a puzzle are all examples of continuous random variables.
In this chapter we are interested in understanding more about discrete random variables.
Consider again the sample space for the random experiment described above. Each outcome
in the sample space is associated with a value of X:

Experiment outcome Value of X

WWW X=3
WW B X=2
W BW X=2
BWW X=2
W BB X=1
BW B X=1
BBW X=1
BBB X=0

Associated with each event is a probability. Since the individual draws of the ball from the
jar are independent events, we can determine the probabilities by multiplying and adding
appropriate terms.

Example 11
A jar contains four white and six black balls. What is the probability that, if three balls are
drawn at random from the jar, with replacement, a white ball will be drawn exactly once
(i.e. the situations where X = 1 in the table)?

Solution
X = 1 corresponds to the outcomes W BB, BW B and BBW.
4 6
Since there are 10 balls in total, Pr(W) = = 0.4 and Pr(B) = = 0.6.
10 10
Thus Pr(X = 1) = Pr(W BB) + Pr(BW B) + Pr(BBW)
= (0.4 × 0.6 × 0.6) + (0.6 × 0.4 × 0.6) + (0.6 × 0.6 × 0.4)
= 0.432

Discrete probability distributions

The probability distribution for a discrete random variable consists of all the values that the
random variable can take, together with the probability of each of these values. For example,
if a fair die is rolled, then the probability distribution is:

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pr(X = x) 1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6

The probability distribution of a discrete random variable X is described by a function

p(x) = Pr(X = x)
This function is called a discrete probability function or a probability mass function.
Consider again the black and white balls from p(x)
Example 11. The probability distribution for X, 0.5
the number of white balls in the sample, is given (1, 0.432)
0.4
by the following table:
0.3 (2, 0.288)
x 0 1 2 3 (0, 0.216)
0.2
p(x) 0.216 0.432 0.288 0.064 0.1 (3, 0.064)
The probability distribution may also be given x
0 1 2 3
graphically, as shown on the right.
Note that the probabilities in the table sum to 1, which must occur if all values of the random
variable have been listed.
We will use the following notation, which is discussed further in Appendix A:

the sum of all the values of p(x) is written as p(x)
x
the sum of the values of p(x) for x between a and b inclusive is written as p(x)
a≤x≤b

For any discrete probability function p(x), the following two conditions must hold:
1 Each value of p(x) belongs to the interval [0, 1]. That is,
0 ≤ p(x) ≤ 1 for all x
2 The sum of all the values of p(x) must be 1. That is,

p(x) = 1
x

To determine the probability that X takes a value in the interval from a to b (including the
values a and b), add the values of p(x) from x = a to x = b:

Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) = p(x)
a≤x≤b

Example 12
Consider the table shown. x 0 1 2 3
a Does this meet the conditions to be a p(x) 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.4
discrete probability distribution?
b Use the table to ﬁnd Pr(X ≤ 2).

Solution
a Yes, each value of p(x) is between 0 b Pr(X ≤ 2) = p(0) + p(1) + p(2)
and 1, and the values add to 1. = 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.1
= 0.6

Example 13
Let X be the number of heads showing when a fair coin is tossed three times.
a Find the probability distribution of X and show that all the probabilities sum to 1.
b Find the probability that one or more heads show.
c Find the probability that more than one head shows.

Solution
a The sample space is ε = {HHH, HHT , HT H, T HH, HT T , T HT , T T H, T T T }.
1
Now p(0) = Pr(X = 0) = Pr({T T T }) =
8
1 1 1 3
p(1) = Pr(X = 1) = Pr({HT T , T HT , T T H}) = + + =
8 8 8 8
1 1 1 3
p(2) = Pr(X = 2) = Pr({HHT , HT H, T HH}) = + + =
8 8 8 8
1
p(3) = Pr(X = 3) = Pr({HHH}) =
8

Thus the probability distribution of X is:

x 0 1 2 3
1 3 3 1
p(x)
8 8 8 8

b The probability that one or more heads shows is

3 3 1 7
Pr(X ≥ 1) = p(1) + p(2) + p(3) = + + =
8 8 8 8
c The probability that more than one head shows is
3 1 4 1
Pr(X > 1) = Pr(X ≥ 2) = p(2) + p(3) = + = =
8 8 8 2

Example 14
The random variable X represents the number of chocolate chips in a certain brand of
biscuit, and is known to have the following probability distribution.

x 2 3 4 5 6 7
p(x) 0.01 0.25 0.40 0.30 0.02 0.02

Find:
a Pr(X ≥ 4) b Pr(X ≥ 4 | X > 2) c Pr(X < 5 | X > 2)

Solution
a Pr(X ≥ 4) = Pr(X = 4) + Pr(X = 5) + Pr(X = 6) + Pr(X = 7)
= 0.4 + 0.3 + 0.02 + 0.02
= 0.74
Pr(X ≥ 4)
b Pr(X ≥ 4 | X > 2) =
Pr(X > 2)
0.74
= since Pr(X > 2) = 1 − 0.01 = 0.99
0.99
74
=
99
Pr(2 < X < 5)
c Pr(X < 5 | X > 2) =
Pr(X > 2)
Pr(X = 3) + Pr(X = 4)
=
Pr(X > 2)
0.65
=
0.99
65
=
99

Section summary
For any discrete probability function p(x), the following two conditions must hold:
1 Each value of p(x) belongs to the interval [0, 1]. That is,
0 ≤ p(x) ≤ 1 for all x
2 The sum of all the values of p(x) must be 1. That is,

p(x) = 1
x
To determine the probability that X takes a value in the interval from a to b (including
the values a and b), add the values of p(x) from x = a to x = b:

Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) = p(x)
a≤x≤b

Exercise 11C

Skillsheet 1 Which of the following random variables are discrete?

a the number of people in your family
b waist measurement
c shirt size
d the number of times a die is rolled before obtaining a six

2 Which of the following random variables are discrete?

a your age
b your height to the nearest centimetre
c the time you will wait to be served at the bank
d the number of people in the queue at the bank

Example 11 3 A fair coin is tossed three times and the number of heads noted.
a List the sample space.
b List the possible values of the random variable X, the number of heads, together with
the corresponding outcomes.
c Find Pr(X ≥ 2).

Example 12 4 Consider the following table:

x 0 1 2 3 4
p(x) 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2

a Does this meet the conditions to be a discrete probability distribution?

b Use the table to ﬁnd Pr(X ≤ 3).

Example 13 5 A jar contains four red and ﬁve blue balls. A ball is withdrawn, its colour is observed,
and it is then replaced. This is repeated three times. Let X be the number of red balls
among the three balls withdrawn.
a Find the probability distribution of X and show that all the probabilities sum to 1.
b Find the probability that one or more red balls are obtained.
c Find the probability that more than one red ball is obtained.

Example 14 6 Two dice are rolled and the numbers noted.

a List the sample space.
b A random variable Y is deﬁned as the total of the numbers showing on the two dice.
List the possible values of Y, together with the corresponding outcomes.
c Find:
i Pr(Y < 5) ii Pr(Y = 3 | Y < 5) iii Pr(Y ≤ 3 | Y < 7)
iv Pr(Y ≥ 7 | Y > 4) v Pr(Y = 7 | Y > 4) vi Pr(Y = 7 | Y < 8)

7 A die is weighted as follows:

Pr(2) = Pr(3) = Pr(4) = Pr(5) = 0.2, Pr(1) = Pr(6) = 0.1
The die is rolled twice, and the smaller of the numbers showing is noted. Let Y
represent this value.
a List the sample space.
b List the possible values of Y.
c Find Pr(Y = 1).

8 Suppose that three balls are selected at random, with replacement, from a jar containing
four white and six black balls. If X is the number of white balls in the sample, ﬁnd:
a Pr(X = 2) b Pr(X = 3)
c Pr(X ≥ 2) d Pr(X = 3 | X ≥ 2)

9 A fair die is rolled twice and the numbers noted. Deﬁne the following events:
A = ‘a four on the ﬁrst roll’
B = ‘a four on the second roll’
C = ‘the sum of the two numbers is at least eight’
D = ‘the sum of the two numbers is at least 10’
a List the sample space obtained.
b Find Pr(A), Pr(B), Pr(C) and Pr(D).
c Find Pr(A | B), Pr(A | C) and Pr(A | D).
d Which of the following pairs of events are independent?
i A and B ii A and C iii A and D

10 Consider the table shown on the right. x 0 1 2 3

a Does this meet the conditions to be a p(x) 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.3
discrete probability distribution?
b Use the table to ﬁnd Pr(X ≥ 2).

11 Which of the following is not a probability distribution?

a x 1 3 5 7
p(x) 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7

b x −1 0 1 2
p(x) 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

c x 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0

p(x) −0.5 −0.25 0.25 0.5

d x 10 20 30 40
p(x) 10% 20% 30% 40%

12 Three balls are selected from a jar containing four black and six red balls. Find the
probability distribution of the number of black balls in the sample:
a if the ball chosen is replaced after each selection
b if the ball chosen is not replaced after each selection.

13 A coin is known to be biased such that the probability of obtaining a head on any toss
is 0.4. Find the probability distribution of X, the number of heads observed when the
coin is tossed twice.

14 A spinner is numbered from 1 to 5, and each of the ﬁve numbers is equally likely to
come up. Find:
a the probability distribution of X, the number showing on the spinner
b Pr(X ≥ 3), the probability that the number showing on the spinner is three or more
c Pr(X ≤ 3 | X ≥ 3)

15 Two dice are rolled and the numbers noted.

a List the sample space for this experiment.
b Find the probability distribution of X, the sum of the numbers showing on the
two dice.
c Draw a graph of the probability distribution of X.
d Find Pr(X ≥ 9), the probability that the sum of the two numbers showing is nine
or more.
e Find Pr(X ≤ 10 | X ≥ 9).

16 Two dice are rolled and the numbers noted.

a List the sample space for this experiment.
b Find the probability distribution of Y, the remainder when the larger number
showing is divided by the smaller number. (Note that, if the two numbers are the
same, then Y = 0.)
c Draw a graph of the probability distribution of Y.

17 Suppose that two socks are drawn without replacement from a drawer containing
four red and six black socks. Let X represent the number of red socks obtained.
a Find the probability distribution for X.
b From the probability distribution, determine the probability that a pair of socks is
obtained.

18 A dartboard consists of three circular sections, with

radii of 2 cm, 10 cm and 20 cm respectively, as shown
in the diagram.
When a dart lands in the centre circle the score is 10 cm
2 cm 20 cm
100 points, in the middle circular section the score is
20 points and in the outer circular section the score is
10 points. Assume that all darts thrown hit the board,
each dart is equally likely to land at any point on the
dartboard, and none lands on the lines.
a Find the probability distribution for X, the number of points scored on one throw.
b Find the probability distribution for Y, the total score when two darts are thrown.

19 Erin and Nick are going to play a tennis match. Suppose that they each have an equal
chance of winning any set (0.5) and that they plan to play until one player has won
three sets. Let X be the number of sets played until the match is complete.
a Find Pr(X = 3).
b List the outcomes that correspond to X = 4, and use this to ﬁnd Pr(X = 4).
c Hence, or otherwise, ﬁnd Pr(X = 5).

11D Expected value (mean), variance and standard deviation

From your studies of statistics, you may already be familiar with the mean as a measure of
centre and with the variance and the standard deviation as measures of spread. When these
are calculated from a set of data, they are termed ‘sample statistics’. It is also possible to use
the probability distribution to determine the theoretically ‘true’ values of the mean, variance
and standard deviation. When they are calculated from the probability distribution, they are
called ‘population parameters’. Determining the values of these parameters is the topic for
this section.

Expected value (mean)

When the mean of a random variable is determined from the probability distribution, it is
generally called the expected value of the random variable. Expected value has a wide
variety of applications. The concept of expected value ﬁrst arose in gambling problems,
where gamblers wished to know how much they could expect to win or lose in the long run,
in order to decide whether or not a particular game was a good investment.

Example 15
A person may buy a lucky ticket for $1. They have a 20% chance of winning $2,
a 5% chance of winning $11, and otherwise they lose. Is this a good game to play?

Solution
Let P be the amount the person will proﬁt from each game. As it costs $1 to play, the
person can lose $1 (P = −1), win $1 (P = 1) or win $10 (P = 10). Thus the amount that
the person may win, $P, has a probability distribution given by:

p −1 1 10
Pr(P = p) 0.75 0.20 0.05

Suppose you played the game 1000 times. You would expect to lose $1 about 750 times,
to win $1 about 200 times and to win $10 about 50 times. Thus, you would win about
−1 × 750 + 1 × 200 + 10 × 50
= −$0.05 per game
1000
Thus your ‘expectation’ is to lose 5 cents per game, and we write this as
E(P) = −0.05

Note: This value gives an indication of the worth of the game: in the long run, you would
expect to lose about 5 cents per game. This is called the expected value of P (or the
mean of P). It is not the amount we expect to proﬁt on any one game. (You cannot
lose 5 cents in one game!) It is the amount that we expect to win on average per game
in the long run.
Example 15 demonstrates how the expected value of a random variable X is determined.

The expected value of a discrete random variable X is determined by summing the

products of each value of X and the probability that X takes that value.
That is,

E(X) = x · Pr(X = x)
x

= x · p(x)
x
The expected value E(X) may be considered as the long-run average value of X. It is
generally denoted by the Greek letter μ (mu), and is also called the mean of X.

Example 16
A coin is biased in favour of heads such that the probability of obtaining a head on any
single toss is 0.6. The coin is tossed three times and the results noted. If X is the number
of heads obtained on the three tosses, ﬁnd E(X), the expected value of X.

Solution
The following probability distribution can be found by listing the outcomes in the sample
space and determining the value of X and the associated probability for each outcome.

x 0 1 2 3
p(x) 0.064 0.288 0.432 0.216

μ = E(X) = x · p(x)
x

= (0 × 0.064) + (1 × 0.288) + (2 × 0.432) + (3 × 0.216)

= 0.288 + 0.864 + 0.648
= 1.8

Note: This means that, if the experiment were repeated many times, then an average of
1.8 heads per three tosses would be observed.
Sometimes we wish to ﬁnd the expected value of a function of X. This is determined by
calculating the value of the function for each value of X, and then summing the products of
these values and the associated probabilities.

The expected value of g(X) is given by

E[g(X)] = g(x) · p(x)
x

Example 17
For the random variable X deﬁned in Example 16, ﬁnd:
a E(3X + 1) b E(X 2 )

Solution

a E(3X + 1) = (3x + 1) · p(x)
x

= (1 × 0.064) + (4 × 0.288) + (7 × 0.432) + (10 × 0.216)

= 6.4

b E(X 2 ) = x2 · p(x)
x

= (0 × 0.064) + (12 × 0.288) + (22 × 0.432) + (32 × 0.216)

= 3.96

Let us compare the values found in Example 17 with the value of E(X) found in Example 16.
In part a, we found that E(3X + 1) = 6.4. Since 3E(X) + 1 = 3 × 1.8 + 1 = 6.4, we see that
E(3X + 1) = 3E(X) + 1
In part b, we found that E(X 2 ) = 3.96. Since [E(X)]2 = 1.82 = 3.24, we see that
E(X 2 ) [E(X)]2
These two examples illustrate an important point concerning expected values.
In general, the expected value of a function of X is not equal to that function of the expected
value of X. That is,
E[g(X)] g[E(X)]
An exception is when the function is linear:

Expected value of aX + b
E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b (for a, b constant)

This is illustrated in Example 18.

Example 18
For a $5 monthly fee, a TV repair company guarantees customers a complete service.
The company estimates the probability that a customer will require one service call in a
month as 0.05, the probability of two calls as 0.01 and the probability of three or more
calls as 0.00. Each call costs the repair company $40. What is the TV repair company’s
expected monthly gain from such a contract?

Solution
We may summarise the given information in the following table.

Calls 0 1 2 ≥3
Gain, g 5 −35 −75
Pr(G = g) 0.94 0.05 0.01 0.00

2
E(G) = g · Pr(G = g)
g=0

= 5 × 0.94 − 35 × 0.05 − 75 × 0.01

= 2.20
Thus, the company can expect to gain $2.20 per month on each contract sold.
Alternative solution
An alternative method of solution uses the formula for the expected value of aX + b,
as follows.

Let X be the number of calls received. Then

G = 5 − 40X
and so E(G) = 5 − 40 × E(X)
Since E(X) = 1 × 0.05 + 2 × 0.01
= 0.07
we have E(G) = 5 − 40 × 0.07
= 2.20 as previously determined.

Another useful property of expectation is that the expected value of the sum of two random
variables is equal to the sum of their expected values. That is, if X and Y are two random
variables, then
E(X + Y) = E(X) + E(Y)

Measures of variability: variance and standard deviation

As well as knowing the long-run average value of a random variable (the mean), it is also
useful to have a measure of how close to this mean are the possible values of the random
variable — that is, a measure of how spread out the probability distribution is. The most
useful measures of variability for a discrete random variable are the variance and the
standard deviation.

The variance of a random variable X is a measure of the spread of the probability

distribution about its mean or expected value μ. It is deﬁned as
Var(X) = E[(X − μ)2 ]
and may be considered as the long-run average value of the square of the distance from X
to μ. The variance is usually denoted by σ2 , where σ is the lowercase Greek letter sigma.

From the deﬁnition,

Var(X) = E[(X − μ)2 ]

= (x − μ)2 · Pr(X = x)
x
Since the variance is determined by squaring the distance from X to μ, it is no longer in
the units of measurement of the original random variable X. A measure of spread in the
appropriate unit is found by taking the square root of the variance.

The standard deviation of X is deﬁned as

sd(X) = Var(X)
The standard deviation is usually denoted by σ.

Example 19
Suppose that a discrete random variable X has the probability distribution shown in the
following table, where c > 0.

x −c c
Pr(X = x) 0.5 0.5

Find the standard deviation of X.

Solution
Pr(X = x)
μ = E(X) = x · Pr(X = x) 1
x 2
= (−c × 0.5) + (c × 0.5)
=0
x
-c c
σ2 = Var(X) = E[(X − μ)2 ]
= E(X 2 ) since μ = 0

= x2 · Pr(X = x)
x

= (−c)2 × 0.5 + c2 × 0.5

= c2
which is the average of (the distance from X to μ)2 .
Therefore σ = sd(X) = c.

Using the deﬁnition is not always the easiest way to calculate the variance.

An alternative (computational) formula for variance is

Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − E(X) 2

Proof We already know that

E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b (1)
and E(X + Y) = E(X) + E(Y) (2)

Hence Var(X) = E[(X − μ)2 ]

= E(X 2 − 2μX + μ2 )
= E(X 2 ) + E(−2μX + μ2 ) using (2)
= E(X ) − 2μE(X) + μ
2 2
using (1)
= E(X ) − 2μ + μ
2 2 2
since μ = E(X)
= E(X ) − μ
2 2

Example 20
For the probability distribution x 0 1 2 3

shown, ﬁnd E(X 2 ) and E(X) 2 and
Pr(X = x) 0.08 0.18 0.4 0.34
hence ﬁnd the variance of X.

Solution
We have
E(X) = 1 × 0.18 + 2 × 0.4 + 3 × 0.34 = 2

E(X) 2 = μ2 = 4
E(X 2 ) = 1 × 0.18 + 4 × 0.4 + 9 × 0.34 = 4.84
Hence
Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − μ2 = 4.84 − 4 = 0.84

Variance of aX + b
Var(aX + b) = a2 Var(X) (for a, b constant)

Example 21
If X is a random variable such that Var(X) = 9, ﬁnd:
a Var(3X + 2) b Var(−X)

Solution
a Var(3X + 2) = 32 Var(X) b Var(−X) = Var(−1 × X)
=9×9 = (−1)2 Var(X)
= 81 = Var(X)
=9

Interpretation of standard deviation

We can make the standard deviation more meaningful by giving it an interpretation that
relates to the probability distribution.

Example 22
The number of chocolate bars, X, sold by a manufacturer in any month has the following
distribution:

x 100 150 200 250 300 400

p(x) 0.05 0.15 0.35 0.25 0.15 0.05

What is the probability that X takes a value in the interval μ − 2σ to μ + 2σ?

Solution
First we must ﬁnd the values of μ and σ.

μ = E(X) = x · p(x)
x

= 5 + 22.5 + 70 + 62.5 + 45 + 20
= 225
Before determining the standard deviation σ, we need to ﬁnd the variance σ2 .

Now Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − E(X) 2

and E(X 2 ) = x2 · p(x)
x

= 500 + 3375 + 14 000 + 15 625 + 13 500 + 8000

= 55 000

Thus Var(X) = 55 000 − (225)2

= 4375

and so σ = sd(X)
√
= 4375
= 66.14 (correct to two decimal places)

Hence Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ)

= Pr(92.72 ≤ X ≤ 357.28)
= Pr(100 ≤ X ≤ 300) since X only takes the values in the table
= 0.95 from the probability distribution of X

In this example, 95% of the distribution lies within two standard deviations either side of the
mean. While this is not always true, in many circumstances it is approximately true.

For many random variables X,

Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ) ≈ 0.95

Example 23
A manufacturer knows that the mean number of faulty light bulbs in a batch of 10 000
is 12, with a standard deviation of 3. He wishes to claim to his clients that 95% of batches
will contain between c1 and c2 faulty light bulbs. What are two possible values of c1
and c2 ?
Solution
Since Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ) ≈ 0.95, we can say
c1 = μ − 2σ = 6 and c2 = μ + 2σ = 18

Section summary
The expected value (or mean) of a discrete random variable X may be considered as
the long-run average value of X. It is found by summing the products of each value
of X and the probability that X takes that value. That is,

μ = E(X) = x · Pr(X = x)
x

= x · p(x)
x
The variance of a random variable X is a measure of the spread of the probability
distribution about its mean μ. It is deﬁned as
σ2 = Var(X) = E[(X − μ)2 ]
An alternative (computational) formula for variance is

Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − E(X) 2
The standard deviation of a random variable X is deﬁned as

σ = sd(X) = Var(X)
In general, for many random variables X,
Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ) ≈ 0.95

Exercise 11D

Example 15 1 Tickets in a game of chance can be purchased for $2. Each ticket has a 30% chance of
winning $2, a 10% chance of winning $20, and otherwise loses. How much might you
expect to win or lose if you play the game 100 times?

Example 16 2 For each of the following probability distributions, ﬁnd the mean (expected value):
a x 1 3 5 7
p(x) 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3

b x −1 0 1 2
p(x) 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

c x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
p(x) 0.09 0.22 0.26 0.21 0.13 0.06 0.02 0.01

d x 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

p(x) 0.08 0.13 0.09 0.19 0.20 0.03 0.10 0.18

e x 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
p(x)
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
f x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
p(x)
10 10 5 5 5 10 10

3 A business consultant evaluates a proposed venture as follows. A company stands

to make a profit of $10 000 with probability 0.15, to make a profit of $5000 with
probability 0.45, to break even with probability 0.25, and to lose $5000 with
probability 0.15. Find the expected profit.

4 A spinner is numbered from 0 to 5, and each of the six numbers has an equal chance
of coming up. A player who bets $1 on any number wins $5 if that number comes up;
otherwise the $1 is lost. What is the player’s expected proﬁt on the game?

5 Suppose that the probability of having a female child is not as high as that of having a
male child, and that the following frequency data for the number of male children in a
three-child family have been determined from past records.

Number of males 0 1 2 3
Frequency 18 54 57 21

a Using the data, construct a table giving the probability distribution of X, the number
of male children in a three-child family.
b What is the mean number of male children in a three-child family?

6 A player throws a die with faces numbered from 1 to 6 inclusive. If the player obtains
a 6, she throws the die a second time, and in this case her score is the sum of 6 and the
second number; otherwise her score is the number ﬁrst obtained. The player has no
more than two throws.
Let X be the random variable denoting the player’s score. Write down the probability
distribution of X, and determine the mean of X.

Example 17 7 The random variable X represents the number of chocolate chips in a certain brand of
biscuit, and is known to have the following probability distribution.

x 2 3 4 5 6
p(x) 0.01 0.25 0.40 0.30 0.04

Calculate: 1
a E(X) b E(X 3 ) c E(5X − 4) d E
X

Example 18 8 Manuel is a car salesperson. In any week his probability of making sales is as follows:

Number of cars sold, x 2 3 4 5 6

Pr(X = x) 0.45 0.25 0.20 0.08 0.02

If he is paid $2000 commission on each car sold, what is his expected weekly income?

Example 20 9 A discrete random variable X takes x 0 1 2 4 8

values 0, 1, 2, 4, 8 with probabilities
1 1 1 1
as shown in the table. Pr(X = x) p
2 4 8 16

a Find p. b Find E(X). c Find Var(X).

10 A biased die is such that the probability of any face landing uppermost is proportional
to the number on that face. Thus, if X denotes the score obtained in one throw of this
die, then Pr(X = r) = kr for r = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, where k is a constant.
a Find the value of k. b Find E(X). c Find Var(X).

11 An unbiased die is in the form of a regular tetrahedron and has its faces numbered 1,
2, 3 and 4. When the die is thrown onto a horizontal table, the number on the face in
contact with the table is noted. Two such dice are thrown and the score, X, is found by
multiplying these numbers together.
a Give the probability distribution of X.
b Determine the values of:
i Pr(X > 8) ii E(X) iii Var(X)

12 A coin and a six-sided die are thrown simultaneously. The random variable X is deﬁned
as follows: If the coin shows a head, then X is the score on the die; if the coin shows a
tail, then X is twice the score on the die.
a Find the expected value, μ, of X.
b Find Pr(X < μ).
c Find Var(X).

Example 21 13 If Var(X) = 16, ﬁnd:

a Var(2X) b Var(X + 2) c Var(1 − X) d sd(3X)

Example 22 14 A random variable X has the x 1 2 3 4 5

probability distribution shown.
Pr(X = x) c 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.05
Find:
a the constant c
b E(X), the mean of X
c Var(X), the variance of X, and hence the standard deviation of X
d Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ)

15 A random variable X has the probability distribution shown.

x 1 2 3 4 5
Pr(X = x) k 2k 3k 4k 5k

Find:
a the constant k b E(X), the expectation of X
c Var(X), the variance of X d Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ)

16 Two dice are rolled. If X is the sum of the numbers showing on the two dice, ﬁnd:
a E(X), the mean of X
b Var(X), the variance of X
c Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ)

17 The number of heads, X, obtained when a fair coin is tossed six times has the following
probability distribution.

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
p(x) 0.0156 0.0937 0.2344 0.3126 0.2344 0.0937 0.0156

Find:
a E(X), the mean of X
b Var(X), the variance of X
c Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ)

Example 23 18 The random variable X, the number of heads observed when a fair coin is tossed
100 times, has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 5. If Pr(c1 ≤ X ≤ c2 ) ≈ 0.95,
give possible values of c1 and c2 .

Review
To determine the probability that X takes a value in the interval from a to b (including the
values a and b), add the values of p(x) from x = a to x = b:

Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) = p(x)
a≤x≤b
The expected value (or mean) of a discrete random variable X may be considered as the
long-run average value of X. It is found by summing the products of each value of X and
the probability that X takes that value. That is,

μ = E(X) = x · Pr(X = x)
x

= x · p(x)
x
The expected value of a function of X is given by

E[g(X)] = g(x) · p(x)
x
The variance of a random variable X is a measure of the spread of the probability
distribution about its mean μ. It is deﬁned as
σ2 = Var(X) = E[(X − μ)2 ]
An alternative (computational) formula for variance is

Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − E(X) 2
The standard deviation of a random variable X is deﬁned as

σ = sd(X) = Var(X)
Linear function of a discrete random variable:
E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
Var(aX + b) = a2 Var(X)
In general, for many random variables X,
Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ) ≈ 0.95

Short-answer questions
1 If Pr(A) = 0.5, Pr(B) = 0.2 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.7, are the events A and B mutually
exclusive? Explain.

2 Show, using a diagram or otherwise, that Pr(A ∪ B) = 1 − Pr(A ∩ B ). How would you
describe this relationship in words?

3 A box contains five black and four white balls. Find the probability that two balls drawn
at random are of different colours if:
a the first ball drawn is replaced before the second is drawn
b the balls are drawn without replacement.

5 The probability distribution of a discrete random variable X is given by the following

table. Show that p = 0.5 or p = 1.

x 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x) 0.4p 2
0.1 0.1 1 − 0.6p

6 A random variable X has the following probability distribution.

x −1 0 1 2 3 4
Pr(X = x) k 2k 3k 2k k k

Find:
a the constant k b E(X), the mean of X c Var(X), the variance of X

7 If X has a probability function given by

1
p(x) = , x = 2, 4, 16, 64
4
find: 1
a E(X) b E c Var(X) d sd(X)
X
8 A manufacturer sells cylinders for $x each; the cost of the manufacture of each cylinder
is $2. If a cylinder is defective, it is returned and the purchase money refunded. A
returned cylinder is regarded as a total loss to the manufacturer. The probability that a
cylinder is returned is 15 .
a Let P be the profit per cylinder. Find the probability function of P.
b Find the mean of P in terms of x.
c How much should the manufacturer sell the cylinders for in order to make a profit in
the long term?

9 A group of 1000 drivers were classiﬁed according to their age and the number of
accidents they had been involved in during the previous year. The results are shown in
the table.
Age < 30 Age ≥ 30
At most one accident 130 170
More than one accident 470 230

a Calculate the probability that, if a driver is chosen at random from this group, the
driver is aged less than 30 and has had more than one accident.
b Calculate the probability that a randomly chosen driver is aged less than 30, given
that he or she has had more than one accident.

Review
10 This year, 70% of the population have been immunised against a certain disease.
Records indicate that an immunised person has a 5% chance of contracting the
disease, whereas for a non-immunised person the chance is 60%. Calculate the overall
percentage of the population who are expected to contract the disease.
1 1 1
11 Given Pr(A) = , Pr(B) = and Pr(A | B) = , ﬁnd:
2 4 6
a Pr(A ∩ B) b Pr(A ∪ B) c Pr(A | B) d Pr(A | B )

Multiple-choice questions
1 Consider the following table:

x −2 −1 0 1 2
Pr(X = x) 2k 3k 0.1 3k 2k

For the table to represent a probability function, the value of k is

A 0.09 B 0.9 C 0.01 D 0.2 E 1

2 Suppose that the random variable X has the probability distribution given in the
following table:

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x) 0.07 0.15 0.22 0.22 0.17 0.12 0.05

Pr(−3 ≤ X < 0) is equal to

A 0.59 B 0.37 C 0.22 D 0.44 E 0.66

3 x 1 2 3 4 5
Pr(X = x) 0.46 0.24 0.14 0.09 0.07
For this probability distribution, the expected value E(X) is
A 2 B 1 C 1.59 D 2.07 E 5.87

4 A random variable X is such that E(X) = 1.20 and E(X 2 ) = 1.69. The standard deviation
of X is equal to
√
A 1.3 B 3.13 C 0.25 D 0.7 E 0.5

5 Suppose that a random variable X is such that E(X) = 100 and Var(X) = 100. Suppose
further that Y is a random variable such that Y = 3X + 10. Then
A E(Y) = 300 and Var(Y) = 900 B E(Y) = 310 and Var(Y) = 300
C E(Y) = 310 and Var(Y) = 900 D E(Y) = 300 and Var(Y) = 30
√
E E(Y) = 310 and Var(Y) = 100 3

7 The random variable X has the probability x −2 0 2

distribution shown on the right.
Pr(X = x) a b 0.2
If the mean of X is 0.2, then
A a = 0.2, b = 0.6 B a = 0.1, b = 0.7 C a = 0.4, b = 0.4
D a = 0.1, b = 0.7 E a = 0.5, b = 0.3

Extended-response questions
1 Given the following probability function:

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pr(X = x) c 2c 2c 3c c 2
2c 2
7c + c
2

a Find c.
b Evaluate Pr(X ≥ 5).
c If Pr(X ≤ k) > 0.5, ﬁnd the minimum value of k.

2 Janet and Alan are going to play a tennis match. The probability of Janet winning the
ﬁrst set is 0.3. After that, Janet’s probability of winning a set is 0.6 if she has won the
previous set, but only 0.4 if she has lost it. The match will continue until either Janet or
Alan has won two sets.
a Construct a tree diagram to show the possible course of the match.
b Find the probability that:
i Janet will win
ii Alan will win.
c Let X be the number of sets played until the match is complete.
i Find the probability distribution of X.
ii Find the expected number of sets that the match will take, E(X).
d Given that the match lasted three sets, ﬁnd the probability that Alan won.

3 Five identical cards are placed face down on the table. Three of the cards are marked $5
and the remaining two are marked $10. A player picks two cards at random (without
replacement) and is paid an amount equal to the sum of the values on the two cards.
How much should the player pay to play if this is to be a fair game? (A fair game is
considered to be one for which E(X) = 0, where X is the proﬁt from the game.)

Review
4 A manufacturing company has three assembly lines: A, B and C. It has been found that
95% of the products produced on assembly line A will be free from faults, 98% from
assembly line B will be free from faults and 99% from assembly line C will be free
from faults. Assembly line A produces 50% of the day’s output, assembly line B
produces 30% of the day’s output, and the rest is produced on assembly line C. If an
item is chosen at random from the company’s stock, ﬁnd the probability that it:
a was produced on assembly line A
b is defective, given that it came from assembly line A
c is defective
d was produced on assembly line A, given that it was found to be defective.

5 A recent study found that P, the number of passengers per car entering a city on the
freeway on a workday morning, is given by:

p 0 1 2 3 4 5
Pr(P = p) 0.39 0.27 0.16 0.12 0.04 0.02

a i Compute E(P), the mean number of passengers per car.

ii Compute Var(P) and hence ﬁnd the standard deviation of P.
iii Find Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ P ≤ μ + 2σ).
b The fees for cars at a toll booth on the freeway are as follows:
Cars carrying no passengers pay $1 toll.
Cars carrying one passenger pay $0.40 toll.
Cars carrying two or more passengers pay no toll.
Let T be the toll paid by a randomly selected car on the freeway.
i Construct the probability distribution of T .
ii Find E(T ), the mean toll paid per car.
iii Find Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ T ≤ μ + 2σ).

6 The random variable Y, the number of cars sold in a week by a car salesperson, has the
following probability distribution:

y 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pr(Y = y) 0.135 0.271 0.271 0.180 0.090 0.036 0.012 0.003 0.002

a Compute E(Y), the mean number of sales per week.

b Compute Var(Y) and hence ﬁnd the standard deviation of Y.
c The car salesperson is given a bonus as follows: If fewer than three cars are sold in
the week, no bonus is given; if three or four cars are sold, a $100 bonus is given; for
more than four cars, the bonus is $200. Let B be the bonus paid to the salesperson.
i Construct the probability distribution for B.
ii Find E(B), the mean bonus paid.

Cambridge Senior Maths AC ISBN 978-1-316-63582-7 © Evans et al. 2017 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
538 Chapter 11: Discrete random variables and their probability distributions
Review
7 A given investment scheme is such that there is a 10% chance of receiving a profit
of 40% of the amount invested, a 15% chance of a 30% profit, a 25% chance of
a 20% profit, a 20% chance of a 10% profit, a 15% chance of breaking even, a
10% chance of a 10% loss and a 5% chance of 20% loss.
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the percentage return on the amount
invested.
b Find the probability that the percentage return on the amount invested is within two
standard deviations of the mean.
c An investor investing in the scheme pays a brokerage fee of 2% on the amount
invested and a tax of 40% on the return (= profit − brokerage) of the investment.
(Assume that a loss results in a tax refund for this investment.)
Express the percentage gain in terms of the percentage return on the amount
invested, and hence find the mean and standard deviation of the percentage gain.

8 A concert featuring a popular singer is scheduled to be held in a large open-air theatre.

The promoter is concerned that rain will cause people to stay away. A weather
forecaster predicts that the probability of rain on any day at that particular time of the
year is 0.33. If it does not rain, the promoter will make a proﬁt of $250 000 on the
concert. If it does rain, the proﬁt will be reduced to $20 000. An insurance company
agrees to insure the concert for $250 000 against rain for a premium of $60 000. Should
the promoter buy the insurance?

9 A game is devised as follows: On two rolls of a single die, you will lose $10 if the sum
showing is 7, and win $11 if the sum showing is either 11 or 12. How much should you
win or lose if any other sum comes up in order for the game to be fair?

10 A new machine is to be developed by a manufacturing company. Prototypes are to be

made until one satisfies the specifications of the company. Only then will it go into
production. However, if after three prototypes are made none is satisfactory, then the
project will be abandoned.
It is estimated that the probability a prototype will fail to produce a satisfactory model
is 0.35, independent of any other already tested.
a Find the probability that:
i the first prototype is successful
ii the first is not successful but the second is
iii the first two are not successful but the third is
iv the project is abandoned.
b It is estimated that the cost of developing and testing the first prototype is $7 million
and that each subsequent prototype developed costs half of the one before. Find the
expected cost of the project.
c If a machine is developed, then it is estimated that the income will be $20 million.
(If the project is abandoned, there is no income.) Find the expected profit.

x 1

Review
11 A die is loaded such that the chance of throwing a 1 is , the chance of a 2 is and
4 4
1 1
the chance of a 6 is (1 − x). The chance of a 3, 4 or 5 is . The die is thrown twice.
4 6
9x − 9x2 + 10
a Prove that the chance of throwing a total of 7 is .
72
b Find the value of x which will make this chance a maximum and ﬁnd this maximum
probability.

12 A game of chance consists of rolling a disc of diameter 2 cm on a horizontal square

board. The board is divided into 25 small squares, each of side length 4 cm. A player
wins a prize if, when the disc settles, it lies entirely within any one small square. There
is a ridge around the outside edge of the board so that the disc always bounces back,
cannot fall off and lies entirely within the boundary of the large square.
Prizes are awarded as follows:
Centre (the middle square) 50c
Inner (the eight squares surrounding the centre) 25c
Corner (the four corner squares) 12c
Outer (any other smaller square) 5c
When no skill is involved, the centre of the disc may be assumed to be randomly
distributed over the accessible region.
a Calculate the probability in any one throw of winning:
i 50c ii 25c iii 12c iv 5c v no prize
b The proprietor wishes to make a profit in the long run, but is anxious to charge as
little as possible to attract customers. He charges C cents, where C is an integer.
Find the lowest value of C that will yield a profit.

13 Discrete uniform distributions

a Let X represent the number appearing on the uppermost face when a fair die is
rolled. The probability distribution of X is shown in the table below.
i Find E(X). x 1 2 3 4 5 6
ii Find Var(X).
Pr(X = x) 1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6

b In general, a random variable X with values 1, 2, 3, . . . , n has a uniform distribution

if each value of X is equally likely, and therefore
1
Pr(X = x) = , for x = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
n
i Find E(X). Hint: Use the result 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = 12 n(n + 1).
ii Find Var(X). Hint: Use the result 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 1).
c A number is chosen randomly from the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}. Let X represent the
number chosen. Find:
i Pr(X = 4) ii Pr(X ≤ 4) iii E(X) iv Var(X)

The binomial distribution

Objectives
I To define a Bernoulli sequence and a Bernoulli random variable.
I To define the binomial probability distribution.
I To investigate the shape of the graph of the binomial probability distribution for different
values of the parameters.
I To calculate and interpret the mean, variance and standard deviation for the binomial
probability distribution.
I To use the binomial probability distribution to solve problems.

The binomial distribution is important because it has very wide application. It is concerned
with situations where there are two possible outcomes, and many ‘real life’ scenarios of
interest fall into this category.
For example:
A political poll of voters is carried out. Each polled voter is asked whether or not they
would vote for the present government.
A poll of Year 12 students in Australia is carried out. Each student is asked whether or not
they watch the ABC on a regular basis.
The effectiveness of a medical procedure is tested by selecting a group of patients and
recording whether or not it is successful for each patient in the group.
Components for an electronic device are tested to see if they are defective or not.
The binomial distribution has application in each of these examples.
We will use the binomial distribution again in Chapter 15, where we further develop our
understanding of sampling.

12A Bernoulli sequences and the binomial probability

distribution
I Bernoulli sequences
An experiment often consists of repeated trials, each of which may be considered as having
only two possible outcomes. For example, when a coin is tossed, the two possible outcomes
are ‘head’ and ‘tail’. When a die is rolled, the two possible outcomes are determined by the
random variable of interest for the experiment. If the event of interest is a ‘six’, then the two
outcomes are ‘six’ and ‘not a six’.

A Bernoulli sequence is the name used to describe a sequence of repeated trials with the
following properties:
Each trial results in one of two outcomes, which are usually designated as either a
success, S , or a failure, F.
The probability of success on a single trial, p, is constant for all trials (and thus the
probability of failure on a single trial is 1 − p).
The trials are independent (so that the outcome of any trial is not affected by the
outcome of any previous trial).

Example 1
Suppose that a netball player has a probability of 13 of scoring a goal each time she
attempts to goal. She repeatedly has shots for goal. Is this a Bernoulli sequence?

Solution
In this example:
Each trial results in one of two outcomes, goal or miss.
The probability of scoring a goal ( 31 ) is constant for all attempts, as is the probability of
a miss ( 23 ).
The trials are independent (so that the outcome of any trial is not affected by the
outcome of any previous trial).
Thus, the player’s shots at goal can be considered a Bernoulli sequence.

I Bernoulli random variables

The outcome from a Bernoulli trial is represented by a Bernoulli random variable, which
is a random variable that takes only the values 1 (indicating a success) and 0 (indicating
a failure).
Thus a Bernoulli random variable Y has a probability distribution of the following form:

y 0 1
Pr(Y = y) 1− p p

I The binomial probability distribution

The number of successes in a Bernoulli sequence of n trials is called a binomial random
variable and is said to have a binomial probability distribution.
For example, consider rolling a fair six-sided die three times. Let the random variable X be
the number of 3s observed.
Let T represent a 3, and let N represent not a 3. Each roll meets the conditions of a Bernoulli
trial. Thus X is a binomial random variable.
Now consider all the possible outcomes from the three rolls and their probabilities.

Outcome Number of 3s Probability

TTT X=3 1
6 × 1
6 × 1
6 Pr(X = 3) = ( 16 )3
TTN X=2 1
6 × 1
6 × 5
6
TNT X=2 1
6 × 5
6 × 1
6 Pr(X = 2) = 3 × ( 61 )2 × 5
6
NTT X=2 5
6 × 1
6 × 1
6

TNN X=1 1
6 × 5
6 × 5
6
NTN X=1 5
6 × 1
6 × 5
6 Pr(X = 1) = 3 × 1
6 × ( 56 )2
NNT X=1 5
6 × 5
6 × 1
6

NNN X=0 5
6 × 5
6 × 5
6 Pr(X = 0) = ( 56 )3

Thus the probability distribution of X is given by the following table.

x 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x) 125
216
75
216
15
216
1
216

Instead of listing all the outcomes to find the probability distribution, we can use our
knowledge of selections from Mathematical Methods Year 11 (revised in Appendix A).
Consider the probability that X = 1, that is, when exactly one 3 is observed. We can see from
the table that there are three ways this can occur. Since the 3 could occur on the first, second
or third roll of the die, we! can consider this as selecting one object from a group of three,
3
which can be done in ways.
1
Consider the probability that X = 2, that is, when exactly two 3s are observed. Again from
the table there are three ways this can occur. Since the two 3s could occur on any two of the
three rolls of the die, we!can consider this as selecting two objects from a group of three,
3
which can be done in ways.
2
This leads us to a general formula for this probability distribution:
3 1 x 5 3−x
!
Pr(X = x) = x = 0, 1, 2, 3
x 6 6
This is an example of the binomial distribution.

If the random variable X is the number of successes in n independent trials, each with
probability of success p, then X has a binomial distribution and the rule is
!
n x
Pr(X = x) = p (1 − p)n−x x = 0, 1, . . . , n
x
!
n n!
where =
x x! (n − x)!

Example 2
Find the probability of obtaining exactly three heads when a fair coin is tossed seven
times, correct to four decimal places.

Solution
Obtaining a head is considered a success here, and the probability of success on each of
the seven independent trials is 0.5.
Let X be the number of heads obtained. In this case, the parameters are n = 7 and p = 0.5.
!
7
Pr(X = 3) = (0.5)3 (1 − 0.5)7−3
3
= 35 × (0.5)7 = 0.2734

Using the TI-Nspire

Use > Probability > Distributions >
menu
Binomial Pdf and complete as shown.
Use tab or H to move between cells.
The result is shown below.

Note: You can also type in the command and the parameter values directly if preferred.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In M, go to Interactive > Distribution > Discrete
> binomialPDf.
Enter the number of successes and the parameters
as shown. Tap OK .

Example 3
The probability that a person currently in prison has ever been imprisoned before is 0.72.
Find the probability that of five prisoners chosen at random at least three have been
imprisoned before, correct to four decimal places.

Solution
If X is the number of prisoners who have been imprisoned before, then
!
5
Pr(X = x) = (0.72) x (0.28)5−x x = 0, 1, . . . , 5
x
and so
Pr(X ≥ 3) = Pr(X = 3) + Pr(X = 4) + Pr(X = 5)
! ! !
5 5 5
= (0.72) (0.28) +
3 2
(0.72) (0.28) +
4 1
(0.72)5 (0.28)0
3 4 5
= 0.8624

Using the TI-Nspire

Use menu > Probability > Distributions >
Binomial Cdf and complete as shown.
Use tab or H to move between cells.
The result is shown below.

Note: You can also type in the command and the parameter values directly if preferred.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In M, go to Interactive > Distribution > Discrete
> binomialCDf.
Enter lower and upper bounds for the number of
successes and the parameters as shown. Tap OK .

I The binomial distribution and conditional probability

We can use the binomial distribution to solve problems involving conditional probabilities.

Example 4
The probability of a netballer scoring a goal is 0.3. Find the probability that out of six
attempts the netballer scores a goal:
a four times b four times, given that she scores at least one goal.

Solution
Let X be the number of goals scored.
Then X has a binomial distribution with n = 6 and p = 0.3.
!
6
a Pr(X = 4) = (0.3)4 (0.7)2
4
= 15 × 0.0081 × 0.49
= 0.059535
Pr(X = 4 ∩ X ≥ 1)
b Pr(X = 4 | X ≥ 1) =
Pr(X ≥ 1)
Pr(X = 4)
=
Pr(X ≥ 1)
0.059535
= since Pr(X ≥ 1) = 1 − Pr(X = 0)
1 − 0.76
= 0.0675

Section summary
A Bernoulli sequence is a sequence of trials with the following properties:
• Each trial results in one of two outcomes, which are usually designated as either a
success, S , or a failure, F.
• The probability of success on a single trial, p, is constant for all trials (and thus the
probability of failure on a single trial is 1 − p).
• The trials are independent (so that the outcome of any trial is not affected by the
outcome of any previous trial).
A Bernoulli random variable describes the outcome from a Bernoulli trial; it has a
probability distribution of the form Pr(Y = 1) = p and Pr(Y = 0) = 1 − p.
The number of successes, X, in a Bernoulli sequence of n trials is called a binomial
random variable and has a binomial probability distribution:
!
n x
Pr(X = x) = p (1 − p)n−x x = 0, 1, . . . , n
x
!
n n!
where =
x x! (n − x)!

Exercise 12A

Skillsheet 1 Which of the following describes a Bernoulli sequence?

Example 1 a tossing a fair coin many times
b drawing balls from an urn containing five red and three black balls, replacing the
chosen ball each time
c selecting people at random from the population and noting their age
d selecting people at random from the population and noting their sex, male or female

Example 2 2 Find the probability of obtaining exactly four heads when a fair coin is tossed seven
times, correct to four decimal places.

3 For a binomial distribution with n = 4 and p = 0.2, find the probability of:
a three successes b four successes.

4 For a binomial distribution with n = 5 and p = 0.4, find the probability of:
a no successes b three successes c five successes.

5 Suppose that a fair coin is tossed three times, and the number of heads observed.
a Write down a general rule for the probability distribution of the number of heads.
b Use the rule to calculate the probability of observing two heads.

6 Suppose that X is the number of male children born into a family of six children.
Assume that the distribution of X is binomial, with probability of success 0.48.
a Write down a general rule for the probability distribution of the number of male
children.
b Use the rule to calculate the probability that a family with six children will have
exactly two male children.

Example 3 7 A fair die is rolled six times and the number of 2s noted. Find the probability of:
a exactly three 2s b more than three 2s c at least three 2s.

8 Jo knows that each ticket has a probability of 0.1 of winning a prize in a lucky ticket
competition. Suppose she buys 10 tickets.
a Write down a general rule for the probability distribution of the number of winning
tickets.
b Use the rule to calculate the probability that Jo has:
i no wins ii at least one win.

9 Suppose that the probability that a person selected at random is left-handed is

always 0.2. If 11 people are selected at random for the cricket team:
a Write down a general rule for the probability distribution of the number left-handed
people on the team.
b Use the rule to calculate the probability of selecting:
i exactly two left-handers ii no left-handers iii at least one left-hander.

10 In a particular city, the probability of rain falling on any given day is 15 .

a Write down a general rule for the probability distribution of the number of days of
rain in a week.
b Use the rule to calculate the probability that in a particular week rain will fall:
i every day ii not at all iii on two or three days.

11 The probability of a particular drug causing side effects in a person is 0.2. What is the
probability that at least two people in a random sample of 10 people will experience
side effects?

12 Records show that x% of people will pass their driver’s licence on the first attempt. If
six students attempt their driver’s licence, write down in terms of x the probability that:
a all six students pass b only one fails c no more than two fail.

13 A supermarket has four checkouts. A customer in a hurry decides to leave without

making a purchase if all the checkouts are busy. At that time of day the probability
of each checkout being free is 0.25. Assuming that whether or not a checkout is busy
is independent of any other checkout, calculate the probability that the customer will
make a purchase.

14 A fair die is rolled 50 times. Find the probability of observing:

a exactly 10 sixes b no more than 10 sixes c at least 10 sixes.

15 Find the probability of getting at least nine successes in 100 trials for which the
probability of success is p = 0.1.

16 A fair coin is tossed 50 times. If X is the number of heads observed, find:

a Pr(X = 25) b Pr(X ≤ 25) c Pr(X ≤ 10) d Pr(X ≥ 40)

17 A survey of the population in a particular city found that 40% of people regularly
participate in sport. What is the probability that fewer than half of a random sample of
six people regularly participate in sport?

18 An examination consists of six multiple-choice questions. Each question has four

possible answers. At least three correct answers are required to pass the examination.
Suppose that a student guesses the answer to each question.
a What is the probability the student guesses every question correctly?
b What is the probability the student will pass the examination?

Example 4 19 The manager of a shop knows from experience that 60% of her customers will use a
credit card to pay for their purchases. Find the probability that:
a the next three customers will use a credit card, and the three after that will not
b three of the next six customers will use a credit card
c at least three of the next six customers will use a credit card
d exactly three of the next six customers will use a credit card, given that at least three
of the next six customers use a credit card.

20 A multiple-choice test has eight questions, each with five possible answers, only one of
which is correct. Find the probability that a student who guesses the answer to every
question will have:
a no correct answers
b six or more correct answers
c every question correct, given they have six or more correct answers.

21 The probability that a full forward in Australian Rules football will kick a goal from
outside the 50-metre line is 0.15. If the full forward has 10 kicks at goal from outside
the 50-metre line, find the probability that he will:
a kick a goal every time
b kick at least one goal
c kick more than one goal, given that he kicks at least one goal.

12B The graph, expectation and variance of a

binomial distribution
We looked at the properties of discrete probability distributions in Chapter 11. We now
consider these properties for the binomial distribution.

I The graph of a binomial probability distribution

As discussed in Chapter 11, a probability distribution may be represented as a rule, a table or
a graph. We now investigate the shape of the graph of a binomial probability distribution for
different values of the parameters n and p.
A method for plotting a binomial distribution with a CAS calculator can be found in the
calculator appendices in the Interactive Textbook.

Example 5
Construct and compare the graph of the binomial probability distribution for 20 trials
(n = 20) with probability of success:
a p = 0.2 b p = 0.5 c p = 0.8

Solution
a For p = 0.2, the graph p(x)
is positively skewed. 0.2 p = 0.2
Mostly from 1 to 8
successes will be
observed in 20 trials. 0.1

x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

b For p = 0.5, the graph p(x)

is symmetrical (as the 0.2
probability of success p = 0.5
is the same as the
probability of failure). 0.1
Mostly from 6 to 14
successes will be
x
observed in 20 trials. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

c For p = 0.8, the graph p(x)

is negatively skewed. 0.2 p = 0.8
Mostly from 12 to 19
successes will be
observed in 20 trials. 0.1

x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

I Expectation and variance for a Bernoulli random variable

The table on the right shows the probability distribution y 0 1
for a Bernoulli random variable.
Pr(Y = y) 1− p p
Thus E(Y) = 0 × (1 − p) + 1 × p = p
and E(Y 2 ) = 02 × (1 − p) + 12 × p = p
so Var(Y) = p − p2 = p(1 − p)

Hence, if Y is a Bernoulli random variable with probability of success p, then

E(Y) = p
Var(Y) = p(1 − p)

I Expectation and variance for a binomial random variable

How many heads would you expect to obtain, on average, if a fair coin was tossed 10 times?
While the exact number of heads in the 10 tosses would vary, and could theoretically take
values from 0 to 10, it seems reasonable that the long-run average number of heads would
be 5. It turns out that this is correct. That is, for a binomial random variable X with n = 10
and p = 0.5,
X
E(X) = x · Pr(X = x) = 5
x
In general, the expected value of a binomial random variable is equal to the number of
trials multiplied by the probability of success. The variance can also be calculated from the
parameters n and p.

If X is the number of successes in n trials, each with probability of success p, then the
expected value and the variance of X are given by
E(X) = np
Var(X) = np(1 − p)

Note: These formulas are consistent with those for a Bernoulli random variable, which is a
special case of a binomial random variable where n = 1.
While it is not necessary in this course to be familiar with the derivations of these formulas,
they are included for completeness in the final section of this chapter.

Example 6
An examination consists of 30 multiple-choice questions, each question having three
possible answers. A student guesses the answer to every question. Let X be the number of
correct answers.
a How many will she expect to get correct? That is, find E(X) = µ.
b Find Var(X).

Solution
The number of correct answers, X, is a binomial random variable with parameters n = 30
and p = 13 .
a The student has an expected result of µ = np = 10 correct answers. (This is not enough
to pass if the pass mark is 50%.)
b Var(X) = np(1 − p)
1 2 20
= 30 × × =
3 3 3

Example 7
The probability of contracting influenza this winter is known to be 0.2. Of the 100
employees at a certain business, how many would the owner expect to get influenza?
Find the standard deviation of the number who will get influenza and calculate µ ± 2σ.
Interpret the interval [µ − 2σ, µ + 2σ] for this example.

Solution
The number of employees who get influenza is a binomial random variable, X, with
parameters n = 100 and p = 0.2.
The owner will expect µ = np = 20 of the employees to contract influenza.
The variance is
σ2 = np(1 − p)
= 100 × 0.2 × 0.8
= 16

Hence the standard deviation is

√
σ = 16 = 4
Thus
µ ± 2σ = 20 ± (2 × 4)
= 20 ± 8
The owner of the business knows there is a probability of about 0.95 that from 12 to 28 of
the employees will contract influenza this winter.

Section summary
If X is the number of successes in n trials, each with probability of success p, then the
expected value and the variance of X are given by
E(X) = np
Var(X) = np(1 − p)

Exercise 12B

Example 5 1 Plot the graph of the probability distribution

!
n x
Pr(X = x) = p (1 − p)n−x x = 0, 1, . . . , n
x
for n = 8 and p = 0.25.

2 Plot the graph of the probability distribution

!
n x
Pr(X = x) = p (1 − p)n−x x = 0, 1, . . . , n
x
for n = 12 and p = 0.35.

3 a Plot the graph of the probability distribution

!
n x
Pr(X = x) = p (1 − p)n−x x = 0, 1, . . . , n
x
for n = 10 and p = 0.2.
b On the same axes, plot the graph of
!
n x
Pr(X = x) = p (1 − p)n−x x = 0, 1, . . . , n
x
for n = 10 and p = 0.8, using a different plotting symbol.
c Compare the two distributions.
d Comment on the effect of the value of p on the shape of the distribution.

Example 6 4 Find the mean and variance of the binomial random variables with parameters:
a n = 25, p = 0.2 b n = 10, p = 0.6
1
c n = 500, p = d n = 40, p = 20%
3
5 A fair die is rolled six times.
a Find the expected value for the number of sixes obtained.
b Find the probability that more than the expected number of sixes is obtained.

6 The survival rate for a certain disease is 75%. Of the next 50 people who contract the
disease, how many would you expect would survive?

7 A binomial random variable X has mean 12 and variance 9. Find the parameters n
and p, and hence find Pr(X = 7).

8 A binomial random variable X has mean 30 and variance 21. Find the parameters n
and p, and hence find Pr(X = 20).

Example 7 9 A fair coin is tossed 20 times. Find the mean and standard deviation of the number
of heads obtained and calculate µ ± 2σ. Interpret the interval [µ − 2σ, µ + 2σ] for this
example.

10 Records show that 60% of the students in a certain state attend government schools.
If a group of 200 students are to be selected at random, find the mean and standard
deviation of the number of students in the group who attend government schools, and
calculate µ ± 2σ. Interpret the interval [µ − 2σ, µ + 2σ] for this sample.

12C Finding the sample size

While we can never be absolutely certain about the outcome of a random experiment,
sometimes we are interested in knowing what size sample would be required to observe a
certain outcome. For example, how many times do you need to roll a die to be reasonably
sure of observing a six, or how many lotto tickets must you buy to be reasonably sure that
you will win a prize?

Example 8
The probability of winning a prize in a game of chance is 0.48.
a What is the least number of games that must be played to ensure that the probability of
winning at least once is more than 0.95?
b What is the least number of games that must be played to ensure that the probability of
winning at least twice is more than 0.95?

Solution
Since the probability of winning each game is the same each time the game is played, this
is an example of a binomial distribution, with the probability of success p = 0.48.

a The required answer is the smallest value of n such that Pr(X ≥ 1) > 0.95.
Pr(X ≥ 1) > 0.95
⇔ 1 − Pr(X = 0) > 0.95
⇔ Pr(X = 0) < 0.05
⇔ 0.52n < 0.05 since Pr(X = 0) = 0.52n
This can be solved by taking logarithms of both sides:
ln(0.52n ) < ln(0.05)
n ln(0.52) < ln(0.05)
ln(0.05)
∴ n> ≈ 4.58
ln(0.52)
Thus the game must be played at least five times to ensure that the probability of
winning at least once is more than 0.95.

b The required answer is the smallest value of n such that Pr(X ≥ 2) > 0.95, or
equivalently, such that
Pr(X < 2) < 0.05
We have
Pr(X < 2) = Pr(X = 0) + Pr(X = 1)
! !
n n
= 0.480 0.52n + 0.481 0.52n−1
0 1
= 0.52n + 0.48n(0.52)n−1
So the answer is the smallest value of n such that
0.52n + 0.48n(0.52)n−1 < 0.05
This equation cannot be solved algebraically;
but a CAS calculator can be used to find the
solution n > 7.7985 . . . .
Thus the game must be played at least eight
times to ensure that the probability of winning
at least twice is more than 0.95.

The following calculator inserts give a solution to part b of Example 8. Similar techniques
can be used for part a. For further explanation, refer to the calculator appendices in the
Interactive Textbook.

Using the TI-Nspire

To find the smallest value of n such that Pr(X ≥ 2) > 0.95, where p = 0.48:
Define the binomial CDF as shown.
The last two parameters are the lower and
upper bounds (inclusive) of the X value.

Insert a Lists & Spreadsheet page. Press

to show the table of values.
ctrl T
Scroll through the table to find where the
probability is greater than 0.95. Hence n = 8.

Using the Casio ClassPad

To find the smallest value of n such that Pr(X ≥ 2) > 0.95, where p = 0.48:
In M, go to Interactive > Distribution > Discrete > binomialCDf.
Enter bounds for the number of successes and the parameters as shown below.

Highlight and copy the expression.

Go to the main menu m and select the
Graph & Table application .
Paste the expression in y1.

Tap on the table icon (.

Scroll down the table of values until the
probability first exceeds 0.95: the answer
is n = 8.
Note: To view larger values of x in the table, tap
the 8 icon and set End at a larger value.

Exercise 12C

Skillsheet 1 The probability of a target shooter hitting the bullseye on any one shot is 0.2.
Example 8 a If the shooter takes five shots at the target, find the probability of:
i missing the bullseye every time
ii hitting the bullseye at least once.
b What is the smallest number of shots the shooter should make to ensure a probability
of more than 0.95 of hitting the bullseye at least once?
c What is the smallest number of shots the shooter should make to ensure a probability
of more than 0.95 of hitting the bullseye at least twice?

2 The probability of winning a prize with a lucky ticket on a wheel of fortune is 0.1.
a If a person buys 10 lucky tickets, find the probability of:
i winning twice
ii winning at least once.
b What is the smallest number of tickets that should be bought to ensure a probability
of more than 0.7 of winning at least once?

3 Rex is shooting at a target. His probability of hitting the target is 0.6. What is the
minimum number of shots needed for the probability of Rex hitting the target exactly
five times to be more than 25%?

4 Janet is selecting chocolates at random out of a box. She knows that 20% of the
chocolates have hard centres. What is the minimum number of chocolates she needs
to select to ensure that the probability of choosing exactly three hard centres is more
than 10%?

5 The probability of winning a prize in a game of chance is 0.35. What is the fewest
number of games that must be played to ensure that the probability of winning at least
twice is more than 0.9?

6 Geoff has determined that his probability of hitting ‘4’ off any ball when playing cricket
is 0.07. What is the fewest number of balls he must face to ensure that the probability of
hitting more than one ‘4’ is more than 0.8?

7 Monique is practising goaling for netball. She knows from past experience that
her chance of making any one shot is about 70%. Her coach has asked her to keep
practising until she scores 50 goals. How many shots would she need to attempt to
ensure that the probability of scoring at least 50 goals is more than 0.99?

12D Proofs for the expectation and variance

In this section we give proofs of three important results on the binomial distribution.

The probabilities of a binomial distribution sum to 1.

Proof The binomial theorem, discussed in Appendix A, states that

n !
X n n−k k
(a + b)n = a b
k=0
k
Now, using the binomial theorem, the sum of the probabilities for a binomial random
variable X with parameters n and p is given by
n n !
X X n x
Pr(X = x) = p (1 − p)n−x
x=0 x=0
x
= (1 − p) + p n = (1)n = 1

Expected value
If X is a binomial random variable with parameters n and p, then E(X) = np.

Proof By the definition of expected value:

n !
X n x
E(X) = x· p (1 − p)n−x by the distribution formula
x=0
x
n
X n! n
= x· p x (1 − p)n−x expanding x
x=0
x! (n − x)!
n
X n
= x· p x (1 − p)n−x since the x = 0 term is zero
x=1
x! (n − x)!
n
X n!
= x· p x (1 − p)n−x since x! = x(x − 1)!
x=1
x(x − 1)! (n − x)!
n
X n!
= p x (1 − p)n−x cancelling the xs
x=1
(x − 1)! (n − x)!
This expression is very similar to the probability function for a binomial random
variable, and we know the probabilities sum to 1. Taking out factors of n and p from
the expression and letting z = x − 1 gives
n !
X n − 1 x−1
E(X) = np p (1 − p)n−x
x=1
x − 1
n−1 !
X n−1 z
= np p (1 − p)n−1−z
z=0
z
Note that this sum corresponds to the sum of all the values of the probability function
for a binomial random variable Z, which is the number of successes in n − 1 trials
each with probability of success p. Therefore the sum equals 1, and so
E(X) = np
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12D Proofs for the expectation and variance 557

Variance
If X is a binomial random variable with parameters n and p, then Var(X) = np(1 − p).

Proof The variance of the binomial random variable X may be found using
Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − µ2 , where µ = np
Thus, to find the variance, we need to determine E(X 2 ):
n !
2 n
X
E(X ) =
2
x p x (1 − p)n−x
x=0
x
n
X n!
= x2 p x (1 − p)n−x
x=0
x! (n − x)!
But x2 is not a factor of x! and so we cannot proceed as in the previous proof for
expected value.
The strategy used here is to determine E[X(X − 1)]:
n !
X n x
E[X(X − 1)] = x(x − 1) p (1 − p)n−x
x=0
x
n
X n!
= x(x − 1) p x (1 − p)n−x
x=0
x! (n − x)!
n
X n!
= x(x − 1) p x (1 − p)n−x
x=2
x! (n − x)!
since the first and second terms of the sum equal zero (when x = 0 and x = 1).
Taking out a factor of n(n − 1)p2 and letting z = x − 2 gives
n
X (n − 2)!
E[X(X − 1)] = n(n − 1)p2 p x−2 (1 − p)n−x
x=2
(x − 2)! (n − x)!
n−2 !
X n−2 z
= n(n − 1)p 2
p (1 − p)n−2−z
z=0
z
Now the sum corresponds to the sum of all the values of the probability function for
a binomial random variable Z, which is the number of successes in n − 2 trials each
with probability of success p, and is thus equal to 1. Hence
E[X(X − 1)] = n(n − 1)p2
∴ E(X 2 ) − E(X) = n(n − 1)p2
∴ E(X 2 ) = n(n − 1)p2 + E(X)
= n(n − 1)p2 + np
This is an expression for E(X 2 ) in terms of n and p, as required. Thus
Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − µ2
= n(n − 1)p2 + np − (np)2
= np(1 − p)

p(x)

Review
0.2 p = 0.8

0.1

x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Short-answer questions
1
1 If X is a binomial random variable with parameters n = 4 and p = , find:
3
a Pr(X = 0) b Pr(X = 1) c Pr(X ≤ 1) d Pr(X ≥ 1)

2 A salesperson knows that 60% of the people who enter a particular shop will make
a purchase. What is the probability that of the next three people who enter the shop
exactly two will make a purchase?

3 If 10% of patients fail to improve on a certain medication, find the probability that of
five patients selected at random one or more will fail to show improvement.

4 A machine has a probability of 0.1 of manufacturing a defective part.

a What is the expected number of defective parts in a random sample of 20 parts
manufactured by the machine?
b What is the standard deviation of the number of defective parts?

5 An experiment consists of four independent trials. Each trial results in either a success
or a failure. The probability of success in a trial is p. Find the probability of each of the
following in terms of p:
a no successes b one success c at least one success
d four successes e at least two successes.

6 A coin is tossed 10 times. The probability of three heads is m × ( 12 )10 . State the value
of m.

7 An experiment consists of five independent trials. Each trial results in either a success
or a failure. The probability of success in a trial is p. Find, in terms of p, the probability
of exactly one success given at least one success.

8 A die is rolled five times. What is the probability of obtaining an even number on the
uppermost face on exactly three of the rolls?

9 In a particular city, the probability of rain on any day in June is 15 . What is the
probability of it raining on three of five days?

Multiple-choice questions
1 A coin is biased such that the probability of a head is 0.6. The probability that exactly
three heads will be observed when the coin is tossed five times is !
5
A 0.6 × 3 B (0.6)3 C (0.6)3 (0.4)2 D 10 × (0.6)3 (0.4)2 E (0.6)5
3
2 The probability that the 8:25 train arrives on time is 0.35. What is the probability that
the train is on time at least once during a working week (Monday to Friday)?
A 1 − (0.65)5 B (0.35)5 C 1 − (0.35)5
D 5 × (0.35)1 (0.65)4 E (0.65)5

3 A fair die is rolled four times. The probability that a number greater than 4 is observed
on two occasions is
1 16 1 1 8
A B C D E
4 81 9 81 27
4 The probability that a person in a certain town has a tertiary education is 0.4. What is
the probability that, if 80 people are chosen at random from this town, less than 30 will
have a tertiary education?
A 0.7139 B 0.2861 C 0.0827 D 0.3687 E 0.3750
1
5 If X is a binomial random variable with parameters n = 18 and p = , then the mean
3
and variance of X are closest to
A µ = 6, σ2 = 4 B µ = 9, σ2 = 4 C µ = 6, σ2 = 2
D µ = 6, σ2 = 16 E µ = 18, σ2 = 6

6 Which one of the following best represents the shape of the probability distribution of a
binomial random variable X with 10 independent trials and probability of success 0.7?
A B C

D E

7 Suppose that X is a binomial random variable with mean µ = 10 and standard deviation
σ = 2. The probability of success, p, in any trial is
A 0.4 B 0.5 C 0.6 D 0.7 E 0.8

8 Suppose that X is the number of heads observed when a coin known to be biased
towards heads is tossed 10 times. If Var(X) = 1.875, then the probability of a head on
any one toss is
A 0.25 B 0.55 C 0.75 D 0.65 E 0.80

Review
Questions 9 and 10 refer to the following information.
The probability of Thomas beating William in a set of tennis is 0.24, and Thomas and
William decide to play a set of tennis every day for n days.

9 What is the fewest number of days on which they should play to ensure that the
probability of Thomas winning at least one set is more than 0.95?
A 7 B 8 C 9 D 10 E 11

10 What is the fewest number of days on which they should play to ensure that the
probability of Thomas winning at least two sets is more than 0.95?
A 12 B 18 C 17 D 21 E 14

Extended-response questions
1 In a test to detect learning disabilities, a child is asked 10 questions, each of which
has possible answers labelled A, B and C. Children with a disability of type 1 almost
always answer A or B on every question, while children with a disability of type 2
almost always answer C on every question. Children without either disability have an
equal chance of answering A, B or C for each question.
a What is the probability that the answers given by a child without either disability
will be all As and Bs, thereby indicating a type 1 disability?
b A child is further tested for type 2 disability if he or she answers C five or more
times. What is the probability that a child without either disability will test positive
for type 2 disability?

2 An inspector takes a random sample of 10 items from a very large batch. If none of
the items is defective, he accepts the batch; otherwise, he rejects the batch. What is
the probability that a batch is accepted if the fraction of defective items is 0, 0.01,
0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1? Plot these probabilities against the corresponding fraction
defective. Is the inspection method a good one or not?

3 It has been found in the past that 4% of the CDs produced in a certain factory are
defective. A sample of 10 CDs is drawn randomly from each hour’s production and the
number of defective CDs is noted.
a What percentage of these hourly samples would contain at least two defective CDs?
b Find the mean and standard deviation of the number of defective CDs in a sample,
and calculate µ ± 2σ.
c A particular sample is found to contain three defective CDs. Would this cause you to
have doubts about the production process?

4 A pizza company claims that they deliver 90% of orders within 30 minutes. In a
particular 2-hour period, the supervisor notes that there are 67 orders, and of these
12 orders are delivered late. If the company claim is correct, and 90% of orders are
delivered on time, what is the probability that at least 12 orders are delivered late?
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562 Chapter 12: The binomial distribution
Review
5 a A sample of six objects is to be drawn from a large population in which 20% of the
objects are defective. Find the probability that the sample contains:
i three defectives ii fewer than three defectives.
b Another large population contains a proportion p of defective items.
i Write down an expression in terms of p for P, the probability that a sample of
six items contains exactly two defectives.
dP 1
ii By differentiating to find , show that P is greatest when p = .
dp 3
6 Groups of six people are chosen at random and the number, x, of people in each group
who normally wear glasses is recorded. The table gives the results from 200 groups.

Number wearing glasses, x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Number of occurrences 17 53 65 45 18 2 0

a Calculate, from the above data, the mean value of x.

b Assuming that the situation can be modelled by a binomial distribution having the
same mean as the one calculated above, state the appropriate values for the binomial
parameters n and p.
c Calculate the theoretical frequencies corresponding to those in the table.

7 A sampling inspection scheme is devised as follows. A sample of size 10 is drawn

at random from a large batch of articles and all 10 articles are tested. If the sample
contains fewer than two faulty articles, the batch is accepted; if the sample contains
three or more faulty articles, the batch is rejected; but if the sample contains exactly
two faulty articles, a second sample of size 10 is taken and tested. If this second sample
contains no faulty articles, the batch is accepted; but if it contains any faulty articles,
the batch is rejected. Previous experience has shown that 5% of the articles in a batch
are faulty.
a Find the probability that the batch is accepted after the first sample is taken.
b Find the probability that the batch is rejected.
c Find the expected number of articles to be tested.

8 Assume that dates of birth in a large population are distributed such that the probability
1
of a randomly chosen person’s birthday being in any particular month is 12 .
a Find the probability that of six people chosen at random exactly two will have a
birthday in January.
b Find the probability that of eight people at least one will have a birthday in January.
c N people are chosen at random. Find the least value of N such that the probability
that at least one will have a birthday in January exceeds 0.9.

9 Suppose that, in flight, aeroplane engines fail with probability q, independently of

each other, and that a plane will complete the flight successfully if at least half of its
engines are still working. For what values of q is a two-engine plane to be preferred to a
four-engine one?

Objectives
To introduce continuous random variables.
To use relative frequencies to estimate probabilities associated with continuous random
variables.
To use probability density functions to specify the distributions for continuous random
variables.
To relate the probability for an interval to an area under the graph of a probability
density function.
To use calculus to find probabilities for intervals from a probability density function.
To use technology to find probabilities for intervals from a probability density function.
To calculate and interpret the expectation (mean), median, variance and standard
deviation for a continuous random variable.
To investigate the mean and variance for a linear function of a random variable.
To use cumulative distribution functions to specify the distributions for continuous
random variables.

In this chapter we extend our knowledge of probability to include continuous random

variables, which can take any value in an interval of the real number line. Examples include
the time taken to complete a puzzle and the height of an adult. When considering the
heights of adults, the range of values could be from 56 cm to 251 cm, and in principle the
measurement could be any value in this interval.
We also introduce the concept of the probability density function to describe the distribution
of a continuous random variable. We shall see that probabilities associated with a continuous
random variable are described by areas under the probability density function, and thus
integration is an important skill required to determine these probabilities.

13A Continuous random variables

A continuous random variable is one that can take any value in an interval of the real
number line. For example, if X is the random variable which takes its values as ‘distance in
metres that a parachutist lands from a marker’, then X is a continuous random variable, and
here the values which X may take are the non-negative real numbers.

Using data to approximate a continuous random variable

Relative frequencies obtained from data can be used to approximate the probabilities
associated with a continuous random variable.

Example 1
Let T represent the time (in seconds) that it takes a student to complete a particular puzzle.
The following percentage frequency histogram was obtained by recording the times taken
to complete the puzzle by 500 students, with each recorded time rounded down to a whole
number of seconds.
13
12
11
10
Percentage frequency

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Time (seconds)

Use the histogram to estimate:

a Pr(19 ≤ T < 22) b Pr(T ≥ 28)

Solution
a Pr(19 ≤ T < 22) ≈ 4% + 4.8% + 5.6% b Pr(T ≥ 28) ≈ 9.6% + 7.2% + 4.8%
= 14.4% = 21.6%
= 0.144 = 0.216

An example of a continuous random variable

A continuous random variable has no limit as to the accuracy with which it can be measured.
For example, let W be the random variable with values ‘a person’s weight in kilograms’ and
let Wi be the random variable with values ‘a person’s weight in kilograms measured to the ith
decimal place’.
Then W0 = 83 implies 82.5 ≤ W < 83.5
W1 = 83.3 implies 83.25 ≤ W < 83.35
W2 = 83.28 implies 83.275 ≤ W < 83.285
W3 = 83.281 implies 83.2805 ≤ W < 83.2815
and so on. Thus, the random variable W cannot take an exact value, since it is always
rounded to the limits imposed by the method of measurement used. Hence, the probability
of W being exactly equal to a particular value is zero, and this is true for all continuous
random variables.
That is,
Pr(W = w) = 0 for all w
In practice, considering Wi taking a particular value is equivalent to W taking a value in an
appropriate interval.
Thus, from above:
Pr(W0 = 83) = Pr(82.5 ≤ W < 83.5)
To determine the value of this probability, you could begin by measuring the weight of a large
number of randomly chosen people, and determine the proportion of the people in the group
who have weights in this interval.
Suppose after doing this a histogram of weights was obtained as shown.

f(w)

O
82.5 83 83.5 Weights

From this histogram:

Pr(W0 = 83) = Pr(82.5 ≤ W < 83.5)
shaded area from 82.5 to 83.5
=
total area

If the histogram is scaled so that the total area under the blocks is 1, then
Pr(W0 = 83) = Pr(82.5 ≤ W < 83.5)
= area under block from 82.5 to 83.5
Now suppose that the sample size gets larger and that the class interval width gets smaller.
If theoretically this process is continued so that the intervals are arbitrarily small, then the
histogram can be modelled by a smooth curve, as shown in the following diagram.

f(w)

O w
82.5 83 83.5

The curve obtained here is of great importance for a continuous random variable.

The function f whose graph models the histogram as the number of intervals is increased
is called the probability density function. The probability density function f is used to
describe the probability distribution of a continuous random variable X.

Now, the probability of interest is no longer represented by the area under the histogram, but
by the area under the curve. That is,
Pr(W0 = 83) = Pr(82.5 ≤ W < 83.5)
= area under the graph of the function with rule f (w) from 82.5 to 83.5
83.5
= 82.5
f (w) dw

Probability density functions

In general, a probability density function f is a function with domain some interval
(e.g. domain [c, d] or R) such that:
1 f (x) ≥ 0 for all x in the interval, and
2 the area under the graph of the function is equal to 1.
d
If the domain of f is [c, d], then the second condition corresponds to c
f (x) dx = 1.
In many cases, however, the domain of f will be an ‘unbounded’ interval such as [1, ∞) or R.
Therefore, some new notation is necessary.

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13A Continuous random variables 567
∞
If the probability density function f has domain [1, ∞), then f (x) dx = 1. This integral
k 1
is computed as lim f (x) dx.
k→∞ 1
∞
If the probability density function f has domain R, then f (x) dx = 1. This integral is
k −∞
computed as lim −k
f (x) dx.
k→∞
Note: Deﬁnite integrals which have one or both limits inﬁnite are called improper integrals.
There are possible complications with such integrals which we avoid in this course;
you will only need the methods of evaluation illustrated in Examples 2 and 4.

The probability density function of a random variable

Now consider a continuous random variable X with range [c, d]. (Alternatively, the range
of X may be an unbounded interval such as (−∞, d], [c, ∞) or R.) Let f be a probability
density function with domain [c, d]. Then:

We say that f is the probability density f(x)

function of X if
b
Pr(a < X < b) = a
f (x) dx

for all a < b in the range of X.

O a b x

Notes:
The values of a probability density function f are not probabilities, and f (x) may take
values greater than 1.
The probability of any speciﬁc value of X is 0. That is, Pr(X = a) = 0. It follows that all of
the following expressions have the same numerical value:
• Pr(a < X < b) • Pr(a ≤ X < b) • Pr(a < X ≤ b) • Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b)
a
If f has domain [c, d] and a ∈ [c, d], then Pr(X < a) = Pr(X ≤ a) = c
f (x) dx.

The natural extension of a probability density function

Any probability density function f with domain [c, d] (or any other interval) may be extended
to a function f ∗ with domain R by deﬁning
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
∗ ⎨ f (x) if x ∈ [c, d]
f (x) = ⎪⎪
⎪
⎩0 if x [c, d]
This leads to the following:

A probability density function f (or its natural extension) must satisfy the following two
properties:
∞
1 f (x) ≥ 0 for all x 2 −∞
f (x) dx = 1

Example 2
Consider the function f with the rule:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨1.5(1 − x ) if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 if x > 1 or x < 0
a Sketch the graph of f .
b Show that f is a probability density function.
c Find Pr(X > 0.5), where the random variable X has probability density function f .

Solution
a For 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, the graph of y = f (x) is part of a parabola with intercepts at (0, 1.5)
and (1, 0).
y

1.5

0.5

x
O 0.5 1

b From the graph, we can see that f (x) ≥ 0 for all x, and so the ﬁrst condition holds.
∞
The second condition to check is that −∞
f (x) dx = 1.
∞ 1
Now −∞
f (x) dx = 0
1.5(1 − x2 ) dx since f (x) = 0 elsewhere
x 3 1
= 1.5 x −
3 0
1
= 1.5 1 −
3
=1
Thus the second condition holds, and hence f is a probability density function.
1
c Pr(X > 0.5) = 0.5
1.5(1 − x2 ) dx
x 3 1
= 1.5 x −
3 0.5
1 0.125
= 1.5 1 − − 0.5 −
3 3
= 0.3125

Example 3
Suppose that the random variable X has the probability density function with rule:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨cx if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 if x > 2 or x < 0
a Find the value of c that makes f a probability density function.
b Find Pr(X > 1.5).
c Find Pr(1 ≤ X ≤ 1.5).

Solution
∞
a Since f is a probability density function, we know that −∞
f (x) dx = 1.
∞ 2
Now −∞
f (x) dx = 0
cx dx since f (x) = 0 elsewhere
cx2 2
=
2 0
= 2c
Therefore 2c = 1 and so c = 0.5.
2
b Pr(X > 1.5) = 1.5
0.5x dx
x 2 2
= 0.5
2 1.5
4 2.25
= 0.5 −
2 2
= 0.4375
1.5
c Pr(1 ≤ X ≤ 1.5) = 1
0.5x dx
x2 1.5
= 0.5
2 1
2.25 1
= 0.5 −
2 2
= 0.3125

Probability density functions with unbounded domain

Some intervals for which definite integrals need to be evaluated are of the form (−∞, a] or
[a, ∞) or (−∞, ∞). For a function f with non-negative values, such integrals are defined as
follows (provided the limits exist):
a
To integrate over the interval (−∞, a], find lim k
f (x) dx.
k→−∞
k
To integrate over the interval [a, ∞), find lim a
f (x) dx.
k→∞
k
To integrate over the interval (−∞, ∞), find lim −k
f (x) dx.
k→∞

Example 4
Consider the exponential probability density function f with the rule:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ −2x
⎨2e x>0
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x≤0
a Sketch the graph of f .
b Show that f is a probability density function.
c Find Pr(X > 1), where the random variable X has probability density function f .

Solution
y
a For x > 0, the graph of y = f (x) is part of the
graph of an exponential function with y-axis
intercept 2. As x → ∞, y → 0.
2

x
O

b Since f (x) ≥ 0 for all x, the ﬁrst condition holds.

∞
The second condition to check is that −∞
f (x) dx = 1.
∞ ∞
Now −∞
f (x) dx = 2e−2x dx since f (x) = 0 elsewhere
0
k
= lim 2e−2x dx
0
k→∞
2e−2x k
= lim
k→∞ −2 0
k
= lim −e−2x
k→∞ 0

= lim (−e−2k ) − (−e−0 )

k→∞

= 0 + e0
=1
Thus f satisﬁes the two conditions for a probability density function.
k
c Pr(X > 1) = lim 1
2e−2x dx
k→∞
k
= lim −e−2x
k→∞ 1
−2k
= lim (−e ) − (−e−2 )
k→∞

= 0 + e−2
1
= 2
e
= 0.1353 correct to four decimal places

Using the TI-Nspire

This is an application of integration.
a The graph is as shown. The piecewise
function template {,, has been used in this
example; access the template using t.

b, c The two required integrations are shown.

The symbol ∞ can be found using ¹
or ctrl k.

Using the Casio ClassPad

a To sketch the graph:
Select the Math3 keyboard and tap on the
piecewise template }.
Enter the function as shown, highlight and go
to Interactive > Define.
Now select $, highlight f (x) and drag into
the graph screen.
Adjust the window using 6.

b, c Find the deﬁnite integrals as shown.

Conditional probability
Next is an example involving conditional probability with continuous random variables.

Example 5
The time (in seconds) that it takes a student to complete a puzzle is a random variable X
with a density function given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
5
⎨ x2 x ≥ 5
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x<5
a Find the probability that a student takes less than 12 seconds to complete the puzzle.
b Find the probability that a student takes between 8 and 10 seconds to complete the
puzzle, given that he takes less than 12 seconds.

Solution
12
a Pr(X < 12) = 5
f (x) dx b Pr(8 < X < 10 | X < 12)
12 5 Pr(8 < X < 10 ∩ X < 12)
= dx =
5 x2 Pr(X < 12)
5 12 Pr(8 < X < 10)
= − =
x 5 Pr(X < 12)
10
5 f (x) dx
=− +1 = 812
12
5
f (x) dx
7
= − 12 + 5
3
12 = 8
=
7 14
12

Section summary
A probability density function f (or its natural extension) must satisfy the following
two properties:
∞
1 f (x) ≥ 0 for all x 2 −∞
f (x) dx = 1
If X is a continuous random variable f(x)
with density function f , then
b
Pr(a < X < b) = a
f (x) dx
which is the area of the shaded region.
O a b x
Definite integrals may need to be evaluated over unbounded intervals:
a
• To integrate over the interval (−∞, a], find lim f (x) dx.
k→−∞ k
k
• To integrate over the interval [a, ∞), find lim a
f (x) dx.
k→∞
k
• To integrate over the interval (−∞, ∞), find lim −k
f (x) dx.
k→∞

Exercise 13A
Skillsheet
1 The following percentage frequency histogram summarises the prices, $X, of
Example 1 apartments in a certain town.

25
Percentage frequency

0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Price ($000)
Use the histogram to estimate:
a Pr(X ≥ 900 000) b Pr(600 000 ≤ X < 1 000 000)

2 Let X be the resting pulse rate (in beats per minute) of a randomly chosen person.
The following percentage frequency data was obtained from a random sample of
people, with each recorded pulse rate rounded to the nearest 5 beats per minute.
24
22
20
Percentage frequency

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Resting pulse rate
Use the histogram to estimate:
a Pr(62.5 ≤ X < 67.5) b Pr(67.5 ≤ X < 87.5)

Example 2 3 Show that the function f with the following rule is a probability density function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
24
⎨ x3 3 ≤ x ≤ 6
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 3 or x > 6

Example 3 4 Let X be a continuous random variable with the following probability density function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ x + kx + 1 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 2
Determine the constant k such that f is a valid probability density function.

5 Consider the random variable X having the probability density function with the rule:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨12x (1 − x) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 1

a Sketch the graph of y = f (x). b Find Pr(X < 0.5).

c Shade the region which represents this probability on your sketch graph.

Example 4 6 Consider the random variable Y with the probability density function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ −y
⎨ke y≥0
f (y) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 y<0

a Find the constant k. b Find Pr(Y ≤ 2).

Example 5 7 The quarantine period for a certain disease is between 5 and 11 days after contact. The
probability of showing the ﬁrst symptoms at various times during the quarantine period
is described by the probability density function:
1
f (t) = (t − 5)(11 − t)
36
a Sketch the graph of the function.
b Find the probability that the symptoms appear within 7 days.
c Find the probability that the symptoms appear within 7 days, given that they appear
after 5.5 days.
d Find the probability that the symptoms appear within 7 days, given that they appear
within 10 days.

8 A probability model for the mass, X kg, of a 2-year-old child is given by

π(x − 7)
f (x) = k sin , 7 ≤ x ≤ 17
10
π
a Show that k = .
20
b Hence ﬁnd the percentage of 2-year-old children whose mass is:
i greater than 16 kg ii between 12 kg and 13 kg.

9 A probability density function for the lifetime, T hours, of Electra light bulbs has rule
−t
f (t) = ke 200 , t > 0
a Find the value of the constant k.
b Find the probability that an Electra light bulb will last more than 1000 hours.

10 A random variable X has a probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ k(1 + x) −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ k(1 − x) 0 < x ≤ 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < −1 or x > 1
where k > 0.
a Sketch the graph of the probability density function. b Evaluate k.
c Find the probability that X lies between −0.5 and 0.5.

11 Let X be a continuous random variable with probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨3x 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 1
a Sketch the graph of y = f (x).
b Find Pr(0.25 < X < 0.75) and illustrate this on your graph.

12 A random variable X has a probability density function f with the rule:

⎧ 1
⎪
⎪
⎪ (10 + x) if −10 < x ≤ 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
100
⎨ 1
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ (10 − x) if 0 < x ≤ 10
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
100
⎪
⎩0 if x ≤ −10 or x > 10

a Sketch the graph of f . b Find Pr(−1 ≤ X < 1).

13 The life, X hours, of a type of light bulb has a probability density function with the rule:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
k
⎨ x2 x > 1000
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x ≤ 1000

a Evaluate k. b Find the probability that a bulb will last at least 2000 hours.

14 The weekly demand for petrol, X (in thousands of litres), at a particular service station
is a random variable with probability density function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
⎨2 1 − x2
⎪ 1≤x≤2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 1 or x > 2
a Determine the probability that more than 1.5 thousand litres are bought in one week.
b Determine the probability that the demand for petrol in one week is less than
1.8 thousand litres, given than it is more than 1.5 thousand litres.

15 The length of time, X minutes, between the arrival of customers at an ATM is a random
variable with probability density function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1 −x
⎨5e 5 x ≥ 0
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x<0
a Find the probability that more than 8 minutes elapses between successive customers.
b Find the probability that more than 12 minutes elapses between successive
customers, given that more than 8 minutes has passed.

16 A random variable X has density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0.2 −1 < x ≤ 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ 0.2 + 1.2x 0 < x ≤ 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x ≤ −1 or x > 1
a Find Pr(X ≤ 0.5).
b Hence ﬁnd Pr(X > 0.5 | X > 0.1).

17 The continuous random variable X has probability density function f given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ −x
⎨e x≥0
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x<0
a Sketch the graph of f .
b Find:
i Pr(X < 0.5) ii Pr(X ≥ 1) iii Pr(X ≥ 1 | X > 0.5)

13B Mean and median for a continuous random variable

The centre is an important summary feature of a probability distribution.
The following diagram shows two probability distributions which are identical except for
their centres.
f(x)

More than one measure of centre may be determined for a continuous random variable, and
each gives useful information about the random variable under consideration. The most
generally useful measure of centre is the mean.

Mean
We deﬁned the mean for a discrete random variable in Section 11D. We can also deﬁne the
mean for a continuous random variable.

For a continuous random variable X with probability density function f , the mean or
expected value of X is given by
∞
E(X) = −∞
x f (x) dx
provided the integral exists. The mean is denoted by the Greek letter μ (mu).
d
If f (x) = 0 for all x [c, d], then E(X) = c
x f (x) dx.

This deﬁnition is consistent with the deﬁnition of the expected value for a discrete random
variable. As in the case of a discrete random variable, the expected value of a continuous
random variable is the long-run average value of the variable. For example, consider the daily
demand for petrol at a service station. The mean of this variable tells us the average daily
demand for petrol over a very long period of time.

Example 6
Find the expected value of the random variable X which has probability density function
with rule:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨0.5x 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 2

Solution
By deﬁnition,
∞ 2
E(X) = −∞
x f (x) dx = x × 0.5x dx since f (x) = 0 elsewhere
0
2
= 0.5 0
x2 dx
x 3 2
= 0.5
3 0
4
=
3

Using the TI-Nspire

Deﬁne the function f as shown; access the
piecewise function template using t.
Notes:
Leave the domain for the last function piece
blank; it will autoﬁll as ‘Else’.
To obtain an exact answer, enter 12 x instead
of 0.5x.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Tap the piecewise template } twice.
Define the function f as shown.
Find E(X) by evaluating the definite integral
as shown.
Note: Using the defined function to find E(X) gives
the decimal answer only.

The mean of a function of X is calculated as follows. (In this case, the function of X is
denoted by g(X) and is the composition of the random variable X followed by the function g.)

The expected value of g(X) is given by

∞
E[g(X)] = −∞
g(x) f (x) dx
provided the integral exists.

Generally, as in the case of a discrete random variable, the expected value of a function of X
is not equal to that function of the expected value of X. That is,
E[g(X)] g[E(X)]

Example 7
Let X be a random variable with probability density function f given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨0.5x 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 2
Find:
a the expected value of X 2 b the expected value of eX .

Solution
∞ ∞
a E(X 2 ) = −∞
x2 f (x) dx b E(eX ) = −∞
e x f (x) dx
2 2 x
= x2 × 0.5x dx = e f (x) dx
0
2 0
2 x
= 0.5 0
x3 dx = 0
e × 0.5x dx
x 4 2
= 4.195
= 0.5
4 0 correct to three decimal places.
=2

A case where the equality does hold is where g is a linear function:

E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b (for a, b constant)

Percentiles and the median

Another value of interest is the value of X which bounds a particular area under the
probability density function. For example, a teacher may wish determine the mark, p, below
which lie 75% of all students’ marks. This is called the 75th percentile of the population, and
is found by solving
p
−∞
f (x) dx = 0.75
This can be stated more generally:

Percentiles
The value p of X which is the solution of an equation of the form
p
−∞
f (x) dx = q
is called a percentile of the distribution.
For example, the 75th percentile is the value p found by taking q = 75% = 0.75.

Example 8
The duration of telephone calls to the order department of a large company is a random
variable, X minutes, with probability density function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1 −x
⎨3e 3 x > 0
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x≤0
Find the value of a such that 90% of phone calls last less than a minutes.

Solution
To ﬁnd the value of a, solve the equation:
a 1 −x
0 3
e 3 dx = 0.9
x a
−e− 3 = 0.9
0
a
1− e− 3
= 0.9
a
− = ln 0.1
3
∴ a = 3 ln 10
= 6.908 (correct to three decimal places)
So 90% of the calls to this company last less than 6.908 minutes.

A percentile of special interest is the median, or 50th percentile. The median is the middle
value of the distribution. That is, the probability of X taking a value below the median is 0.5,
and the probability of X taking a value above the median is 0.5. Thus, if m is the median
value of the distribution, then
Pr(X ≤ m) = Pr(X > m) = 0.5
Graphically, the median is the value of the random variable which divides the area under the
probability density function in half.

The median
The median is another measure of centre f(x)
for a continuous probability distribution.
The median, m, of a continuous random
variable X is the value of X such that
m 0.5
−∞
f (x) dx = 0.5

m x

Example 9
Suppose the probability density function of weekly sales of topsoil, X (in tonnes), is given
by the rule:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨2(1 − x) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 1
Find the median value of X, and interpret.

Solution
The median m is such that
m
0
2(1 − x) dx = 0.5
x 2 m
2 x− = 0.5
2 0
2m − m2 = 0.5
m2 − 2m + 0.5 = 0
∴ m = 0.293 or m = 1.707
But since 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, the median is m = 0.293 tonnes.
This means that, in the long run, 50% of weekly sales will be less than 0.293 tonnes, and
50% will be more.

Using the TI-Nspire

This is an application of integration.
Solve the deﬁnite integral equal to 0.5 as
shown to ﬁnd m (the median value).
Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, the median is m = 0.293.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Define the function f .
Solve the definite integral equal to 0.5 as shown to
find m (the median value).

Section summary
For a continuous random variable X with probability density function f :
∞
the mean or expected value of X is given by μ = E(X) = −∞
x f (x) dx
∞
the expected value of g(X) is given by E[g(X)] = −∞
g(x) f (x) dx
m
the median of X is the value m such that −∞
f (x) dx = 0.5

Exercise 13B
Skillsheet
1 Find the mean, E(X), of the continuous random variables with the following probability
Example 6 density functions:
1
a f (x) = 2x, 0 < x < 1 b f (x) = √ , 0 < x < 1
2 x
1
c f (x) = 6x(1 − x), 0 < x < 1 d f (x) = 2 , x ≥ 1
x
2 For each of the following, use your calculator to check that f is a probability density
function and then to ﬁnd the mean, E(X), of the corresponding continuous random
variable:
π
a f (x) = sin x, 0 < x < b f (x) = ln x, 1 < x < e
2
1 π π
c f (x) = 2
, <x< d f (x) = −4x ln x, 0 < x < 1
sin x 4 2

3 A continuous random variable X has the probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨2x − x + 1 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
3
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 1
a Find μ, the mean value of X.
b Find the probability that X takes a value less than or equal to the mean.

4 Consider the probability density function given by

1
f (x) = (1 + cos x), −π ≤ x ≤ π
2π
Find the expected value of X.

5 A random variable Y has the probability density function:

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨Ay 0 ≤ y ≤ B
f (y) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 y < 0 or y > B
Find A and B if the mean of Y is 2.

Example 7 6 A random variable X has the probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨12x (1 − x) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 1
1
a Find E . b Find E(eX ).
X
Example 8 7 The time, X seconds, between arrivals of particles at a radiation counter has been found
to have a probability density function f with the rule:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨0 x<0
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪e−x x ≥ 0
⎩

a Find Pr(X ≤ 1). b Find Pr(1 ≤ X ≤ 2). c Find the median, m, of X.

8 The random variable X has a probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨k 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 1

a Find the value of k. b Find the median, m, of X.

9 A continuous random variable X has a probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨5(1 − x) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
4
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 1
Find the median, m, of X correct to four decimal places.

10 Suppose that the time (in minutes) between telephone calls received at a pizza
restaurant has the probability density function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1 −x
⎨4e 4 x ≥ 0
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x<0
Find the median time between calls.

Example 9 11 A continuous random variable X has the probability density function given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ x 0≤x<1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ 2−x 1≤ x<2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x ≥ 2

a Find μ, the expected value of X. b Find m, the median value of X.

12 Let the probability density function of X be given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨30x (1 − x) 0 < x < 1
4
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 1
a Find the expected value, μ, of X.
b Find the median value, m, of X and hence show the mean is less than the median.

13 A probability model for the mass, X kg, of a 2-year-old child is given by

π π(x − 7)
f (x) = sin , 7 ≤ x ≤ 17
20 10
Find the median value, m, of X.

14 A random variable X has density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪0.2 −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
f (x) = ⎪
⎪0.2 + 1.2x 0 < x ≤ 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < −1 or x > 1

a Find μ, the expected value of X. b Find m, the median value of X.

15 The exponential probability distribution describes the distribution of the time between
random events, such as phone calls. The general form of the exponential distribution
with parameter λ is
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1 −x
⎨λe λ x ≥ 0
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x<0
a Differentiate (kx + 1)e−kx and hence find an antiderivative of kxe−kx .
b Show that the mean of an exponential random variable is λ.
c On the same axes, sketch the graphs of the distribution for λ = 12 , λ = 1 and λ = 2.
d Describe the effect of varying the value of λ on the graph of the distribution.

13C Measures of spread

Another important summary feature of a distribution is variation or spread. The following
diagram shows two distributions that are identical except for their spreads.

f(x)

As in the case of centre, there is more than one measure of spread. The most commonly used
is the variance, together with its companion measure, the standard deviation. Others that you
may be familiar with are the range and the interquartile range.

Variance and standard deviation

The variance of a random variable X is a measure of the spread of the probability distribution
about its mean or expected value μ. It is deﬁned as:

Var(X) = E[(X − μ)2 ]

∞
= −∞
(x − μ)2 f (x) dx

As for discrete random variables, the variance is usually denoted by σ2 , where σ is the
lowercase Greek letter sigma.
Variance may be considered as the long-run average value of the square of the distance
from X to μ. This means that the variance is not in the same units of measurement as the
original random variable X. A measure of spread in the appropriate unit is found by taking
the square root of the variance.
The standard deviation of X is deﬁned as:

sd(X) = Var(X)

The standard deviation is usually denoted by σ.

As in the case of discrete random variables, an alternative (computational) formula for
variance is generally used.

To calculate variance, use

Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − μ2

Proof The computational form of the expression for variance is derived as follows:
∞
Var(X) = (x − μ)2 f (x) dx
−∞
∞ 2
= −∞ (x − 2μx + μ2 ) f (x) dx
∞ ∞ ∞
= −∞ x2 f (x) dx − −∞ 2μx f (x) dx + −∞ μ2 f (x) dx
∞ ∞
= E(X ) − 2μ
2
−∞
x f (x) dx + μ
2
−∞
f (x) dx
∞ ∞
Since −∞
x f (x) dx = μ and −∞
f (x) dx = 1, we obtain
Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − 2μ2 + μ2
= E(X 2 ) − μ2

Example 10
Find the variance and standard deviation of the random variable X which has the
probability density function f with rule:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨0.5x 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 2

Solution
Use the computational formula Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − μ2 .
First evaluate E(X 2 ):
∞
E(X 2 ) = x2 f (x) dx
−∞
2 2
= x × 0.5x dx
0
2
= 0.5 0
x3 dx
x 4 2
= 0.5
4 0
= 0.5 × 4
=2
4
Since E(X) = from Example 6, we now have
3
4 2 2
Var(X) = 2 − =
3 9
√
2 2
and sd(X) = = = 0.471 (correct to three decimal places)
9 3

It helps to make the standard deviation more meaningful to give it an interpretation which
relates to the probability distribution. As already stated for discrete random variables, it is
also the case for many continuous random variables that about 95% of the distribution lies
within two standard deviations either side of the mean.

In general, for many continuous random variables X,

Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ) ≈ 0.95

Example 11
The life of a certain brand of battery, X hours, is a continuous random variable with
mean 50 and variance 16. Find an (approximate) interval for the time period for which
95% of the batteries would be expected to last.

Solution
Pr(μ − 2σ ≤ X ≤ μ + 2σ) ≈ 0.95
√
Since μ = 50 and σ = 16 = 4, we expect 95% of the batteries to last between 42 hours
and 58 hours.

Interquartile range
The interquartile range is the range of the middle 50% of the distribution; it is the diﬀerence
between the 75th percentile (also known as Q3) and the 25th percentile (also known as Q1).

Example 12
Determine the interquartile range of the random variable X which has the probability
density function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨2x 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 1

Solution
To ﬁnd the 25th percentile a, solve: To ﬁnd the 75th percentile b, solve:
a b
0
2x dx = 0.25 0
2x dx = 0.75
2 a 2 b
x 0 = 0.25 x 0 = 0.75
a2 = 0.25 b2 = 0.75
√ √
∴ a = 0.25 = 0.5 ∴ b = 0.75 ≈ 0.866

Thus the interquartile range is 0.866 − 0.5 = 0.366, correct to three decimal places.
Note that the negative solutions to these equations were not appropriate, as 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

Section summary
To calculate the variance of a continuous random variable X, use
Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − μ2

The standard deviation of X is deﬁned by σ = Var(X).

The interquartile range of X is

IQR = b − a
where a and b are such that
a b
−∞
f (x) dx = 0.25 and −∞
f (x) dx = 0.75
and where f is the probability density function of X.

Exercise 13C

Example 10 1 A random variable X has probability density function:

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨2x 0 < x < 1
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 1
Find the variance of X, and hence ﬁnd the standard deviation of X.

Example 11 2 The life of a certain brand of light bulb, X hours, is a continuous random variable with
mean 400 and variance 64. Find an (approximate) interval for the time period for which
95% of the light bulbs would be expected to last.

Example 12 3 A continuous random variable X has a probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨3x 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 1
a Find a such that Pr(X ≤ a) = 0.25.
b Find b such that Pr(X ≤ b) = 0.75.
c Find the interquartile range of X.

4 A random variable X has the probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨0.5e
x
x≤0
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0.5e−x
x>0
a Sketch the graph of y = f (x).
b Find the interquartile range of X, giving your answer correct to three decimal places.

5 A continuous random variable X has probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
k
⎨x 1 ≤ x ≤ 9
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 1 or x > 9
a Find the value of k.
b Find the mean and variance of X, giving your answer correct to three decimal places.

6 A continuous random variable X has density function f given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪0 x<0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
f (x) = ⎪
⎪2 − 2x 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x>1

a Find the interquartile range of X. b Find the mean and variance of X.

7 A random variable X has probability density function f with the rule:

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨0 x<0
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩2xe−x 2
x≥0
Find the interquartile range of X.

8 A random variable X has a probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 x<0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨x
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ 0≤x<2
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x ≥ 2

a Find the interquartile range of X. b Find the mean and variance of X.

9 The queuing time, X minutes, of a traveller at the ticket oﬃce of a large railway station
has probability density function f deﬁned by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨kx(100 − x ) 0 ≤ x ≤ 10
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x > 10 or x < 0

a Find the value of k. b Find the mean of the distribution.

c Find the standard deviation of the distribution, correct to two decimal places.

10 A probability density function is given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨k(a − x ) −a ≤ x ≤ a
2 2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x > a or x < −a
a Find k in terms of a.
b Find the value of a which gives a standard deviation of 2.

11 A continuous random variable X has probability density function f given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ k(3 − x) 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ k(x − 3) 3 < x ≤ 6
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x > 6 or x < 0
where k is a constant.
a Sketch the graph of f . b Hence, or otherwise, ﬁnd the value of k.
c Verify that the mean of X is 3. d Find Var(X).

13D Properties of mean and variance

It has already been stated that the expected value of a function of X is not necessarily equal to
that function of the expected value of X. That is, in general,
E[g(X)] g[E(X)]
An exception is the case where the function g is linear: the mean of a linear function of X is
equal to the linear function of the mean of X.

The mean and variance of aX + b

For any continuous random variable X,
E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b

Proof The validity of this statement can be readily demonstrated:

∞
E(aX + b) = (ax + b) f (x) dx
−∞
∞ ∞
= −∞ ax f (x) dx + −∞ b f (x) dx
∞ ∞
=a x f (x) dx + b f (x) dx
−∞ −∞
∞
= aE(X) + b (since −∞
f (x) dx = 1)

We can also obtain a formula for the variance of a linear function of X.

For any continuous random variable X,

Var(aX + b) = a2 Var(X)

Proof Consider the variance of a linear function of X:

Var(aX + b) = E[(aX + b)2 ] − [E(aX + b)]2

Now [E(aX + b)]2 = [aE(X) + b]2 = (aμ + b)2 = a2 μ2 + 2abμ + b2

and E[(aX + b)2 ] = E(a2 X 2 + 2abX + b2 )

= a2 E(X 2 ) + 2abμ + b2

Thus Var(aX + b) = a2 E(X 2 ) + 2abμ + b2 − a2 μ2 − 2abμ − b2

= a2 E(X 2 ) − a2 μ2
= a2 Var(X)

Although initially the absence of b in the variance may seem surprising, on reﬂection it
makes sense that adding a constant merely translates the probability density function, and has
no eﬀect on its spread.

The probability density function of aX + b

We can also describe the probability density function of a linear function of X.

The random variable X + b

If the probability density function of X has rule f (x), then the probability density function of
X + b is obtained by the translation (x, y) → (x + b, y) and so has rule f (x − b).

The random variable aX

Similarly, multiplying by a is similar to a dilation of factor a from the y-axis. However, there
has to be an adjustment to determine the rule for the probability density function of aX, as the
1 x
transformation must be area-preserving. The rule is f .
a a

The random variable aX + b

Thus, if the probability density function of X has rule f (x), then the probability density
1 x − b
function of aX + b has rule f . The transformation is described by
a a
y
(x, y) → ax + b,
a
1
In the case that a and b are positive, this is a dilation of factor a from the y-axis and factor
a
from the x-axis, followed by a translation of b units in the positive direction of the x-axis.

Example 13
Suppose that X is a continuous random variable with mean μ = 10 and variance σ2 = 2.
a Find E(2X + 1).
b Find Var(1 − 3X).
c If X has probability density function f , describe the rule of a probability density
function g for 2X + 1.

Solution
a E(2X + 1) = 2E(X) + 1 b Var(1 − 3X) = (−3)2 Var(X)
= 2 × 10 + 1 =9×2
= 21 = 18

1 x−b 1 x − 1
c The rule is g(x) = f where a = 2 and b = 1. Therefore g(x) = f .
a a 2 2

Section summary
Linear function of a continuous random variable:
E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
Var(aX + b) = a2 Var(X)

Exercise 13D

1 The amount of ﬂour used each day in a bakery is a continuous random variable X with a
mean of 4 tonnes. The cost of the ﬂour is C = 300X + 100. Find E(C).

2 The mean weight of the oranges grown at a certain orchard is 100 g, with a standard
deviation of 5 g. The oranges are sold in bags of 10. If the weight of the empty bag
is 10 g, ﬁnd the mean and standard deviation of the weight of a bag of oranges.

3 For certain glass ornaments, the proportion of impurities per ornament, X, is a random
variable with a density function given by
⎧ 2
⎪
⎪
⎪ 3x
⎨ 2 + x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 if x < 0 or x > 1
The value of each ornament (in dollars) is V = 100 − 1.5X.
a Find E(X) and Var(X).
b Hence ﬁnd the mean and standard deviation of V.

Example 13 4 Let X be a random variable with probability density function:

⎧ 2
⎪
⎪
⎪ 3x
⎪
⎨ 2 if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 if x < −1 or x > 1
Find:
a E(3X) and Var(3X)
b E(3 − X) and Var(3 − X)
c E(3X + 1) and Var(3X + 1)
d the rule of a probability density function for 3X
e the rule of a probability density function for 3X + 1.

5 Let X be a continuous random variable with probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ 3
⎪
⎨ x 2x + 2 if 0 < x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise
a i Find E(X).
ii Hence ﬁnd E(V), where V = 2X + 3.
1 1
b i Find E and Var .
X X
2
ii Hence ﬁnd Var(Y), where Y = + 3.
X

13E Cumulative distribution functions

Another function of importance in describing a continuous random variable is the cumulative
distribution function or CDF. For a continuous random variable X, with probability density
function f deﬁned on the interval [c, d], the cumulative distribution function F is given by
F(x) = Pr(X ≤ x)
x
= c
f (t) dt
where t is the variable of integration. The cumulative distribution function at a particular
value x gives the probability that the random variable X takes a value less than or equal to x.
The diagram on the right shows the relationship f (t)
between the probability density function f and the
cumulative distribution function F.
The function F describes the area under the graph
of the probability density function between the F(x)
lower bound of the domain of f and x. (In the
diagram, the lower bound is 0.)
x t
For every continuous random variable X,
the cumulative distribution function F F(x)
is continuous.
1
Using the general version of the fundamental
theorem of calculus, it can be shown that
the derivative of the cumulative distribution
function is the density function. More
precisely, we have F (x) = f (x), for each O x
value of x at which f is continuous.
There are three important properties of a cumulative distribution function.

For a continuous random variable X with range [c, d]:

1 The probability that X takes a value less than or equal to c is 0. That is, F(c) = 0.
2 The probability that X takes a value less than or equal to d is 1. That is, F(d) = 1.
3 If x1 and x2 are values of X with x1 ≤ x2 , then Pr(X ≤ x1 ) ≤ Pr(X ≤ x2 ). That is,
x1 ≤ x2 implies F(x1 ) ≤ F(x2 )
The function F is a non-decreasing function.

For a probability density function f deﬁned on R, the cumulative distribution is given by

F(x) = Pr(X ≤ x)
x
= −∞
f (t) dt
In this case, we have F(x) → 0 as x → −∞, and F(x) → 1 as x → ∞.

The importance of the cumulative distribution function is that probabilities for various
intervals can be computed directly from F(x).

Example 14
The time, X seconds, that it takes a student to complete a puzzle is a random variable with
density function given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
5
⎨ x2 x ≥ 5
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x<5
a Find F(x), the cumulative distribution function of X.
b Use the cumulative distribution function to ﬁnd:
i Pr(X ≤ 7) ii Pr(X ≥ 6) iii Pr(10 ≤ X ≤ 20)

Solution
x x 5
a F(x) = f (t) dt = dt
5 5 t2
−5 x
=
t 5

−5
= +1
x
5
Thus F(x) = 1 − for x ≥ 5.
x
b i Pr(X ≤ 7) = F(7) ii Pr(X ≥ 6) = 1 − Pr(X < 6)

=1− =
5 2 = 1 − F(6)
7 7 5 5
=1− 1− =
6 6
iii Pr(10 ≤ X ≤ 20) = Pr(X ≤ 20) − Pr(X < 10)
= F(20) − F(10)
5 5 1
= 1− − 1− =
20 10 4

Section summary
The cumulative distribution function of a continuous random variable X is deﬁned by
F(x) = Pr(X ≤ x)
For a probability density function f deﬁned on R, we have
x
F(x) = −∞
f (t) dt
For each value of x at which f is continuous, we have
F (x) = f (x)

Exercise 13E

Example 14 1 The probability density function for a random variable X is given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
⎨ 5 if 0 < x < 5
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 if x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 5

a Find F(x), the cumulative distribution function of X. b Hence ﬁnd Pr(X ≤ 3).

2 A continuous random variable X has probability density function

⎧1
⎪
⎪
⎪ if 0 ≤ x < 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
4
⎨ x3
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
5
⎪
⎩0 otherwise
a Find F(x), the cumulative distribution function of X.
b Solve the equation F(x) = 0.5 for x to ﬁnd the median value of X.

3 A random variable X has the cumulative distribution function with rule:

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨0 x<0
F(x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩1 − e−x 2
x≥0

a Sketch the graph of y = F(x). b Find Pr(X ≥ 2). c Find Pr(X ≥ 2 | X < 3).

4 The continuous random variable X has cumulative distribution function F given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 x<0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 2
F(x) = ⎪
⎪ kx 0 ≤ x ≤ 6
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩1 x>6
1
a Determine the value of the constant k. b Calculate Pr ≤ X ≤ 1 .
2
5 The cumulative distribution function of a random variable X is given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
10
⎨1 − x > 10
F(x) = ⎪⎪ x
⎪
⎩0 x ≤ 10
Use the cumulative distribution function to determine:
a Pr(X < 30) b the median of X c the interquartile range for X.

6 The maximum daily temperature, X ◦ C, at a ski resort during winter has the cumulative
1
distribution function F(x) = for x ∈ R.
1 + e−0.5x
a With the help of your calculator, sketch the graph of F.
b Given that the probability density function f of X is continuous everywhere,
determine the rule for f (x) and sketch the graph of f .

Short-answer questions
1 The probability density function of X is given by
⎧ √
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨kx if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise

a Find k. b Find Pr(1 < X < 1.1). c Find Pr(1 < X < 1.2).

2 If the probability density function of X is given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨a + bx 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x > 1 or x < 0
2
and E(X) = , ﬁnd a and b.
3
3 The probability density function of X is given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
sin x
⎪
⎨ 2 0≤x≤π
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x > π or x < 0
Find the median of X.

4 The probability density function of X is given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
⎨4 1 ≤ x < 5
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 1 or x ≥ 5

a Find Pr(1 < X < 3). b Find Pr(X > 2 | 1 < X < 3). c Find Pr(X > 4 | X > 2).

5 Consider the random variable X having the probability density function given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨12x (1 − x) if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise
a Sketch the graph of y = f (x).
b Find Pr(X < 0.5) and illustrate this probability on your sketch graph.
c Find F(x), the cumulative distribution function of X.

Review
6 The probability density function of a random variable X is
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨kx (1 − x) if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise
a Determine k.
b Find the probability that X is less than 23 .
c Find the probability that X is less than 13 , given that X is less than 23 .

7 Let X be a continuous random variable with probability density function:

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨3x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise

a Find Pr(X < 0.2). b Find Pr(X < 0.2 | X < 0.3).

8 A continuous random variable X has probability density function:

⎧π πx
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨4 cos if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (x) = ⎪ 4
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise
Find the median value, m, of X.

9 The probability density function f of a random variable X is given by

⎧
⎪
⎪ x+2
⎪
⎪
⎨ 16 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise
5
a Find E(X). b Find a such that Pr(X ≤ a) = .
32
10 The probability density function f of a random variable X is given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨c(1 − x ) if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
2
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise

a Find c. b Find E(X).

11 Show that
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨n(1 − x) if 0 < x < 1
n−1
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise
is a probability function, where the constant n is a natural number.

12 The probability density function of X is given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
⎨x 1 ≤ x ≤ e
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x > e or x < 1

a Find the median value of X. b Find the interquartile range of X.

14 The weight, X g, of cereal in a packet is a continuous random variable with mean 250
and variance 4. Find an (approximate) interval for the weight of cereal contained in
95% of the packets.

Multiple-choice questions
1 Which of the following graphs could not represent a probability density function f ?
A f(x) B f(x)

O x O x

C f(x) D f(x)

O x O x

E f(x)

O x
2 If the function f (x) = 4x represents a probability density function, then which of the
following could be the domain of f ?
A 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.25 B 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.5 C 0≤x≤1
1 1 2
D 0≤x≤ √ E √ ≤x≤ √
2 2 2
3 If a random variable X has probability density function given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
⎨ 2 sin x 0 < x < k
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x ≥ k or x ≤ 0
then k is equal to
π
A 1 B C 2 D π E 2π
2

Review
The following information relates to Questions 4, 5 and 6.
A random variable X has probability density function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
3 2
⎨ 4 (x − 1) 1 < x < 2
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x ≤ 1 or x ≥ 2

4 Pr(X ≤ 1.3) is closest to

A 0.0743 B 0.4258 C 0.3 D 0.25 E 0.9258

5 The mean, E(X), of X is equal to

3 9 27 27
A 1 B C D E
2 4 32 16
6 The variance of X is
27 67 81 81 729
A B C D E
16 1280 16 256 256
7 If a random variable X has a probability density function given by
⎧ 3
⎪
⎪
⎪ x
⎨4 0≤x≤2
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x > 2 or x < 0
then the median of X is closest to
A 1.5 B 1.4142 C 1.6818 D 1.2600 E 1

8 If a random variable X has a probability density function given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
3
⎨ 2 (x − 1)(x − 2) 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
2
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 1 or x > 3
then the mean of X is
A 1 B 1.333 C 2 D 2.6 E 3

9 If the consultation time (in minutes) at a surgery is represented by a random variable X

which has probability density function
⎧ x
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 40 000 (400 − x ) 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
2
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 20
then the expected consultation time (in minutes) for three patients is
A 10 23 B 30 C 32 D 42 E 43 23

10 The top 10% of students in an examination will be awarded an ‘A’. If the distribution of
scores on the examination is a random variable X with probability density function
⎧ π πx
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 100 sin 0 ≤ x ≤ 50
f (x) = ⎪ 50
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 50
then the minimum score required to be awarded an ‘A’ is closest to
A 40 B 41 C 42 D 43 E 44

Extended-response questions
1 The distribution of X, the life of a certain electronic component in hours, is described
by the following probability density function:
⎧ a
⎪
⎪
⎪
x
⎨ 100 1 − 100 100 < x < 1000
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x ≤ 100 and x ≥ 1000
a What is the value of a?
b Find the expected value of the life of the components.
c Find the median value of the life of the components.

2 The cumulative distribution function of a continuous random variable X is given by

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 if x < 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
F(x) = ⎪⎪ 2x − x2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩1 if x > 1
√
a Find Pr(X > 0.5). b Find a such that Pr(X < a) = 0.8. c Find E(X) and E( X).

3 The probability density function of X is given by

⎧ π(x − 6)
⎪
⎪ π
⎪
⎪
⎨ 20 cos 1 ≤ x ≤ 11
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
10
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 1 or x > 11
a Find the median and the interquartile range of X.
b Find the mean and the variance of X.

4 A hardware shop sells a certain size nail either in a small packet at $1 per packet,
or loose at $4 per kilogram. On any shopping day, the number, X, of packets sold is
a binomial random variable with number of trials n = 8 and probability of success
p = 0.6, and the weight, Y kg, of nails sold loose is a continuous random variable with
probability density function f given by
⎧
⎪
⎪ 2(y − 1)
⎪
⎪
⎨ 25 1≤y≤6
f (y) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 y < 1 or y > 6
a Find the probability that the weight of nails sold loose on any shopping day will be
between 4 kg and 5 kg.
b Calculate the expected money received on any shopping day from the sale of this
size nail in the shop.

5 The continuous random variable X has the probability density function f , where
⎧
⎪
⎪ x−2
⎪
⎪
⎨ 2 2≤x≤4
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 2 or x > 4
2
By ﬁrst expanding (X − c)2 , or otherwise, ﬁnd two values of c such that E[(X − c)2 ] = .
3
Cambridge Senior Maths AC ISBN 978-1-316-63582-7 © Evans et al. 2017 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
Chapter 13 review 601

Review
6 The continuous random variable X has probability density function f , where
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
k
⎨ 12(x + 1)3 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 4
a Find k.
b Evaluate E(X + 1). Hence, ﬁnd the mean of X.
c Use your calculator to verify your answer to part b.
d Find the value of c > 0 for which Pr(X ≤ c) = c.

7 The yield of a variety of corn has probability density function:

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ kx 0≤x<2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
f (x) = ⎪
⎪ k(4 − x) 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 x < 0 or x > 4
a Find k.
b Find the expected value, μ, and the variance of the yield of corn.
c Find the probability Pr(μ − 1 < X < μ + 1).
d Find the value of a such that Pr(X > a) = 0.6, giving your answer correct to one
decimal place.

8 Continuous uniform distributions

a A continuous random variable X has probability density function given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
⎨ 7 if 1 ≤ x ≤ 8
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise

i Sketch the graph of f .

ii Find F(x), the cumulative distribution function of X.
iii Find E(X), the expected value of X.
iv Find Var(X), the variance of X.
b In general, a continuous random variable X is said to have a uniform distribution if
its probability density function is given by
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
⎨ b − a if a ≤ x ≤ b
⎪
f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise
where a and b are real constants with a < b. Find:
i the cumulative distribution function of X ii E(X) iii Var(X)
c Suppose that the amount of time that a person must wait for a bus is uniformly
distributed between 0 and 15 minutes, inclusive. Let X be the waiting time in
minutes. Find:
i the cumulative distribution function of X ii E(X) iii Var(X)

The normal distribution

Objectives
To introduce the standard normal distribution.
To introduce the family of normal distributions as transformations of the standard normal
distribution.
To investigate the effect that changing the values of the parameters defining the normal
distribution has on the graph of the probability density function.
To recognise the mean, median, variance and standard deviation of a normal
distribution.
To use technology to determine probabilities for intervals in the solution of problems
where the normal distribution is appropriate.

The most useful continuous distribution, and one that occurs frequently, is the normal
distribution. The probability density functions of normal random variables are symmetric,
single-peaked, bell-shaped curves.
Data sets occurring in nature will often have such a bell-shaped distribution, as measurements
on many random variables are closely approximated by a normal probability distribution.
Variables such as height, weight, IQ and the volume of milk in a milk carton are all examples
of normally distributed random variables.
As well as helping us to understand better the behaviour of many real-world variables, the
normal distribution also underpins the development of statistical estimation, which is the
topic of Chapter 15.

14A The normal distribution

y
The standard normal distribution
The simplest form of the normal
distribution is a random variable with
probability density function f given by
1 1 2
f (x) = √ e− 2 x
2π
The domain of f is R. x
−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4

Because it is the simplest form of the normal distribution, it is given a special name: the
standard normal distribution. The graph of the standard normal distribution is as shown.
The graph of the standard normal probability density function f is symmetric about x = 0,
since f (−x) = f (x). That is, the function f is even.
The line y = 0 is an asymptote: as x → ±∞, y → 0. Almost all of the area under the
probability density function lies between x = −3 and x = 3.

The mean and standard deviation of the standard normal distribution

It can be seen from the graph that the mean and median of this distribution are the same, and
are equal to 0. While the probability density function for the standard normal distribution
cannot be integrated exactly, the value of the mean can be veriﬁed by observing the symmetry
of the two integrals formed below. One is just the negative of the other.
∞
E(X) = −∞
x f (x) dx
1 ∞ − 1 x2
= √ xe 2 dx
2π −∞
1 ∞ − 1 x2 0 − 1 x2
= √ xe 2 dx + −∞
xe 2 dx
2π 0
Thus the mean, E(X), of the standard normal distribution is 0.
What can be said about the standard deviation of this distribution? It can be shown that
∞ 1 ∞ 2 − 1 x2
E(X 2 ) = −∞ x2 f (x) dx = √ x e 2 dx = 1
2π −∞
Therefore

Var(X) = E(X 2 ) − E(X) 2 = 1 − 0 = 1 and sd(X) = Var(X) = 1

Standard normal distribution

A random variable with the standard normal distribution has probability density function
1 1 2
f (x) = √ e− 2 x
2π
The standard normal distribution has mean μ = 0 and standard deviation σ = 1.

Henceforth, we will denote the random variable of the standard normal distribution by Z.

The general normal distribution

The normal distribution does not apply just to the special circumstances where the mean is 0
and the standard deviation is 1.

Transformations of the standard normal distribution

The graph of the probability density function for a normal distribution with mean μ and
standard deviation σ may be obtained from the graph of the probability density function for
the standard normal distribution by the transformation with rule:
y
(x, y) → σx + μ,
σ
1
This is a dilation of factor σ from the y-axis and a dilation of factor from the x-axis,
σ
followed by a translation of μ units in the positive direction of the x-axis, for μ > 0.
(In Section 13D, this was discussed for probability density functions in general.)
Conversely, the transformation which maps the graph of a normal distribution with mean μ
and standard deviation σ to the graph of the standard normal distribution is given by
x − μ
(x, y) → , σy
σ
This is a translation of μ units in the negative direction of the x-axis, followed by a dilation of
1
factor from the y-axis and a dilation of factor σ from the x-axis.
σ
For example, if μ = 100 and σ = 15, then this transformation is
x − 100
(x, y) → , 15y
15
This transformation is area-preserving. In the following diagram, the rectangle ABCD is
mapped to A BC D . Both rectangles have an area of 180 square units.

B¢ C ¢
(−1, 90) (1, 90)

Area A¢B¢C¢D¢ = 2 × 90 = 180 Area ABCD = 6 × 30 = 180

(85, 6) (115, 6)
B C
x
A¢ D ¢ A D
(−1, 0) (1, 0) (85, 0) (115, 0)

This property enables the probabilities of any normal distribution to be determined from the
probabilities of the standard normal distribution.

1 y
2 2
1 1 2 y= 1 e - 1 x-100
y = 1 e- 2 x 1 2 15
2p 2p 15 2p
15 2p

x x
-2 -1 O 1 2 O 70 85 100 115 130

The shaded regions are of equal area.

This leads to the general rule for the family of normal probability distributions.

The rule for the general normal distribution

If X is a normally distributed random variable with mean μ and standard deviation σ,

then the probability density function of X is given by
2
1 1 x−μ
−2 σ
f (x) = √ e
σ 2π
and
a − μ
Pr(X ≤ a) = Pr Z ≤
σ
where Z is the random variable of the standard normal distribution.

The general form of the normal density function involves two parameters, μ and σ, which are
the mean (μ) and the standard deviation (σ) of that particular distribution.
When a random variable has a distribution described by a normal density function, the
random variable is said to have a normal distribution.
As with all probability density functions, the normal density function has the fundamental
properties that:
probability corresponds to an area under the curve
the total area under the curve is 1.
However, it has some additional special properties.
The graph of a normal density function is symmetric and bell-shaped:
its centre is determined by the mean of the distribution
its width is determined by the standard deviation of the distribution.

The graph of y = f (x) is shown on the right. y

The graph is symmetric about the line x = μ, 1
1
and has a maximum value of √ , which σ 2π
σ 2π
occurs when x = μ.

x
μ
Thus the location of the curve is determined by y
the value of μ, and the steepness of the curve by σ2
σ1
the value of σ. μ1 < μ 2
σ 1 = σ2
x
μ1 μ2

y
σ1
μ1= μ2 = μ
σ2 σ1 < σ2
x
μ

Irrespective of the values of the mean and standard deviation of a particular normal density
function, the area under the curve within a given number of standard deviations from the
mean is always the same.

Example 1
On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of the probability density functions of
the standard normal distribution and the normal distribution with:
a mean 1 and standard deviation 1
b mean 1 and standard deviation 2.
(A calculator can be used to help.)

Solution
a The graph has been translated 1 unit in y
the positive direction of the x-axis.

x
1

1 1 2 1 1
The rules of the two density functions are y = √ e− 2 x and y = √ e− 2 (x−1) .
2

2π 2π

b The graph has been dilated from y

the y-axis by factor 2 and from
the x-axis by factor 12 , and then
translated 1 unit in the positive
direction of the x-axis.
x
O 1
2
1 1 2 1 1 x−1
−
The rules of the two density functions are y = √ e− 2 x and y = √ e 2 2 .
2π 2 2π

Exercise 14A

Example 1 1 Both the random variables X1 and X2 are normally distributed, with means μ1 and μ2
and standard deviations σ1 and σ2 , respectively. If μ1 < μ2 and σ1 < σ2 , sketch both
distributions on the same diagram.

2 Which of the following data distributions are approximately normally distributed?

a % b %
20 60
16 50
12 40
30
8 20
4 10
0 100120 140 160 180 200 0
Weight 10 20 30 40 50 60 Age
c %

20
15
10
5
0
50 60 70 80 90 100 Height

3 Consider the normal probability density function:

2
1 1 x−2
−2 3
f (x) = √ e , x∈R
3 2π
∞
a Use your calculator to ﬁnd −∞ f (x) dx.
b i Express E(X) as an integral.
ii Use your calculator to evaluate the integral found in i.
c i Write down an expression for E(X 2 ). ii What is the value of E(X 2 )?
iii What is the value of σ?

4 Consider the normal probability density function:

2
1 1 x+4
−2 5
f (x) = √ e , x∈R
5 2π
∞
a Use your calculator to ﬁnd −∞ f (x) dx.
b i Express E(X) as an integral.
ii Use your calculator to evaluate the integral found in i.
c i Write down an expression for E(X 2 ).
ii What is the value of E(X 2 )?
iii What is the value of σ?

5 The probability density function of a normal random variable X is given by

2
1 1 x−3
− 2 10
f (x) = √ e
10 2π
a Write down the mean and the standard deviation of X.
b Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

6 The probability density function of a normal random variable X is given by

1 1
f (x) = √ e− 2 (x+3)
2

2π
a Write down the mean and the standard deviation of X.
b Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

7 The probability density function of a normal random variable X is given by

1 1 x 2
f (x) = √ e− 2 3
18π
a Write down the mean and the standard deviation of X.
b Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

8 Describe the sequence of transformations which takes the graph of the probability
density function of the standard normal distribution to the graph of the probability
density function of the normal distribution with:
a μ = 3 and σ = 2 b μ = 3 and σ = 1
2 c μ = −3 and σ = 2

9 Describe the sequence of transformations which takes the graph of the probability
density function of the normal distribution with the given mean and standard deviation
to the graph of the probability density function of the standard normal distribution:
a μ = 3 and σ = 2 b μ = 3 and σ = 1
2 c μ = −3 and σ = 2

14B Standardisation and the 68–95–99.7% rule

For a set of data values that are normally distributed, approximately 68% of the values will lie
within one standard deviation of the mean, approximately 95% of the values will lie within
two standard deviations of the mean, and almost all (99.7%) within three standard deviations.
This gives rise to what is known as the 68–95–99.7% rule.

The 68–95–99.7% rule

For a normally distributed random variable, approximately:
68% of the values lie within
one standard deviation of the mean
68%

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Number of standard deviations from mean

95% of the values lie within

two standard deviations of the mean
95%

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Number of standard deviations from mean

99.7% of the values lie within

three standard deviations of the mean.

99.7%

-4 -3 -2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Number of standard deviations from mean

If we know that a random variable is approximately normally distributed, and we know its
mean and standard deviation, then we can use the 68–95–99.7% rule to quickly make some
important statements about the way in which the data values are distributed.

Example 2
Experience has shown that the scores obtained on a commonly used IQ test can be
assumed to be normally distributed with mean μ = 100 and standard deviation σ = 15.
Approximately what percentage of the distribution lies within one, two or three standard
deviations of the mean?
Solution
Since the scores are normally
distributed with μ = 100 and σ = 15,
the 68–95–99.7% rule means that
m = 100
approximately: s = 15
68% of the scores will lie
between 85 and 115
40 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 160
95% of the scores will lie IQ scores
between 70 and 130
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
99.7% of the scores will lie
Number of standard deviations from mean
between 55 and 145.

Note: In this example, we are using a continuous distribution to model a discrete situation.
Statements can also be made about the percentage of scores that lie in the tails of the
distribution, by using the symmetry of the distribution and noting that the total area under the
curve is 100%.

Example 3
From Example 2, we know that 95% of the scores in the IQ distribution lie between 70
and 130 (that is, within two standard deviations of the mean). What percentage of the
scores are more than two standard deviations above or below the mean (in this instance,
less than 70 or greater than 130)?

Solution
If we focus our attention on the tails of
the distribution, we see that 5% of the
IQ scores lie outside this region.
2.5% 95% 2.5%
Using the symmetry of the distribution,
we can say that 2.5% of the scores are
below 70, and 2.5% are above 130. 40 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 160
IQ scores
That is, if you obtained a score greater
than 130 on this test, you would be in -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Number of standard deviations from mean
the top 2.5% of the group.

Standardised values
Clearly, the standard deviation is a natural measuring stick for normally distributed data. For
example, a person who obtained a score of 112 on an IQ test with a mean of μ = 100 and a
standard deviation of σ = 15 is less than one standard deviation from the mean. Their score is
typical of the group as a whole, as it lies well within the middle 68% of scores. In contrast,
a person who scored 133 has done exceptionally well; their score is more than two standard
deviations from the mean and this puts them in the top 2.5%.
Because of the additional insight provided, it is usual to convert normally distributed data to a
new set of units which shows the number of standard deviations each data value lies from the
mean of the distribution. These new values are called standardised values or z-values. To
standardise a data value x, we ﬁrst subtract the mean μ of the normal random variable from
the value and then divide the result by the standard deviation σ. That is,

data value − mean of the normal curve

standardised value =
standard deviation of the normal curve

or symbolically,

x−μ
z=
σ

Standardised values can be positive or negative:

A positive z-value indicates that the data value it represents lies above the mean.
A negative z-value indicates that the data value lies below the mean.
For example, an IQ score of 90 lies below the mean and has a standardised value of
x − μ 90 − 100 −10
z= = = ≈ −0.67
σ 15 15
There are as many diﬀerent normal
curves as there are values of μ and σ. normal
But if the measurement scale is m = 100
changed to ‘standard deviations from s = 15
the mean’ or z-values, all normal 40 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 160
curves reduce to the same normal IQ scores
curve with mean μ = 0 and standard
deviation σ = 1.
The ﬁgures on the right show how
standardising IQ scores transforms standard
normal
a normal distribution with mean
s=1
μ = 100 and standard deviation
σ = 15 into the standard normal -4 -3 -2 0 -1 1 2 3 4
distribution with mean μ = 0 and z-values
standard deviation σ = 1. Number of standard deviations from mean

Exercise 14B

Example 2 1 The scores obtained on an IQ test can be assumed to be normally distributed with mean
μ = 100 and standard deviation σ = 15. What percentage of scores lie:
a above 115 b below 85
c above 130 d below 70?

2 State the values of the mean and standard deviation of the normal distributions shown:
a b

120 125 130 135 140 145 150 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Example 3 3 The heights of young women are normally distributed with mean μ = 160 cm and
standard deviation σ = 8 cm. What percentage of the women would you expect to
have heights:
a between 152 cm and 168 cm
b greater than 168 cm
c less than 136 cm?

4 Fill in the blanks in the following paragraph.

The age at marriage of males in the US in the 1980s was approximately normally
distributed with a mean of μ = 27.3 years and a standard deviation of σ = 3.1 years.
From this data, we can conclude that in the 1980s about 95% of males married
between the ages of and .

5 Fill in the blanks in the following statement of the 68–95–99.7% rule.

For any normal distribution, about:
68% of the values lie within standard deviation of the mean
% of the values lie within two standard deviations of the mean
% of the values lie within standard deviations of the mean.

6 If you are told that in Australian adults, nostril width is approximately normally
distributed with a mean of μ = 2.3 cm and a standard deviation of σ = 0.3 cm, ﬁnd the
percentage of people with nostril widths less than 1.7 cm.

7 The distribution of IQ scores for the inmates of a certain prison is approximately

normal with mean μ = 85 and standard deviation σ = 15.
a What percentage of the prison population have an IQ of 100 or higher?
b If someone with an IQ of 70 or less can be classiﬁed as having special needs, what
percentage of the prison population could be classiﬁed as having special needs?

8 The distribution of the heights of navy officers was found to be normal with a mean of
μ = 175 cm and a standard deviation of σ = 5 cm. Determine:
a the percentage of navy officers with heights between 170 cm and 180 cm
b the percentage of navy officers with heights greater than 180 cm
c the approximate percentage of navy officers with heights greater than 185 cm.

9 The distribution of blood pressures (systolic) among women of similar ages is normal
with a mean of 120 (mm of mercury) and a standard deviation of 10 (mm of mercury).
Determine the percentage of women with a systolic blood pressure:
a between 100 and 140 b greater than 130
c greater than 120 d between 90 and 150.

10 The heights of women are normally distributed with mean μ = 160 cm and standard
deviation σ = 8 cm. What is the standardised value for the height of a woman who is:
a 160 cm tall b 150 cm tall c 172 cm tall?

11 The length of pregnancy for a human is approximately normally distributed with a

mean of μ = 270 days and a standard deviation of σ = 10 days. How many standard
deviations away from the mean is a pregnancy of length:
a 256 days b 281 days c 305 days?

12 Michael scores 85 on the mathematics section of a scholastic aptitude test, the results of
which are known to be normally distributed with a mean of 78 and a standard deviation
of 5. Cheryl sits for a diﬀerent mathematics ability test and scores 27. The scores
from this test are normally distributed with a mean of 18 and a standard deviation of 6.
Assuming that both tests measure the same kind of ability, who has the better score?

13 The following table gives a student’s results in Biology and History. For each subject,
the table gives the student’s mark (x) and also the mean (μ) and standard deviation (σ)
for the class.
Standard Standardised
Mark (x) Mean (μ)
deviation (σ) mark (z)
Biology 77 68.5 4.9
History 79 75.3 4.1

Complete the table by calculating the student’s standardised mark for each subject, and
use this to determine in which subject the student did best relative to her peers.

14 Three students took diﬀerent tests in French, English and Mathematics:

Mark Mean Standard Standardised

Student Subject
(x) (μ) deviation (σ) mark (z)
French 19 15 4
Mary English 42 35 8
Mathematics 20 20 5
French 21 23 4
Steve English 39 42 3
Mathematics 23 18 4
French 15 15 5
Sue English 42 35 10
Mathematics 19 20 5

a Determine the standardised mark for each student on each test.

b Who is the best student in:
i French ii English iii Mathematics?
c Who is the best student overall? Give reasons for your answer.

14C Determining normal probabilities

A CAS calculator can be used to determine areas under normal curves, allowing us to ﬁnd
probabilities for ranges of values other than one, two or three standard deviations from the
mean. The following example is for the standard normal distribution, but the same procedures
can be used for any normal distribution by entering the appropriate values for μ and σ.

Example 4
Suppose that Z is a standard normal random variable (that is, it has mean μ = 0 and
standard deviation σ = 1). Find:
a Pr(−1 < Z < 2.5) b Pr(Z > 1)

Using the TI-Nspire

a Use > Probability > Distributions >
menu
Normal Cdf and complete as shown.
(Use tab or to move between cells.)

The answer is:

Pr(−1 < Z < 2.5) = 0.8351

b Use menu > Probability > Distributions >

Normal Cdf and complete as shown.
(The symbol ∞ can be found using ¹
or ctrl k.)

The answer is:

Pr(Z > 1) = 0.1587

Note: You can enter the commands and parameters directly if preferred. The commands
are not case sensitive.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Method 1
a In M, go to Interactive > Distribution >
Continuous > normCDf.
Enter the lower and upper bounds and tap OK .

Method 2
In Statistics , go to Calc > Distribution and select Normal CD. Tap Next .
Enter values for the lower and upper bounds. Tap Next to view the answer.
Select $ to view the graph with the answer.

a b

The calculator can also be used to determine percentiles of any normal distribution.

Example 5
Suppose X is normally distributed with mean μ = 100 and standard deviation σ = 6.
Find k such that Pr(X ≤ k) = 0.95.

Using the TI-Nspire

Use menu > Probability > Distributions >
Inverse Normal and complete as shown.

The value of k is 109.869.

Note: You can enter the command and parameters directly if preferred. The command is
not case sensitive.

Using the Casio ClassPad

Method 1
In M, go to Interactive > Distribution > Inverse
> InvNormCDf.
Set the ‘Tail setting’ as ‘Left’.
Enter the probability, 0.95, to the left of the
required value k.
Enter the standard deviation σ and the mean μ.
Tap OK .
Note: The tail setting is ‘Left’ to indicate that we
seek the value k such that 95% of the area lies
to the left of k for this normal distribution.

Method 2
In the Statistics application , go to Calc >
Inv. Distribution.
Select Inverse Normal CD and tap Next .
Set the ‘Tail setting’ as ‘Left’.
Enter the probability, 0.95, to the left.
Enter the standard deviation σ and the mean μ.
Tap Next to view the answer.
Select $ to view the graph with the answer.

Example 6
Suppose X is normally distributed with mean μ = 100 and standard deviation σ = 6.
Find c1 and c2 such that Pr(c1 < X < c2 ) = 0.95.

Solution
Examining the normal curve,
we see that there are (inﬁnitely)
many intervals which enclose an 0.95
area of 0.95. By convention, we 0.025 0.025
choose the interval which leaves
equal areas in each tail. x

To ﬁnd c1 using the inverse-normal facility of your calculator, enter 0.025 as the area.
To ﬁnd c2 , enter 0.975.
This will give the answer c1 = 88.240 and c2 = 111.760.

Symmetry properties y
Probabilities associated with a normal
distribution can often be determined by
using its symmetry properties.
Here we work with the standard normal
distribution, as it is easiest to use the
symmetry properties in this situation:
Pr(Z > a) = 1 − Pr(Z ≤ a)
Pr(Z < −a) = Pr(Z > a)
Pr(−a < Z < a) = 1 − 2 Pr(Z ≥ a)
z
-a a
= 1 − 2 Pr(Z ≤ −a) -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3

Exercise 14C

Example 4 1 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable (that is, it has mean μ = 0 and standard
deviation σ = 1). Find the following probabilities, drawing an appropriate diagram in
each case:
a Pr(Z < 2) b Pr(Z < 2.5) c Pr(Z ≤ 2.5) d Pr(Z < 2.53)
e Pr(Z ≥ 2) f Pr(Z > 1.5) g Pr(Z ≥ 0.34) h Pr(Z > 1.01)

2 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Find the following probabilities,

drawing an appropriate diagram in each case:
a Pr(Z > −2) b Pr(Z > −0.5) c Pr(Z > −2.5) d Pr(Z ≥ −1.283)
e Pr(Z < −2) f Pr(Z < −2.33) g Pr(Z ≤ −1.8) h Pr(Z ≤ −0.95)

3 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Find the following probabilities,

drawing an appropriate diagram in each case:
a Pr(−1 < Z < 1) b Pr(−2 < Z < 2) c Pr(−3 < Z < 3)
How do these results compare with the 68–95–99.7% rule discussed in Section 14B?

4 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Find the following probabilities,

drawing an appropriate diagram in each case:
a Pr(2 < Z < 3) b Pr(−1.5 < Z < 2.5)
c Pr(−2 < Z < −1.5) d Pr(−1.4 < Z < −0.8)

Example 5 5 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Draw an appropriate diagram and
then ﬁnd the value c such that Pr(Z ≤ c) = 0.9.

6 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Draw an appropriate diagram and

then ﬁnd the value c such that Pr(Z ≤ c) = 0.75.

7 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Draw an appropriate diagram and

then ﬁnd the value c such that Pr(Z ≤ c) = 0.975.

8 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Draw an appropriate diagram and

then ﬁnd the value c such that Pr(Z ≥ c) = 0.95.

9 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Draw an appropriate diagram and

then ﬁnd the value c such that Pr(Z ≥ c) = 0.8.

10 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Draw an appropriate diagram and

then ﬁnd the value c such that Pr(Z ≤ c) = 0.10.

11 Suppose Z is a standard normal random variable. Draw an appropriate diagram and

then ﬁnd the value c such that Pr(Z ≤ c) = 0.025.

12 Let X be a normal random variable with mean μ = 100 and standard deviation σ = 6.
Find:
a Pr(X < 110) b Pr(X < 105) c Pr(X > 110) d Pr(105 < X < 110)

13 Let X be a normal random variable with mean μ = 40 and standard deviation σ = 5.

Find:
a Pr(X < 48) b Pr(X < 36) c Pr(X > 32) d Pr(32 < X < 36)

14 Let X be a normal random variable with mean μ = 6 and standard deviation σ = 2.

a Find c such that Pr(X < c) = 0.95.
b Find k such that Pr(X < k) = 0.90.

15 Let X be a normal random variable with mean μ = 10 and standard deviation σ = 3.

a Find c such that Pr(X < c) = 0.50.
b Find k such that Pr(X < k) = 0.975.

16 The 68–95–99.7% rule tells us approximately the percentage of a normal distribution

which lies within one, two or three standard deviations of the mean. If Z is the standard
normal random variable ﬁnd, correct to two decimal places:
a a such that Pr(−a < Z < a) = 0.68 b b such that Pr(−b < Z < b) = 0.95
c c such that Pr(−c < Z < c) = 0.997

17 Given that X is a normally distributed random variable with a mean of 22 and a

standard deviation of 7, ﬁnd:
a Pr(X < 26) b Pr(25 < X < 27)
c Pr(X < 26 | 25 < X < 27) d c such that Pr(X < c) = 0.95
e k such that Pr(X > k) = 0.9 f c1 and c2 such that Pr(c1 < X < c2 ) = 0.95

18 Let X be a normal random variable with mean μ = 10 and standard deviation σ = 0.5.
Find:
a Pr(X < 11) b Pr(X < 11 | X < 13)
c c such that Pr(X < c) = 0.95 d k such that Pr(X < k) = 0.2
e c1 and c2 such that Pr(c1 < X < c2 ) = 0.95

14D Solving problems using the normal distribution

The normal distribution can be used to solve many practical problems.

Example 7
The time taken to complete a logical reasoning task is normally distributed with a mean of
55 seconds and a standard deviation of 8 seconds.
a Find the probability, correct to four decimal places, that a randomly chosen person will
take less than 50 seconds to complete the task.
b Find the probability, correct to four decimal places, that a randomly chosen person will
take less than 50 seconds to complete the task, if it is known that this person took less
than 60 seconds to complete the task.

Using the TI-Nspire

a Method 1
Use menu > Probability > Distributions >
Normal Cdf and complete as shown.
The answer is:
Pr(X < 50) = 0.2660

Method 2
You can also solve this problem in a Lists & Spreadsheet page and plot the graph. Use
menu > Statistics > Distributions > Normal Cdf and complete as shown below.

Pr(X < 50 ∩ X < 60)

b Pr(X < 50 | X < 60) =
Pr(X < 60)
Pr(X < 50) 0.2660
= = = 0.3624
Pr(X < 60) 0.7340

Using the Casio ClassPad

a Method 1
In M, go to Interactive > Distribution >
Continuous > normCDf.
Enter values for the lower and upper bounds,
the standard deviation and the mean. Tap OK .

Method 2
In , go to Calc > Distribution and
select Normal CD. Tap Next .
Enter the lower and upper bounds, the
standard deviation and the mean.
Tap Next to view the answer.
Select $ to view the graph with the answer.

b In M, select the fraction template.

Enter as shown and tap EXE .

When the mean and standard deviation of a normal distribution are unknown, it is sometimes
necessary to transform to the standard normal distribution. This is demonstrated in the
following example.

Example 8
Limits of acceptability imposed on the lengths of a certain batch of metal rods are
1.925 cm and 2.075 cm. It is observed that, on average, 5% are rejected as undersized and
5% are rejected as oversized.
Assuming that the lengths are normally distributed, find the mean and standard deviation
of the distribution.
Solution
It is given that Pr(X > 2.075) = 0.05 and Pr(X < 1.925) = 0.05.
Symmetry tells us that the mean is equal to
2.075 + 1.925
μ= =2
2
Transforming to the standard normal gives
2.075 − μ 1.925 − μ
Pr Z > = 0.05 and Pr Z < = 0.05
σ σ
The first equality can be rewritten as
2.075 − μ
Pr Z < = 0.95
σ
Use the inverse-normal facility of your calculator to obtain
2.075 − μ 1.925 − μ
= 1.6448 . . . and = −1.6448 . . .
σ σ
These equations confirm that μ = 2.
Substitute μ = 2 into the first equation and solve for σ:
2.075 − 2
= 1.6448 . . .
σ
∴ σ = 0.045596 . . .
Thus σ = 0.0456, correct to four decimal places.

Exercise 14D
Skillsheet
1 Suppose that IQ scores are normally distributed with mean μ = 100 and standard
Example 7 deviation σ = 15.
a What is the probability that a person chosen at random has an IQ:
i greater than 110
ii less than 75
iii greater than 130, given that they have an IQ greater than 110?
b To be allowed to join an elite club, a potential member must have an IQ in the
top 5% of the population. What IQ score would be necessary to join this club?

2 The heights of women are normally distributed with a mean of μ = 160 cm and a
standard deviation of σ = 8 cm.
a What is the probability that a woman chosen at random would be:
i taller than 155 cm
ii shorter than 170 cm
iii taller than 170 cm, given that her height is between 168 cm and 174 cm?
b What height would put a woman among the tallest 10% of the population?
c What height would put a woman among the shortest 20% of the population?

3 The results of a mathematics exam are normally distributed with mean μ = 50 and
standard deviation σ = 7.
a What is the probability that a student chosen at random has an exam mark:
i greater than 60
ii less than 75
iii greater than 60, given that they passed? (Assume a pass mark of 50.)
b The top 15% of the class are to be awarded a distinction. What mark would be
required to gain a distinction in this exam?

4 The lengths of a species of ﬁsh are normally distributed with a mean length of 40 cm
and a standard deviation of 4 cm. Find the percentage of these ﬁsh having lengths:
a greater than 45 cm b between 35.5 cm and 45.5 cm.

Example 8 5 The weights of cats are normally distributed. It is known that 10% of cats weigh more
than 1.8 kg, and 15% of cats weigh less than 1.35 kg. Find the mean and the standard
deviation of this distribution.

6 The marks of a large number of students in a statistics examination are normally

distributed with a mean of 48 marks and a standard deviation of 15 marks.
a If the pass mark is 53, ﬁnd the percentage of students who passed the examination.
b If 8% of students gained an A on the examination by scoring a mark of at least c,
ﬁnd the value of c.

7 The height of a certain population of adult males is normally distributed with mean
176 cm and standard deviation 7 cm.
a Find the probability that the height of a randomly selected male will exceed 190 cm.
b If two males are selected at random, ﬁnd the probability that both of their heights
will exceed 190 cm.
c Suppose 10 males are selected at random. Find the probability that at least two will
have heights that exceed 190 cm.

8 a Machine A is packaging bags of mints with a mean weight of 300 grams. The bags
are considered underweight if they weigh less than 295 grams. It is observed that, on
average, 5% of bags are rejected as underweight. Assuming that the weights of the
bags are normally distributed, ﬁnd the standard deviation of the distribution.
b In the same factory, machine B is packaging bags of liquorice. The bags from
this machine are considered underweight if they weigh less than 340 grams. It is
observed that, on average, 2% of bags from machine B are rejected as underweight.
Assuming that the weights are normally distributed with a standard deviation of
5 grams, ﬁnd the mean of the distribution.

9 The volume of soft drink in a 1-litre bottle is normally distributed. The soft drink
company needs to calibrate its filling machine. They don’t want to put too much soft
drink into each bottle, as it adds to their expense. However, they know they will be
fined if more than 2% of bottles are more than 2 millilitres under volume. The standard
deviation of the volume dispensed by the filling machine is 2.5 millilitres. What should
they choose as the target volume (i.e. the mean of the distribution)? Give your answer
to the nearest millilitre.

10 The weights of pumpkins sold to a greengrocer are normally distributed with a mean of
1.2 kg and a standard deviation of 0.4 kg. The pumpkins are sold in three sizes:

Small: under 0.8 kg Medium: from 0.8 kg to 1.8 kg Large: over 1.8 kg

a Find the proportions of pumpkins in each of the three sizes.

b The prices of the pumpkins are $2.80 for a small, $3.50 for a medium, and $5.00
for a large. Find the expected cost for 100 pumpkins chosen at random from the
greengrocer’s supply.

11 Potatoes are delivered to a chip factory in semitrailer loads. A sample of 1 kg of the

potatoes is chosen from each load and tested for starch content. From past experience it
is known that the starch content is normally distributed with a standard deviation of 2.1.
a For a semitrailer load of potatoes with a mean starch content of 22.0:
i What is the probability that the test reading is 19.5 or less?
ii What reading will be exceeded with a probability of 0.98?
b If the starch content is greater than 22.0, the potatoes cannot be used for chips, and
so the semitrailer load is rejected. What is the probability that a load with a mean
starch content of 18.0 will be rejected?

12 The amount of a certain chemical in a type A cell is normally distributed with a mean
of 10 and a standard deviation of 1. The amount in a type B cell is normally distributed
with a mean of 14 and a standard deviation of 2. To determine whether a cell is type A
or type B, the amount of chemical in the cell is measured. The cell is classified as
type A if the amount is less than a specified value c, and as type B otherwise.
a If c = 12, calculate the probability that a type A cell will be misclassified, and the
probability that a type B cell will be misclassified.
b Find the value of c for which the two probabilities of misclassification are equal.

14E The normal approximation to the binomial distribution

We saw in Chapter 12 that the shape of the binomial distribution depends on n and p. The
following plots show the binomial distribution for n = 10, 20, 50, 100 and p = 0.2, 0.5, 0.8.

n = 10, p = 0.2 n = 10, p = 0.5 n = 10, p = 0.8

0.30 0.25 0.30
0.25 0.20 0.25
0.20 0.15 0.20
0.15 0.15
0.10
0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 2 4 6 8 10 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

n = 20, p = 0.2 n = 20, p = 0.5 n = 20, p = 0.8

0.25 0.20 0.25
0.20 0.15 0.20
0.15 0.15
0.10
0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00 0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

n = 50, p = 0.2 n = 50, p = 0.5 n = 50, p = 0.8

0.14 0.12 0.14
0.12 0.10 0.12
0.10 0.08 0.10
0.08 0.06 0.08
0.06 0.06
0.04 0.04 0.04
0.02 0.02 0.02
0.00 0.00 0.00
0 5 10 15 20 15 20 25 30 35 30 35 40 45 50

n = 100, p = 0.2 n = 100, p = 0.5 n = 100, p = 0.8

0.10 0.08 0.10
0.07
0.08 0.06 0.08
0.06 0.05 0.06
0.04
0.04 0.03 0.04
0.02 0.02 0.02
0.01
0.00 0.00 0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 30 40 50 60 70 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

We can see that, if n is small and p is close to 0 or 1, these distributions are skewed.
Otherwise, they look remarkably symmetric. In fact, if n is large enough and p is not too
close to 0 or 1, the binomial distribution is approximately normal. Moreover, the mean and
standard deviation of this normal distribution agree with those of the binomial distribution.

In the ﬁgure opposite, the binomial distribution y

with n = 40 and p = 0.5 is plotted (the blue
points). This distribution has mean μ = 20 and
√
standard deviation σ = 10.
On the same axes, the probability density
function of the normal distribution with mean
√
μ = 20 and standard deviation σ = 10 is
drawn (the red curve).
We will see that this approximation has
important uses in statistics.
x
20

When is it appropriate to use the normal approximation?

If n is large enough, the skew of the binomial distribution is not too great. In this case, the
normal distribution can be used as a reasonable approximation to the binomial distribution.
The approximation is generally better for larger n and when p is not too close to 0 or 1.

If n is suﬃciently large, the binomial random variable X will be approximately normally

distributed, with a mean of μ = np and a standard deviation of σ = np(1 − p).
One rule of thumb is that:
Both np and n(1 − p) must be greater than 5 for a satisfactory approximation.

In the example shown in the ﬁgure above, we have np = 20 and n(1 − p) = 20. There are
ways of improving this approximation but we will not go into that here.

Example 9
A sample of 1000 people from a certain city were asked to indicate whether or not they
were in favour of the construction of a new freeway. It is known that 30% of people in this
city are in favour of the new freeway. Find the approximate probability that between 270
and 330 people in the sample were in favour of the new freeway.

Solution
Let X be the number of people in the sample who are in favour of the freeway. Then we
can assume that X is a binomial random variable with n = 1000 and p = 0.3.
Therefore

μ = np and σ= np(1 − p)
√
= 1000 × 0.3 = 1000 × 0.3 × 0.7
√
= 300 = 210

Thus
270 − 300 330 − 300
Pr(270 < X < 330) ≈ Pr √ <Z< √
210 210
≈ Pr(−2.070 < Z < 2.070)
≈ 0.9616

Note: When we calculate this probability directly using the binomial distribution, we ﬁnd
that Pr(270 ≤ X ≤ 330) = 0.9648 and Pr(270 < X < 330) = 0.9583.

Exercise 14E
In each of the following questions, use the normal approximation to the binomial distribution.

Example 9 1 A die is rolled 100 times. What is the probability that more than 10 sixes will be
observed?

2 If 50% of the voting population in a particular state favour candidate A, what is

the approximate probability that more than 156 in a sample of 300 will favour that
candidate.

3 A sample of 100 people is drawn from a city in which it is known that 10% of the
population is over 65 years of age. Find the approximate probability that the sample
contains:
a at least 15 people who are over 65 years of age
b no more than 8 people over 65 years of age.

4 A manufacturing process produces on average 40 defective items per 1000. What is the
approximate probability that a random sample of size 400 contains:
a at least 10 and no more than 20 defective items
b 25 or more defective items?

5 A survey of the entire population in a particular city found that 40% of people regularly
participate in sport. What is the approximate probability that fewer than 38% of a
random sample of 200 people regularly participate in sport?

6 An examination consists of 25 multiple-choice questions. Each question has four

possible answers. At least 10 correct answers are required to pass the examination.
Suppose that a student guesses the answer to each question.
a What is the approximate probability that the student will pass the examination?
b What is the approximate probability that the student guesses from 12 to 14 answers
correctly?

Chapter summary
A special continuous random variable X, called a normal random variable, has a
AS
probability density function given by
Nrich 2
1 1 x−μ
−2 σ
f (x) = √ e
σ 2π
where μ and σ are the mean and standard deviation of X.
In the special case that μ = 0 and σ = 1, this probability density function defines the
standard normal distribution. A random variable with this distribution is usually
denoted by Z.
The graph of a normal density function is a symmetric, bell-shaped curve; its centre is
determined by the mean, μ, and its width by the standard deviation, σ.
The 68–95–99.7% rule states that, for any normal distribution:
• approximately 68% of the values lie within one standard deviation of the mean
• approximately 95% of the values lie within two standard deviations of the mean
• approximately 99.7% of the values lie within three standard deviations of the mean.
If X is a normally distributed random variable with mean μ and standard deviation σ, then
to standardise a value x of X we subtract the mean and divide by the standard deviation:
x−μ
z=
σ
The standardised value z indicates the number of standard deviations that the value x lies
above or below the mean.
A calculator can be used to evaluate the cumulative distribution function of a normal
random variable – that is, to find the area under the normal curve up to a specified value.
The inverse-normal facility of a calculator can be used to find the value of a normal
random variable corresponding to a specified area under the normal curve.

Short-answer questions
1 Given that Pr(Z ≤ a) = p for the standard normal random variable Z, ﬁnd in terms of p:
a Pr(Z > a) b Pr(Z < −a) c Pr(−a ≤ Z ≤ a)

2 Let X be a normal random variable with mean 4 and standard deviation 1. Let Z be the
standard normal random variable.
a If Pr(X < 3) = Pr(Z < a), then a = .
b If Pr(X > 5) = Pr(Z > b), then b = .
c Pr(X > 4) =

3 A normal random variable X has mean 8 and standard deviation 3. Give the rule for
a transformation that maps the graph of the density function of X to the graph of the
density function for the standard normal distribution.

Review
4 Let X be a normal random variable with mean μ and standard deviation σ. If μ < a < b
with Pr(X < b) = p and Pr(X < a) = q, ﬁnd:
a Pr(X < a | X < b) b Pr(X < 2μ − a) c Pr(X > b | X > a)

5 Let X be a normal random variable with mean 4 and standard deviation 2. Write each of
the following probabilities in terms of Z:
a Pr(X < 5) b Pr(X < 3) c Pr(X > 5)
d Pr(3 < X < 5) e Pr(3 < X < 6)

In Questions 6 to 8, you will use the following:

Pr(Z < 1) = 0.84
Pr(Z < 2) = 0.98
Pr(Z < 0.5) = 0.69

6 A machine produces metal rods with mean diameter 2.5 mm and standard deviation
0.05 mm. Let X be the random variable of the normal distribution. Find:
a Pr(X < 2.55) b Pr(X < 2.5)
c Pr(X < 2.45) d Pr(2.45 < X < 2.55)

7 Nuts are packed in tins such that the mean weight of the tins is 500 g and the standard
deviation is 5 g. The weights are normally distributed with random variable W. Find:
a Pr(W > 505) b Pr(500 < W < 505)
c Pr(W > 505 | W > 500) d Pr(W > 510)

8 A random variable X has a normal distribution with mean 6 and standard deviation 1.
Find:
a Pr(X < 6.5) b Pr(6 < X < 6.5)
c Pr(6.5 < X < 7) d Pr(5 < X < 7)

9 Suppose that three tests were given in your mathematics course. The class means and
standard deviations, together with your scores, are listed in the table.

μ σ Your score
Test A 50 11 62
Test B 47 17 64
Test C 63 8 73

On which test did you do best and on which did you do worst?

10 Let X be a normally distributed random variable with mean 10 and variance 4, and let Z
be a random variable with the standard normal distribution.
a Find Pr(X > 10).
b Find b such that Pr(X > 13) = Pr(Z < b).

Multiple-choice questions
1 The diagram shows the graph of a y
normal distribution with mean μ and
standard deviation σ. Which of the
following statements is true?
A μ = 4 and σ = 3
B μ = 3 and σ = 4
C μ = 4 and σ = 2 x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
D μ = 3 and σ = 2
E μ = 4 and σ = 4

2 If Z is a standard normal random variable, then Pr(Z > 1.45) =

A 0.1394 B 0.8606 C 0.0735 D 0.9625 E 0.0925

3 If Z is a standard normal random variable and Pr(Z < c) = 0.25, then the value of c is
closest to
A 0.6745 B −0.6745 C 0.3867 D 0.5987 E −0.5987

4 The random variable X has a normal distribution with mean 12 and variance 9. If Z is a
standard normal random variable, then the probability that X is more than 15 is equal to
1
A Pr(Z < 1) B Pr(Z > 1) C Pr Z >
3
1
D 1 − Pr Z > E 1 − Pr(Z > 1)
3
5 If the actual length of an AFL game is normally distributed with a mean of 102 minutes
and a standard deviation of 3 minutes, then the percentage of games that last more than
110 minutes is approximately
A 96.2% B 81.3% C 2.7% D 18.7% E 0.38%

6 If the number of goals that the Eagles score in a match is a normally distributed random
variable with a mean of 16 and a standard deviation of 2, then in what percentage of
their matches (approximately) do they score from 10 to 22 goals?
A 5% B 16% C 68% D 95% E 99.7%

7 If X is a normally distributed random variable with mean μ = 6 and standard deviation

σ = 3, then the transformation which maps the graph of the density function f of X to
the graph of the standard normal distribution is
x − 3 x − 6 y x − 6
A (x, y) → , 6y B (x, y) → , C (x, y) → , 3y
6 3 3 3
y
D (x, y) → (3(x + 6), 3y) E (x, y) → 3(x + 6),
3

Review
8 The amount of water that Steve uses to water the garden is normally distributed with a
mean of 100 litres and a standard deviation of 14 litres. On 20% of occasions it takes
him more than k litres to water the garden. What is the value of k?
A 88.2 B 110.7 C 120.0 D 111.8 E 114.0

9 The marks achieved by Angie in Mathematics, Indonesian and Politics, together with
the mean and standard deviation for each subject, are given in the following table:

Subject Mark Mean (μ) Standard deviation (σ)

Mathematics 72 72 5
Indonesian 57 59 2
Politics 68 64 4

Which of the following statements is correct?

A Angie’s best subject was Politics, followed by Mathematics and then Indonesian.
B Angie’s best subject was Mathematics, followed by Politics and then Indonesian.
C Angie’s best subject was Politics, followed by Indonesian and then Mathematics.
D Angie’s best subject was Mathematics, followed by Indonesian and then Politics.
E Angie’s best subject was Indonesian, followed by Mathematics and then Politics.

10 Suppose that X is normally distributed with mean 11.3 and standard deviation 2.9.
Values of c1 and c2 such that Pr(c1 < X < c2 ) = 0.90 are closest to
A 5.5, 17.1 B 6.08, 16.52 C 15.02, 7.58 D 6.53, 16.07 E 5.62, 16.98

11 The volume of liquid in a 1-litre bottle of soft drink is a normally distributed random
variable with a mean of μ litres and a standard deviation of 0.005 litres. To ensure
that 99.9% of the bottles contain at least 1 litre of soft drink, the value of μ should be
closest to
A 0.995 litres B 1.0 litres C 1.005 litres D 1.015 litres E 1.026 litres

12 The gestation period for human pregnancies in a certain country is normally distributed
with a mean of 272 days and a standard deviation of σ days. If from a population of
1000 births there were 91 pregnancies of length less than 260 days, then σ is closest to
A 3 B 5 C 9 D 12 E 16

Extended-response questions
1 A test devised to measure mathematical aptitude gives scores that are normally
distributed with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. If we wish to categorise
the results so that the highest 10% of scores are designated as high aptitude, the
next 20% as moderate aptitude, the middle 40% as average, the next 20% as little
aptitude and the lowest 10% as no aptitude, then what ranges of scores will be covered
by each of these ﬁve categories?

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632 Chapter 14: The normal distribution
Review
2 If X is normally distributed with μ = 10 and σ = 2, ﬁnd the value of k such that
Pr(μ − k ≤ X ≤ μ + k) = 0.95

3 Records kept by a manufacturer of car tyres suggest that the distribution of the mileage
from their tyres is normal, with mean 60 000 km and standard deviation 5000 km.
a What proportion of the company’s tyres last:
i less that 55 000 km
ii more than 50 000 km but less than 74 000 km
iii more than 72 000 km, given that they have already lasted more than 60 000 km?
b The company’s advertising manager wishes to claim that ‘90% of our tyres last
longer than c km’. What should c be?
c What is the probability that a customer buys ﬁve tyres at the same time and ﬁnds that
they all last longer than 72 000 km?

4 The owner of a new van complained to the dealer that he was using, on average,
18 litres of petrol to drive 100 km. The dealer pointed out that the 15 litres per 100 km
referred to in an advertisement was ‘just a guide and actual consumption will vary’.
Suppose that the distribution of fuel consumption for this make of van is normal, with a
mean of 15 litres per 100 km and a standard deviation of 0.75 litres per 100 km.
a How probable is it that such a van uses at least 18 litres per 100 km?
b What does your answer to a suggest about the manufacturer’s claim?
c Find c1 and c2 such that the van’s fuel consumption is more than c1 but less than c2
with a probability of 0.95.

5 Suppose that L, the useful life (in hours) of a ﬂuorescent tube designed for indoor
gardening, is normally distributed with a mean of 600 and a standard deviation of 4.
The ﬂuorescent tubes are sold in boxes of 10. Find the probability that at least three of
the tubes in a randomly selected box last longer than 605 hours.

6 The amount of anaesthetic required to cause surgical anaesthesia in patients is normally

distributed, with a mean of 50 mg and a standard deviation of 10 mg. The lethal dose is
also normally distributed, with a mean of 110 mg and a standard deviation of 20 mg. If
a dosage that brings 90% of patients to surgical anaesthesia were used, what percentage
of patients would be killed by this dose?

7 In a given manufacturing process, components are rejected if they have a particular

dimension greater than 60.4 mm or less than 59.7 mm. It is found that 3% are rejected
as being too large and 5% are rejected as being too small. Assume that the dimension is
normally distributed.
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the distribution of the dimension, correct to
one decimal place.
b Use the result of a to ﬁnd the percentage of rejects if the limits for acceptance are
changed to 60.3 mm and 59.6 mm.

Review
8 The hardness of a metal may be determined by impressing a hardened point into the
surface of the metal and then measuring the depth of penetration of the point. Suppose
that the hardness of a particular alloy is normally distributed with mean 70 and standard
deviation 3.
a If a specimen is acceptable only if its hardness is between 65 and 75, what is the
probability that a randomly chosen specimen has an acceptable hardness?
b If the acceptable range of hardness was (70 − c, 70 + c), for what value of c would
95% of all specimens have acceptable hardness?
c If the acceptable range is the same as in a, and the hardness of each of 10 randomly
selected specimens is independently determined, what is the expected number of
acceptable specimens among the 10?
d What is the probability that at most eight out of 10 randomly selected specimens
have a hardness less than 73.84?
e The profit on an acceptable specimen is $20, while unacceptable specimens result in
a loss of $5. If $P is the profit on a randomly selected specimen, find the mean and
variance of P.

9 The weekly error (in seconds) of a brand of watch is known to be normally distributed.
Only those watches with an error of less than 5 seconds are acceptable.
a Find the mean and standard deviation of the distribution of error if 3% of watches
are rejected for losing time and 3% are rejected for gaining time.
b Determine the probability that fewer than two watches are rejected in a batch of 10
such watches.

10 A brand of detergent is sold in bottles of two sizes: standard and large. For each size,
the content (in litres) of a randomly chosen bottle is normally distributed with mean and
standard deviation as given in the table:

Mean Standard deviation

Standard bottle 0.760 0.008
Large bottle 1.010 0.009

a Find the probability that a randomly chosen standard bottle contains less than
0.75 litres.
b Find the probability that a box of 10 randomly chosen standard bottles contains at
least three bottles whose contents are each less than 0.75 litres.
c Using the results
E(aX − bY) = aE(X) − bE(Y)
Var(aX − bY) = a2 Var(X) + b2 Var(Y)
ﬁnd the probability that there is more detergent in four randomly chosen standard
bottles than in three randomly chosen large bottles. (Assume that aX − bY is
normally distributed.)

Sampling and
estimation

Objectives
To understand random samples and how they may be obtained.
To define the population proportion and the sample proportion.
To introduce the concept of the sample proportion as a random variable.
To investigate the sampling distribution of the sample proportion both exactly (for small
samples) and through simulation.
To use a normal distribution to approximate the sampling distribution of the sample
proportion.
To use the sample proportion as a point estimate of the population proportion.
To find confidence intervals for the population proportion.
To introduce the concept of margin of error, and illustrate how this varies both with level
of confidence and with sample size.

There is more to a complete statistical investigation than data analysis. First, we should
concern ourselves with the methods used to collect the data. In practice, the purpose of
selecting a sample and analysing the information collected from the sample is to make some
sort of conclusion, or inference, about the population from which the sample was drawn.
Therefore we want the sample we select to be representative of this population.
For example, consider the following questions:
What proportion of Year 12 students intend to take a gap year?
What proportion of people aged 18–25 regularly attend church?
What proportion of secondary students take public transport to school?
While we can answer each of these questions for a sample of people from the group, we
really want to know something about the whole group. How can we generalise information
gained from a sample to the population, and how conﬁdent can we be in that generalisation?
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15A Populations and samples 635

15A Populations and samples

The set of all eligible members of a group which we intend to study is called a population.
For example, if we are interested in the IQ scores of the Year 12 students at ABC Secondary
College, then this group of students could be considered a population; we could collect and
analyse all the IQ scores for these students. However, if we are interested in the IQ scores of
all Year 12 students across Australia, then this becomes the population.
Often, dealing with an entire population is not practical:
The population may be too large – for example, all Year 12 students in Australia.
The population may be hard to access – for example, all blue whales in the Paciﬁc Ocean.
The data collection process may be destructive – for example, testing every battery to see
how long it lasts would mean that there were no batteries left to sell.
Nevertheless, we often wish to make statements about a property of a population when data
about the entire population is unavailable.
The solution is to select a subset of the population – called a sample – in the hope that what
we ﬁnd out about the sample is also true about the population it comes from. Dealing with
a sample is generally quicker and cheaper than dealing with the whole population, and a
well-chosen sample will give much useful information about this population. How to select
the sample then becomes a very important issue.

Random samples
Suppose we are interested in investigating the eﬀect of sustained computer use on the
eyesight of a group of university students. To do this we go into a lecture theatre containing
the students and select all the students sitting in the front two rows as our sample. This
sample may be quite inappropriate, as students who already have problems with their
eyesight are more likely to be sitting at the front, and so the sample may not be typical of the
population. To make valid conclusions about the population from the sample, we would like
the sample to have a similar nature to the population.
While there are many sophisticated methods of selecting samples, the general principle of
sample selection is that the method of choosing the sample should not favour or disfavour
any subgroup of the population. Since it is not always obvious if the method of selection will
favour a subgroup or not, we try to choose the sample so that every member of the population
has an equal chance of being in the sample. In this way, all subgroups have a chance of being
represented. The way we do this is to choose the sample at random.

A sample of size n is called a simple random sample if it is selected from the population
in such a way that every subset of size n has an equal chance of being chosen as the
sample. In particular, every member of the population must have an equal chance of being
included in the sample.

To choose a sample from the group of university students, we could put the name of every
student in a hat and then draw out, one at a time, the names of the students who will be in
the sample.
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636 Chapter 15: Sampling and estimation

Choosing the sample in an appropriate manner is critical in order to obtain usable results.

Example 1
A researcher wishes to evaluate how well the local library is catering to the needs of a
town’s residents. To do this she hands out a questionnaire to each person entering the
library over the course of a week. Will this method result in a random sample?

Solution
Since the members of the sample are already using the library, they are possibly satisﬁed
with the service available. Additional valuable information might well be obtained by
ﬁnding out the opinion of those who do not use the library.
A better sample would be obtained by selecting at random from the town’s entire
population, so the sample contains both people who use the library and people who do not.

Thus, we have a very important consideration when sampling if we wish to generalise from
the results of the sample.

In order to make valid conclusions about a population from a sample, we would like the
sample chosen to be representative of the population as a whole. This means that all the
diﬀerent subgroups present in the population appear in the sample in similar proportions
as they do in the population.

One very useful method for drawing random samples is to generate random numbers using a
calculator or a computer.

Using the TI-Nspire

In a Calculator page, go to Menu >
Probability > Random > Seed and enter
the last 4 digits of your phone number.
This ensures that your random-number
starting point diﬀers from the calculator
default.
For a random number between 0 and 1, use
Menu > Probability > Random > Number.
For a random integer, use Menu >
Probability > Random > Integer.
To obtain ﬁve random integers between
2 and 4 inclusive, use the command
randInt(2, 4, 5) as shown.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In M, press the Keyboard button.
Find and then select Catalog by ﬁrst tapping at
the bottom of the left sidebar.
Scroll across the alphabet to the letter R.

To generate a random number between 0 and 1:

• In Catalog , select rand(.
• Tap EXE .

To generate three random integers between 1 and 6

inclusive:
• In Catalog , select rand(.
• Type: 1, 6)
• Tap EXE three times.

To generate a list of 10 random numbers between

0 and 1:
• In Catalog , select randList(.
• Type: 10)
• Tap EXE .
• Tap to view all the numbers.

To generate a list of 20 random integers between

1 and 30 inclusive:
• In Catalog , select randList(.
• Type: 20, 1, 30)
• Tap EXE .
• Tap to view all the integers.

Example 2
Use a random number generator to select a group of six students from the following class:

Denise Sharyn Miller Tom Steven

Matt Mark William David Jane
Teresa Peter Anne Sally Georgia
Sue Nick Darren Janelle Jaimie

Solution
First assign a number to each member of the class:

Denise (1) Sharyn (5) Miller (9) Tom (13) Steven (17)
Matt (2) Mark (6) William (10) David (14) Jane (18)
Teresa (3) Peter (7) Anne (11) Sally (15) Georgia (19)
Sue (4) Nick (8) Darren (12) Janelle (16) Jaimie (20)

Generating six random integers from 1 to 20 gives on this occasion: 4, 19, 9, 2, 13, 14.
The sample chosen is thus:
Sue, Georgia, Miller, Matt, Tom, David

Note: In this example, we want a list of six random integers without repeats. We do not add a
randomly generated integer to our list if it is already in the list.

The sample proportion as a random variable

Suppose that our population of interest is the class of students from Example 2, and suppose
further that we are particularly interested in the proportion of female students in the class.
This is called the population proportion and is generally denoted by p. The population
proportion p is constant for a particular population.

number in population with attribute

Population proportion p =
population size

Since there are 10 males and 10 females, the proportion of female students in the class is
10 1
p= =
20 2
Now consider the proportion of female students in the sample chosen:
Sue, Georgia, Miller, Matt, Tom, David
The proportion of females in the sample may be calculated by dividing the number of females
in the sample by the sample size. In this case, the proportion of female students in the sample
2 1
is = . This value is called the sample proportion and is denoted by p̂. (We say ‘p hat’.)
6 3

number in sample with attribute

Sample proportion p̂ =
sample size

Note that diﬀerent symbols are used for the sample proportion and the population proportion,
so that we don’t confuse them.
In this particular case, p̂ = 13 , which is not the same as the population proportion p = 12 .
This does not mean there is a problem. In fact, each time a sample is selected the number
of females in the sample will vary. Sometimes the sample proportion p̂ will be 12 , and
sometimes it will not.

The population proportion p is a population parameter; its value is constant.

The sample proportion p̂ is a sample statistic; its value is not constant, but varies from
sample to sample.

Example 3
Use a random number generator to select another group of six students from the same
class, and determine the proportion of females in the sample.

Solution
Generating another six random integers from 1 to 20 gives 19, 3, 11, 9, 15, 1.
The sample chosen is thus:
Georgia, Teresa, Anne, Miller, Sally, Denise
For this sample, we have
5
p̂ =
6

Since p̂ varies according to the contents of the random samples, we can consider the
sample proportions p̂ as being the values of a random variable, which we will denote by P̂.
We investigate this idea further in the next section.

Section summary
A population is the set of all eligible members of a group which we intend to study.
A sample is a subset of the population which we select in order to make inferences
about the population. Generalising from the sample to the population will not be useful
unless the sample is representative of the population.
A sample of size n is called a simple random sample if it is selected from the
population in such a way that every subset of size n has an equal chance of being
chosen as the sample. In particular, every member of the population must have an equal
chance of being included in the sample.
The population proportion p is the proportion of individuals in the entire population
possessing a particular attribute, and is constant.
The sample proportion p̂ is the proportion of individuals in a particular sample
possessing the attribute, and varies from sample to sample.
The sample proportions p̂ are the values of a random variable P̂.

Exercise 15A

Example 1 1 In order to determine the sort of ﬁlm in which to invest his money, a producer waits
outside a theatre and asks people as they leave whether they prefer comedy, drama,
horror or science ﬁction. Do you think this is an appropriate way of selecting a random
sample of movie goers? Explain your answer.

2 A market researcher wishes to ﬁnd out how people spend their leisure time. She
positions herself in a shopping mall and asks shoppers as they pass to ﬁll out a short
questionnaire.
a Do you think this sample will be representative of the general population? Explain.
b How would you suggest that the sample could be chosen?

3 To investigate people’s attitudes to control of gun ownership, a television station

conducts a phone-in poll, where people are asked to telephone one number if they are
in favour of tighter gun control, and another if they are against. Is this an appropriate
method of choosing a random sample? Give reasons for your answer.

4 A researcher wishes to select ﬁve guinea pigs at random from a large cage containing
20 guinea pigs. In order to select her sample, she reaches into the cage and (gently)
pulls out ﬁve guinea pigs.
a Do you think this sample will be representative of the general population? Explain.
b How would you suggest the sample could be chosen?

5 In order to estimate how much money young people spend on takeaway food, a
questionnaire is sent to several schools randomly chosen from a list of all schools in the
state, to be given to a random selection of students in the school. Is this an appropriate
method of choosing a random sample? Give reasons for your answer.

Example 2 6 Use a random number generator to select a random sample of size 3 from the following
list of people:
Karen Alexander Kylie Janet Zoe
Kate Juliet Edward Fleur Cara
Trinh Craig Kelly Connie Noel
Paul Conrad Rani Aden Judy
Lina Fairlie Maree Wolfgang Andrew

7 In a survey to obtain adults’ views on unemployment, people were stopped by

interviewers as they came out of:
a a travel agency b a supermarket c an employment-services centre.
What is wrong with each of the methods of sampling listed here? Describe a better
method of choosing the sample.

8 A marine biologist wishes to estimate the total number of crabs on a rock platform
which is 10 metres square. It would be impossible to count them all individually, so she
places a 1-metre-square frame at ﬁve random locations on the rock platform, and counts
the number of crabs in the frame. To estimate the total number, she will multiply the
average number in the frame by the total area of the rock platform.
a Explain how a random number generator could be used to select the ﬁve locations
for the frame.
b Will this give a good estimate of the crab population?

9 In order to survey the attitude of parents to the current uniform requirements, the
principal of a school selected 100 students at random from the school roll, and then
interviewed their parents. Do you think this group of parents would form a simple
random sample?

10 A television station carried out a poll to ﬁnd out if the public felt that mining should be
allowed in a particular area. People were asked to ring one number to register a ‘yes’
vote and another to register a ‘no’ vote. The results showed that 77% of people were in
favour of mining proceeding. Comment on the results.

11 A market-research company decided to collect information concerning the way people

use their leisure time by phoning a randomly chosen group of 1000 people at home
between 7 p.m. and 10 p.m. on weeknights. The ﬁnal report was based on the responses
of only the 550 people of those sampled who could be found at home. Comment on the
validity of this report.

12 In a certain school, 35% of the students travel on the school bus. A group of
100 students were selected in a random sample, and 42 of them travel on the school bus.
In this example:
a What is the population?
b What is the value of the population proportion p?
c What is the value of the sample proportion p̂?

13 Of a random sample of 100 homes, 22 were found to have central heating.

a What proportion of these homes have central heating?
b Is this the value of the population proportion p or the sample proportion p̂?

Example 3 14 Use a random number generator to select another group of six students from the class
listed below, and determine the proportion of females in the sample:
Denise (1) Sharyn (5) Miller (9) Tom (13) Steven (17)
Matt (2) Mark (6) William (10) David (14) Jane (18)
Teresa (3) Peter (7) Anne (11) Sally (15) Georgia (19)
Sue (4) Nick (8) Darren (12) Janelle (16) Jaimie (20)

15B The exact distribution of the sample proportion

We have seen that the sample proportion varies from sample to sample. We can use our
knowledge of probability to further develop our understanding of the sample proportion.

Sampling from a small population

Suppose we have a bag containing six blue balls and four red balls, and from the bag we take
a sample of size 4. We are interested in the proportion of blue balls in the sample. We know
6 3
that the population proportion is equal to = . That is,
10 5
p = 0.6
The probabilities associated with the possible values of the sample proportion p̂ can be
calculated either by direct consideration of the sample outcomes or by using our knowledge
of selections. Recall that

n n!
=
x x! (n − x)!
is the number of diﬀerent ways to select x objects from n objects.

Example 4
A bag contains six blue balls and four red balls. If we take a random sample of size 4,
what is the probability that there is one blue ball in the sample ( p̂ = 14 )?

Solution
Method 1
Consider selecting the sample by taking one ball from the bag at a time (without
replacement). The favourable outcomes are RRRB, RRBR, RBRR and BRRR, with

Pr {RRRB, RRBR, RBRR, BRRR}
4 3 2 6 4 3 6 2 4 6 3 2 6 4 3 2
= × × × + × × × + × × × + × × ×
10 9 8 7 10 9 8 7 10 9 8 7 10 9 8 7
4
=
35

Method 2
10
In total, there are = 210 ways to select 4 balls from 10 balls.
4
4 6
There are = 4 ways of choosing 3 red balls from 4 red balls, and there are = 6 ways
3 1
of choosing one blue ball from 6 blue balls.
Thus the probability of obtaining 3 red balls and one blue ball is equal to

4 6
×
3 1 24 4
= =
10 210 35
4

The following table gives the probability of obtaining each possible sample proportion p̂
when selecting a random sample of size 4 from the bag.

Number of blue balls in

0 1 2 3 4
the sample
Proportion of blue balls 1 1 3
0 1
in the sample, p̂ 4 2 4
1 24 90 80 15
Probability
210 210 210 210 210

We can see from the table that we can consider the sample proportion as a random
variable, P̂, and we can write:
1 1 24 1 90
Pr P̂ = 0 = Pr P̂ = = Pr P̂ = =
210 4 210 2 210
3 80 15
Pr P̂ = = Pr P̂ = 1 =
4 210 210
The possible values of p̂ and their associated probabilities together form a probability
distribution for the random variable P̂, which can summarised as follows:

1 1 3
p̂ 0 1
4 2 4
1 24 90 80 15
Pr(P̂ = p̂)
210 210 210 210 210

The distribution of a statistic which is calculated from a sample (such as the sample
proportion) has a special name – it is called a sampling distribution.

Example 5
A bag contains six blue balls and four red balls. Use the sampling distribution in the
previous table to determine the probability that the proportion of blue balls in a sample of
size 4 is more than 14 .

Solution
1 1 3
Pr P̂ > = Pr P̂ = + Pr P̂ = + Pr P̂ = 1
4 2 4
90 80 15
= + +
210 210 210
185
=
210
37
=
42

Sampling from a large population

Generally, when we select a sample, it is from a population which is too large or too diﬃcult
to enumerate or even count – populations such as all the people in Australia, or all the cows
in Texas, or all the people who will ever have asthma. When the population is so large, we
assume that the probability of observing the attribute we are interested in remains constant
with each selection, irrespective of prior selections for the sample.
Suppose we know that 70% of all 17-year-olds in Australia attend school. That is,
p = 0.7
We will assume that this probability remains constant for all selections for the sample.
Now consider selecting a random sample of size 4 from the population of all 17-year-olds
in Australia. This time we can use our knowledge of binomial distributions to calculate
the associated probability for each possible value of the sample proportion p̂, using the
probability function

4
Pr(X = x) = 0.7 x 0.34−x x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
x
The following table gives the probability of obtaining each possible sample proportion p̂
when selecting a random sample of four 17-year-olds.

Number at school in
0 1 2 3 4
the sample
Proportion at school
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
in the sample, p̂
Probability 0.0081 0.0756 0.2646 0.4116 0.2401

Once again, we can summarise the sampling distribution of the sample proportion as follows:

p̂ 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

Pr(P̂ = p̂) 0.0081 0.0756 0.2646 0.4116 0.2401

The population that the sample of size n = 4 is being taken from is such that each item
selected has a probability p = 0.7 of success. Thus we can deﬁne the random variable
X
P̂ =
4
where X is a binomial random variable with parameters n = 4 and p = 0.7. To emphasise this
we can write:

x 0 1 2 3 4
x
p̂ = 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
4
Pr(P̂ = p̂) = Pr(X = x) 0.0081 0.0756 0.2646 0.4116 0.2401

Note: The probabilities for the sample proportions, p̂, correspond to the probabilities for the
numbers of successes, x.
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15B The exact distribution of the sample proportion 645

Example 6
Use the sampling distribution in the previous table to determine the probability that, in
a random sample of four Australian 17-year-olds, the proportion attending school is less
than 50%.
Solution
Pr(P̂ < 0.5) = Pr(P̂ = 0) + Pr(P̂ = 0.25)
= 0.0081 + 0.0756
= 0.0837

The mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion

Since the sample proportion P̂ is a random variable with a probability distribution, we can
determine values for the mean and standard deviation, as illustrated in the following example.

Example 7
Use the probability distribution to determine the mean and standard deviation of the
sample proportion P̂ from Example 6.

p̂ 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

Pr(P̂ = p̂) 0.0081 0.0756 0.2646 0.4116 0.2401

Solution
By deﬁnition, the mean of P̂ is given by

E(P̂) = p̂ · Pr(P̂ = p̂)
= 0 × 0.0081 + 0.25 × 0.0756 + 0.5 × 0.2646 + 0.75 × 0.4116 + 1 × 0.2401
= 0.7
Similarly, by deﬁnition,
2
sd(P̂) = E(P̂2 ) − E(P̂)
We have
E(P̂2 ) = 02 × 0.0081 + 0.252 × 0.0756 + 0.52 × 0.2646 + 0.752 × 0.4116 + 12 × 0.2401
= 0.5425
Thus
√
sd(P̂) = 0.5425 − 0.72 = 0.2291

We can see from Example 7 that the mean of the sampling distribution in this case is
actually the same as the value of the population proportion (0.7). Is this always true? Can we
determine the mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion without needing to ﬁnd
the probability distribution?

If we are selecting a random sample of size n from a large population, then we can assume
that the sample proportion is of the form
X
P̂ =
n
where X is a binomial random variable with parameters n and p. From Chapter 12, the mean
and variance of X are given by
E(X) = np and Var(X) = np(1 − p)
Thus we can determine
X
E(P̂) = E
n
1
= E(X) since E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
n
1
= × np
n
=p
X
and Var(P̂) = Var
n
1 2
= Var(X) since Var(aX + b) = a2 Var(X)
n
1
= × np(1 − p)
n2
p(1 − p)
=
n

If we are selecting a random sample of size n from a large population, then the mean and
standard deviation of the sample proportion P̂ are given by
p(1 − p)
E(P̂) = p and sd(P̂) =
n
(The standard deviation of a sample statistic is called the standard error.)

Example 8
Use these rules to determine the mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion P̂
from Example 6. Are they the same as those found in Example 7?

Solution
E(P̂) = p = 0.7
p(1 − p) 0.7(1 − 0.7)
sd(P̂) = = = 0.2291
n 4
These are the same as those obtained in Example 7.

Example 9
Suppose that 70% of 17-year-olds in Australia attend school. If a random sample of
size 20 is chosen from this population, ﬁnd:
a the probability that the sample proportion is equal to the population proportion (0.7)
b the probability that the sample proportion lies within one standard deviation of the
population proportion
c the probability that the sample proportion lies within two standard deviations of the
population proportion.

Solution
a If the sample proportion is p̂ = 0.7 and the sample size is 20, then the number of school
students in the sample is 0.7 × 20 = 14. Thus
Pr(P̂ = 0.7) = Pr(X = 14)

20
= 0.714 0.36 = 0.1916
14
b We have
p(1 − p)
sd(P̂) =
n
0.7(1 − 0.7)
= = 0.1025
20
Since 0.7 − 0.1025 = 0.5975 and 0.7 + 0.1025 = 0.8025, we ﬁnd
Pr(0.5975 ≤ P̂ ≤ 0.8025) = Pr(11.95 ≤ X ≤ 16.05)
= Pr(12 ≤ X ≤ 16) since X takes integer values
= 0.7795

c Since 0.7 − 2 × 0.1025 = 0.495 and 0.7 + 2 × 0.1025 = 0.905, we ﬁnd

Pr(0.495 ≤ P̂ ≤ 0.905) = Pr(9.9 ≤ X ≤ 18.1)
= Pr(10 ≤ X ≤ 18)
= 0.9752

Section summary
The distribution of a statistic which is calculated from a sample is called a sampling
distribution.
X
The sample proportion P̂ = is a random variable, where X is the number of
n
favourable outcomes in a sample of size n.
The distribution of P̂ is known as the sampling distribution of the sample proportion.
When the population is small, the sampling distribution of the sample proportion P̂
can be determined using our knowledge of selections.

When the population is large, the sampling distribution of the sample proportion P̂
can be determined by assuming that X is a binomial random variable with parameters n
and p. In this case, the mean and standard deviation of P̂ are given by
p(1 − p)
E(P̂) = p and sd(P̂) =
n

Exercise 15B

Skillsheet 1 Consider a bag containing five blue and five red balls.
Example 4, 5 a What is p, the proportion of blue balls in the bag?
b If samples of size 3 are taken from the bag, without replacement, then a sample
could contain 0, 1, 2 or 3 blue balls. What are the possible values of the sample
proportion p̂ of blue balls associated with each of these samples?
c Construct a probability distribution table which summarises the sampling
distribution of the sample proportion of blue balls when samples of size 3 are taken
from the bag, without replacement.
d Use the sampling distribution from c to determine the probability that the proportion
of blue balls in the sample is more than 0.5. That is, find Pr(P̂ > 0.5).

2 A company employs a sales team of 20 people, consisting of 12 men and 8 women.

a What is p, the proportion of men in the sales team?
b Five salespeople are to be selected at random to attend an important conference.
What are the possible values of the sample proportion p̂ of men in the sample?
c Construct a probability distribution table which summarises the sampling
distribution of the sample proportion of men when samples of size 5 are selected
from the sales team.
d Use the sampling distribution from c to determine the probability that the proportion
of men in the sample is more than 0.7.
e Find Pr(0 < P̂ < 0.7) and hence ﬁnd Pr(P̂ < 0.7 | P̂ > 0).

3 A pond contains eight gold and eight black ﬁsh.

a What is p, the proportion of gold fish in the pond?
b Three fish are to be selected at random. What are the possible values of the sample
proportion p̂ of gold fish in the sample?
c Construct a probability distribution table which summarises the sampling
distribution of the sample proportion of gold fish when samples of size 3 are selected
from the pond.
d Use the sampling distribution from c to determine the probability that the proportion
of gold fish in the sample is more than 0.25.

4 A random sample of three items is selected from a batch of 10 items which contains
four defectives.
a What is p, the proportion of defectives in the batch?
b What are the possible values of the sample proportion p̂ of defectives in the sample?
c Construct a probability distribution table which summarises the sampling
distribution of the sample proportion of defectives in the sample.
d Use the sampling distribution from c to determine the probability that the proportion
of defectives in the sample is more than 0.5.
e Find Pr(0 < P̂ < 0.5) and hence ﬁnd Pr(P̂ < 0.5 | P̂ > 0).

Example 6 5 Suppose that a fair coin is tossed four times, and the number of heads observed.
a What is p, the probability that a head is observed when a fair coin is tossed?
b What are the possible values of the sample proportion p̂ of heads in the sample?
c Construct a probability distribution table which summarises the sampling
distribution of the sample proportion of heads in the sample.
d Use the sampling distribution from c to determine the probability that the proportion
of heads in the sample is more than 0.7.

6 Suppose that the probability of a male child is 0.5, and that a family has ﬁve children.
a What are the possible values of the sample proportion p̂ of male children in
the family?
b Construct a probability distribution table which summarises the sampling
distribution of the sample proportion of male children in the family.
c Use the sampling distribution from b to determine the probability that the proportion
of male children in the family is less than 0.4.
d Find Pr(P̂ > 0 | P̂ < 0.8).

7 Suppose that, in a certain country, the probability that a person is left-handed is 0.2. If
four people are selected at random from that country:
a What are the possible values of the sample proportion p̂ of left-handed people in
the sample?
b Construct a probability distribution table which summarises the sampling
distribution of the sample proportion of left-handed people in the sample.
c Find Pr(P̂ > 0.5 | P̂ > 0).

Example 7 8 Use the sampling distribution from Question 5 to determine the mean and standard
deviation of the sample proportion P̂ of heads observed when a fair coin is tossed
four times.

9 Use the sampling distribution from Question 6 to determine the mean and standard
deviation of the sample proportion P̂ of male children in a family of ﬁve children.

10 Use the sampling distribution from Question 7 to determine the mean and standard
deviation of the sample proportion P̂ of left-handed people when a sample of four
people are selected.
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650 Chapter 15: Sampling and estimation 15B

Example 8 11 Suppose that the probability of rain on any day is 0.3. Find the mean and standard
deviation of the sample proportion of rainy days which might be observed in the month
of June.

12 In a certain country, it is known that 40% of people speak more than one language. If
a sample of 100 people is selected, ﬁnd the mean and standard deviation of the sample
proportion of people who speak more than one language.

13 An examination consists of 100 multiple-choice questions, each with ﬁve possible

answers. Find the mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion of correct
answers that will be achieved if a student guesses every answer.

Example 9 14 Suppose that 65% of people in Australia support an AFL team. If a random sample of
size 20 is chosen from this population, ﬁnd:
a the probability that the sample proportion is equal to the population proportion
b the probability that the sample proportion lies within one standard deviation of the
population proportion
c the probability that the sample proportion lies within two standard deviations of the
population proportion.

15C Approximating the distribution of the sample proportion

In the previous section, we used our knowledge of probability to determine the exact
distribution of the sample proportion. Working out the exact probabilities associated with
a sample proportion is really only practical when the sample size is quite small (say less
than 10). In practice, we are rarely working with such small samples. But we can overcome
this problem by approximating the distribution of the sample proportion.
Suppose, for example, we know that 55% of people in Australia have blue eyes (p = 0.55)
and that we are interested in the values of the sample proportion p̂ which might be observed
when samples of size 100 are drawn at random from the population.
If we select one sample of 100 people and ﬁnd that 50 people have blue eyes, then the value
50
of the sample proportion is p̂ = = 0.5.
100
If a second sample of 100 people is selected and this time 58 people have blue eyes, then the
58
value of the sample proportion for this second sample is p̂ = = 0.58.
100
Continuing in this way, after selecting 10 samples, the values of p̂ that are observed might
look like those in the following dotplot:

0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65

It is clear that the proportion of people with blue eyes in the sample, p̂, is varying from
sample to sample: from as low as 0.44 to as high as 0.61 for these particular 10 samples.
What does the distribution of the sample proportions look like if we continue with this
sampling process?
The following dotplot summarises the values of p̂ observed when 200 samples (each of
size 100) were selected from a population in which the probability of having blue eyes
is 0.55. We can see from the dotplot that the distribution is reasonably symmetric, centred
at 0.55, and has values ranging from 0.43 to 0.67.

0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70

What does the distribution look like when another 200 samples (each of size 100) are selected
at random from the same population?
The following dotplot shows the distribution obtained when this experiment was repeated.
Again, the distribution is reasonably symmetric, centred at 0.55, and has values ranging
from 0.42 to 0.67.

0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70

It seems reasonable to infer from these examples that, while there will be variation in the
details of the distribution each time we take a collection of samples, the distribution of the
values of p̂ observed tends to conform to a predictable shape, centre and spread.
Actually, we already know from Chapter 14 that, when the sample size is large enough, the
distribution of a binomial random variable is well approximated by the normal distribution.
We have also seen that the rule of thumb for the normal approximation to the binomial
distribution to apply is that both np and n(1 − p) should be greater than 5.
The dotplots conﬁrm the reasonableness of the normality assumption with regard to the
sample proportion P̂, which can be considered to be a linear function of a binomial random
variable.

Repeated sampling can be investigated using a calculator.

Example 10
Assume that 55% of people in Australia have blue eyes. Use your calculator to illustrate
a possible distribution of sample proportions p̂ that may be obtained when 200 diﬀerent
samples (each of size 100) are selected from the population.

Using the TI-Nspire

To generate the sample proportions:
• Start from a Lists & Spreadsheet page.
• Name the list ‘propblue’ in Column A.
• In the formula cell of Column A, enter
the formula using Menu > Data >
Random > Binomial and complete as:
= randbin(100, 0.55, 200)/100

Note: The syntax is: randbin(sample size, population proportion, number of samples)
To calculate as a proportion, divide by the sample size.

To display the distribution of sample

proportions:
• Insert a Data & Statistics page ( ctrl I or
ctrl doc
).
• Click on ‘Click to add variable’ on the
x-axis and select ‘propblue’. A dotplot is
displayed.
Note: You can recalculate the random
sample proportions by using ctrl R
while in the Lists & Spreadsheet page.

To ﬁt a normal curve to the distribution:

• Menu > Plot Type > Histogram
• Menu > Analyze > Show Normal PDF
Note: The calculated Normal PDF, based on
the data set, is superimposed on the
plot, showing the mean and standard
deviation of the sample proportion.

Using the Casio ClassPad

To generate the sample proportions:
• Open the Statistics application .
• Tap the ‘Calculation’ cell at the bottom
of list1.
• Type: randBin(100, 0.55, 200)/100
• Tap Set .

Note: The syntax is: randBin(sample size, population proportion, number of samples)
To calculate as a proportion, divide by the sample size.

To display the distribution of sample proportions:

• Tap on the Set StatGraphs icon G, select the type ‘Histogram’ and tap Set .
• Tap on the graph icon y in the toolbar.
• In the Set Interval window, enter the values shown below and tap OK .

To obtain statistics from the distribution, select

Calc > One–Variable. Tap OK .

Note: The mean of the sample proportions, x̄,

estimates the population proportion.

When the sample size n is large, the sample proportion P̂ has an approximately normal
p(1 − p)
distribution, with mean μ = p and standard deviation σ = .
n

Thus, when samples of size n = 100 are selected from a population in which the proportion
of people with blue eyes is p = 0.55, the distribution of the sample proportion P̂ is
approximately normal, with mean and standard deviation given by
0.55 × 0.45
μ = E(P̂) = 0.55 and σ = sd(P̂) = = 0.0497
100

Example 11
Assume that 60% of people have a driver’s licence. Using the normal approximation,
ﬁnd the approximate probability that, in a randomly selected sample of size 200, more
than 65% of people have a driver’s licence.

Solution
Here n = 200 and p = 0.6. Since n is large, the distribution of P̂ is approximately normal,
with mean μ = p = 0.6 and standard deviation
0.6(1 − 0.6)
σ= = 0.0346
200
Thus the probability that more than 65% of people in the sample have a driver’s licence is
Pr(P̂ > 0.65) = 0.0745 (correct to four decimal places)

Section summary
When the sample size n is large, the sample proportion P̂ has an approximately normal
p(1 − p)
distribution, with mean μ = p and standard deviation σ = .
n

Exercise 15C
In each of the following questions, use the normal approximation to the binomial distribution.

Example 11 1 Find the approximate probability that, in the next 50 tosses of a fair coin, the proportion
of heads observed will be less than or equal to 0.46.

2 In a large city, 12% of the workforce are unemployed. If 300 people from the workforce
are selected at random, ﬁnd the approximate probability that more than 10% of the
people surveyed are unemployed.

3 It is known that on average 50% of the children born at a particular hospital are female.
Find the approximate probability that more than 60% of the next 25 children born at
that hospital will be female.

4 A car manufacturer expects 10% of cars produced to require minor adjustments before
they are certiﬁed as ready for sale. What is the approximate probability that more than
15% of the next 200 cars inspected will require minor adjustments?

5 Past records show that on average 30% of the workers at a particular company have had
one or more accidents in the workplace. What is the approximate probability that less
than 20% of a random sample of 50 workers have had one or more accidents?

6 Sacha is shooting at a target which she has a probability of 0.6 of hitting. What is the
approximate probability that:
a the proportion of times she hits the target in her next 100 attempts is less than 0.8
b the proportion of times she hits the target in her next 100 attempts is between 0.6
and 0.8
c the proportion of times she hits the target in her next 100 attempts is between 0.7
and 0.8, given that it is more than 0.6?

7 Find the approximate probability that, in the next 100 tosses of a fair coin, the
proportion of heads will be between 0.4 and 0.6.

8 A machine has a probability of 0.1 of producing a defective item.

a What is the approximate probability that, in the next batch of 1000 items produced,
the proportion of defective items will be between 0.08 and 0.12?
b What is the approximate probability that, in the next batch of 1000 items produced,
the proportion of defective items will be between 0.08 and 0.12, given that we know
that it is greater than 0.10?

9 The proportion of voters in the population who favour Candidate A is 52%. Of a

random sample of 400 voters, 230 indicated that they would vote for Candidate A at the
next election.
a What is the value of the sample proportion, p̂?
b Find the approximate probability that, in a random sample of 400 voters, the
proportion who favour Candidate A is greater than or equal to the value of p̂
observed in this particular sample.

10 A manufacturer claims that 90% of their batteries will last more than 100 hours. Of a
random sample of 250 batteries, 212 lasted more than 100 hours.
a What is the value of the sample proportion, p̂?
b Find the approximate probability that, in a random sample of 250 batteries, the
proportion lasting more than 100 hours is less than or equal to the value of p̂
observed in this particular sample.
c Does your answer to b cause you to doubt the manufacturer’s claim?

15D Confidence intervals for the population proportion

In practice, the reason we analyse samples is to further our understanding of the population
from which they are drawn. That is, we know what is in the sample, and from that knowledge
we would like to infer something about the population.

Point estimates
Suppose, for example, we wish to know the proportion of primary school children in
Australia who regularly use social media. The value of the population proportion p is
unknown. As already mentioned, collecting information about the whole population is
generally not feasible, and so a random sample must suﬃce. What information can be
obtained from a single sample? Certainly, the sample proportion p̂ gives some indication of
the value of the population proportion p, and can be used when we have no other information.

The value of the sample proportion p̂ can be used to estimate the population proportion p.
Since this is a single-valued estimate, it is called a point estimate of p.

Thus, if we select a random sample of 20 Australian primary school children and ﬁnd that the
proportion who use social media is 0.7, then the value p̂ = 0.7 serves as an estimate of the
unknown population proportion p.

Interval estimates
The value of the sample proportion p̂ obtained from a single sample is going to change
from sample to sample, and while sometimes the value will be close to the population
proportion p, at other times it will not. To use a single value to estimate p can be rather risky.
What is required is an interval that we are reasonably sure contains the parameter value p.

An interval estimate for the population proportion p is called a conﬁdence interval

for p.

We have already seen that, when the sample size n is large, the sample proportion P̂ has an
p(1 − p)
approximately normal distribution with μ = p and σ = .
n
By standardising, we can say that the distribution of the random variable
P̂ − p
p(1−p)
n
is approximated by that of a standard normal random variable Z.
We know that Pr(−1.96 < Z < 1.96) = 0.95, correct to two decimal places, and therefore

P̂ − p
Pr −1.96 < < 1.96 ≈ 0.95
p(1−p)
n
Multiplying through gives

p(1 − p) p(1 − p)
Pr −1.96 < P̂ − p < 1.96 ≈ 0.95
n n
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15D Confidence intervals for the population proportion 657

Further simplifying, we obtain

p(1 − p) p(1 − p)
Pr P̂ − 1.96 < p < P̂ + 1.96 ≈ 0.95
n n
Remember that what we want to do is to use the value of the sample proportion p̂ obtained
from a single sample to calculate an interval that we are fairly certain (say 95% certain)
contains the true population proportion p (which we do not know).
In order to do this, we need to make one further approximation, and substitute p̂ for p in our
estimate of the standard deviation σ of P̂.

An approximate 95% conﬁdence interval for p is given by

p̂(1 − p̂) p̂(1 − p̂)
p̂ − 1.96 , p̂ + 1.96
n n
where:
p is the population proportion (unknown)
p̂ is a value of the sample proportion
n is the size of the sample from which p̂ was calculated.

Note: In order to use this rule to calculate a conﬁdence interval, the criteria for the normal
approximation to the binomial distribution must apply. Therefore, from Chapter 14,
we require both np and n(1 − p) to be greater than 5.

Example 12
Find an approximate 95% conﬁdence interval for the proportion p of primary school
children in Australia who regularly use social media, if we select a random sample of
20 children and ﬁnd the sample proportion p̂ to be 0.7.

Solution
Since p̂ = 0.7 and n = 20, we have
p̂(1 − p̂) 0.7 × 0.3
= = 0.1025
n 20
and so a 95% conﬁdence interval for p is
(0.7 − 1.96 × 0.1025, 0.7 + 1.96 × 0.1025) = (0.499, 0.901)
Thus, based on a sample of size 20 and a sample estimate of 0.7, an approximate
95% conﬁdence interval for the population proportion p is (0.499, 0.901).

Interpretation of confidence intervals

The confidence interval found in Example 12 should not be interpreted as meaning that
Pr(0.499 < p < 0.901) = 0.95. In fact, such a statement is meaningless, as p is a constant and
either does or does not lie in the stated interval.
The particular confidence interval found is just one of any number of confidence intervals
which could be found for the population proportion p, each one depending on the particular
value of the sample proportion p̂.
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658 Chapter 15: Sampling and estimation

The correct interpretation of the conﬁdence interval is that we expect approximately

95% of such intervals to contain the population proportion p. Whether or not the particular
confidence interval obtained contains the population proportion p is generally not known.
If we were to repeat the process of taking a sample and calculating a p
confidence interval many times, the result would be something like
that indicated in the diagram.
The diagram shows the confidence intervals obtained when
20 different samples were drawn from the same population. The round
dot indicates the value of the sample estimate in each case. The
intervals vary, because the samples themselves vary. The value of the
population proportion p is indicated by the vertical line, and it is of
course constant.
It is quite easy to see from the diagram that none of the values of the
sample estimate is exactly the same as the population proportion, but
that all the intervals except one (19 out of 20, or 95%) have captured
the value of the population proportion, as would be expected in the
case of a 95% confidence interval.

Using a calculator to determine confidence intervals

Example 13
A survey found that 237 out of 500 undergraduate university students questioned intended
to take a postgraduate course in the future. Find a 95% conﬁdence interval for the
proportion of undergraduates intending to take a postgraduate course.

Using the TI-Nspire

In a Calculator page:
Use Menu > Statistics > Confidence
Intervals > 1–Prop z Interval.
Enter the values x = 237 and n = 500
as shown.

The ‘CLower’ and ‘CUpper’ values give the

95% conﬁdence interval (0.43, 0.52).
Note: ‘ME’ stands for margin of error, which is
covered in the next subsection.

Using the Casio ClassPad

In , go to Calc > Interval.
Select One–Prop Z Int and tap Next .
Enter the values C-Level = 0.95, x = 237 and n = 500 as shown below. Tap Next .

The ‘Lower’ and ‘Upper’ values give the

95% conﬁdence interval (0.43, 0.52).

Precision and margin of error

In Example 12, we found an approximate 95% conﬁdence interval (0.499, 0.901) for the
proportion p of primary school children in Australia who use social media, based on a sample
of size 20. Therefore we predict that the population proportion p is somewhere in the range
of approximately 50% to 90%! But this interval is so wide as to be not very helpful.

Example 14
Find an approximate 95% conﬁdence interval for the proportion p of primary school
children in Australia who regularly use social media, if we select a random sample of
200 children and ﬁnd the sample proportion p̂ to be 0.7.

Solution
Since p̂ = 0.7 and n = 200, we have
p̂(1 − p̂) 0.7 × 0.3
=
n 200
= 0.0324
and so a 95% conﬁdence interval for p is
(0.7 − 1.96 × 0.0324, 0.7 + 1.96 × 0.0324) = (0.636, 0.764)
Thus, based on a sample of size 200 and a sample estimate of 0.7, an approximate
95% conﬁdence interval for the population proportion p is (0.636, 0.764).

Note: This interval is much narrower than the one determined in Example 12, which was
based on a sample of size 20.

Often we discuss the confidence interval in terms of its width or, more formally, in terms of
the distance between the sample estimate and the endpoints of the confidence interval.
That is, we find it useful to make statements such as ‘we predict the proportion of people who
will vote Labor in the next election as 52% ± 2%’. Here the sample estimate is 52%, and the
distance between the sample estimate and the endpoints is 2%.

The distance between the sample estimate and the endpoints of the conﬁdence interval is
called the margin of error (M). For a 95% conﬁdence interval,
p̂(1 − p̂)
M = 1.96
n

We can see from this rule that the margin of error is a function of the sample size n, and that
one way to make the interval narrower (that is, to increase the precision of the estimate) is to
increase the sample size.

Example 15
Determine the sample size required to achieve a margin of error of 2% in an approximate
95% conﬁdence interval for the proportion p of primary school children in Australia who
use social media, if the sample proportion p̂ is found to be 0.7.

Solution
Substituting M = 0.02 and p̂ = 0.7 in the expression for the margin of error gives
0.7 × 0.3
0.02 = 1.96
n
Solving for n:
0.02 2 0.7 × 0.3
=
1.96 n
1.96 2
∴ n = 0.7 × 0.3 × ≈ 2016.84
0.02
Thus, to achieve a margin of error of 2%, we need a sample of size 2017.

Of course, it is highly unlikely that we will know the value of the sample proportion p̂
before we have selected the sample. Thus it is usual to substitute an estimated value into the
equation in order to determine the sample size before we select the sample. This estimate
can be based on our prior knowledge of the population or on a pilot study. If we denote this
estimated value for the sample proportion by p∗ , we can write
p∗ (1 − p∗ )
M = 1.96
n
Rearranging to make n the subject of the equation, we ﬁnd
p∗ (1 − p∗ )
M 2 = 1.962
n
1.96 2
∴ n= p∗ (1 − p∗ )
M
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15D Confidence intervals for the population proportion 661

A 95% conﬁdence interval for a population proportion p will have margin of error
approximately equal to a speciﬁed value of M when the sample size is
1.96 2
n= p∗ (1 − p∗ )
M
where p∗ is an estimated value for the population proportion p.

Changing the level of confidence

So far we have only considered 95% confidence intervals, but in fact we can choose any
level of confidence for a confidence interval. What is the effect of changing the level
of confidence?
Consider again a 95% confidence interval:

p̂(1 − p̂) p̂(1 − p̂)
p̂ − 1.96 , p̂ + 1.96
n n
From our knowledge of the normal distribution, we can say that a 99% confidence interval
will be given by

p̂(1 − p̂) p̂(1 − p̂)
p̂ − 2.58 , p̂ + 2.58
n n

In general, a C% conﬁdence interval is given by

p̂(1 − p̂) p̂(1 − p̂)
p̂ − k , p̂ + k
n n
where k is such that
C
Pr(−k < Z < k) =
100

Example 16
Calculate and compare 90%, 95% and 99% conﬁdence intervals for the proportion p of
primary school children in Australia who regularly use social media, if we select a random
sample of 200 children and ﬁnd the sample proportion p̂ to be 0.7.

Solution
From Example 14, we know that the 95% confidence interval is (0.636, 0.764).
The 90% confidence interval is

0.7 × 0.3 0.7 × 0.3
0.7 − 1.64 , 0.7 + 1.64 = (0.647, 0.753)
200 200
The 99% confidence interval is

0.7 × 0.3 0.7 × 0.3
0.7 − 2.58 , 0.7 + 2.58 = (0.616, 0.784)
200 200

It is helpful to use a diagram to compare these conﬁdence intervals.

From the diagram, it can be clearly seen that
the effect of being more confident that the 99%
confidence interval captures the true value of 95%
the population proportion means that a wider 90%
interval is required.
0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80

In general, the width of the confidence interval (and hence the margin of error) will increase
as the level of confidence increases. To be more confident that the interval will capture the
true value of the population proportion, a wider confidence interval will be required.

Example 17
Suppose that we toss a fair coin 20 times, and determine the proportion of heads observed
in this sample. Suppose further that this is repeated 10 times.
a Use your calculator to generate 10 values of the sample proportion p̂ of heads in
20 coin tosses.
b Use your calculator to ﬁnd an approximate 90% conﬁdence interval for the population
proportion p from each of these values of the sample proportion p̂.
c How many of these intervals contain the value of the population proportion p?
d How many of these intervals would you expect to contain the value of the population
proportion p?

Solution
a One set of simulations gave the following values for p̂:
0.5 0.6 0.4 0.55 0.5
0.6 0.45 0.7 0.55 0.55
b Conﬁdence intervals based on these values of p̂ are
(0.32, 0.68) (0.42, 0.78) (0.22, 0.58) (0.37, 0.73) (0.32, 0.68)
(0.42, 0.78) (0.27, 0.63) (0.53, 0.87) (0.37, 0.73) (0.37, 0.73)
c Here we ﬁnd that 9 of the 10 intervals contain p = 0.5.
d On average, we would expect 0.9 × 10 = 9 intervals to contain the value of p.

Section summary
The value of the sample proportion p̂ can be used to estimate the population
proportion p. Since this is a single-valued estimate, it is called a point estimate of p.
An interval estimate for the population proportion p is called a conﬁdence interval
for p.

An approximate 95% conﬁdence interval for p is given by

p̂(1 − p̂) p̂(1 − p̂)
p̂ − 1.96 , p̂ + 1.96
n n
where:
• p is the population proportion (unknown)
• p̂ is a value of the sample proportion
• n is the size of the sample from which p̂ was calculated.
The distance between the sample estimate and the endpoints of the confidence interval
is called the margin of error (M) and, for a 95% confidence interval,
p̂(1 − p̂)
M = 1.96
n
A 95% confidence interval for a population proportion p will have margin of error
approximately equal to a specified value of M when the sample size is
1.96 2
n= p∗ (1 − p∗ )
M
where p∗ is an estimated value for the population proportion p.
In general, a C% confidence interval is given by

p̂(1 − p̂) p̂(1 − p̂)
p̂ − k , p̂ + k
n n
C
where k is such that Pr(−k < Z < k) = .
100

Exercise 15D
Skillsheet
1 A quality-control engineer in a factory needs to estimate the proportion of bags of
Example 12 potato chips packed by a certain machine that are underweight. The engineer takes a
random sample of 100 bags and ﬁnds that eight of them are underweight.
a Find a point estimate for p, the proportion of bags packed by the machine that are
underweight.
b Calculate a 95% conﬁdence interval for p.

2 A newspaper wants to estimate the proportion of its subscribers who believe that
the government should be allowed to tap telephones without a court order. It selects
a random sample of 250 subscribers, and ﬁnds that 48 of them believe that the
government should have this power.
a Find a point estimate for p, the proportion of subscribers who believe that the
government should be allowed to tap telephones without a court order.
b Calculate a 95% conﬁdence interval for p.

3 The lengths of stay in hospital among patients is of interest to health planners. A

random sample of 100 patients was investigated, and 20 were found to have stayed
longer than 7 days.
a Find a point estimate for p, the proportion of patients who stay in hospital longer
than 7 days.
b Calculate a 95% conﬁdence interval for p.

Example 13 4 Given that 132 out of 400 randomly selected adult males are cigarette smokers, ﬁnd a
95% conﬁdence interval for the proportion of adult males in the population who smoke.

5 Of a random sample of 400 voters in a particular electorate, 210 indicated that they
would vote for the Labor party at the next election.
a Use this information to find a 95% confidence interval for the proportion of Labor
voters in the electorate.
b A random sample of 4000 voters from the same electorate was taken, and this
time 2100 indicated that they would vote for Labor at the next election. Find a
95% confidence interval for the proportion of Labor voters in the electorate.
c Compare your answers to parts a and b.

6 A manufacturer claims that 90% of their batteries will last more than 50 hours.
a Of a random sample of 250 batteries, 212 lasted more than 50 hours. Use this
information to find a 95% confidence interval for the proportion of batteries lasting
more than 50 hours.
b An inspector requested further information. A random sample of 2500 batteries was
selected and this time 2120 lasted more than 50 hours. Use this information to find a
95% confidence interval for the proportion of batteries lasting more than 50 hours.
c Compare your answers to parts a and b.

Example 15 7 Determine the size of sample required to achieve a margin of error of 2% in an

approximate 95% conﬁdence interval when the sample proportion p̂ is 0.8.

8 Determine the size of sample required to achieve a margin of error of 5% in an

approximate 95% conﬁdence interval when the sample proportion p̂ is 0.2.

9 Samar is conducting a survey to estimate the proportion of people in Australia who

would support reducing the driving age to 16. He knows from previous studies that this
proportion is about 30%.
a Determine the size of sample required for the survey to achieve a margin of error
of 3% in an approximate 95% conﬁdence interval for this proportion.
b Determine the size of sample required for the survey to achieve a margin of error
of 2% in an approximate 95% conﬁdence interval for this proportion.
c Compare your answers to parts a and b.

10 Bob is thinking of expanding his pizza delivery business to include a range of desserts.
He would like to know the proportion of his clients who would order dessert from him,
and so he intends to ask a number of his clients what they think.
a Bob thinks that the proportion of his clients who would order dessert is around 0.3.
Determine the size of sample required for Bob to achieve a margin of error of 2% in
an approximate 95% confidence interval for this proportion.
b Bob’s business partner Phil thinks that the proportion of clients who would order
dessert is around 0.5. Determine the size of sample required to achieve a margin of
error of 2% in an approximate 95% confidence interval for this proportion.
c What is the effect on the margin of error if:
i Bob is correct, but they use the sample size from Phil’s estimate
ii Phil is correct, but they use the sample size from Bob’s estimate?
d What sample size would you recommend that Bob and Phil use?

Example 16 11 When a coin thought to be biased was tossed 100 times, it came up heads 60 times.
Calculate and compare 90%, 95% and 99% conﬁdence intervals for the probability of
observing a head when that coin is tossed.

12 In a survey of attitudes to climate change, a total of 537 people from a random

sample of 1000 people answered no to the question ‘Do you think the government
is doing enough to address global warming?’ Calculate and compare 90%, 95% and
99% conﬁdence intervals for the proportion of people in Australia who would answer
no to that question.

Example 17 13 Jelly beans are packed in boxes of 50, and the overall proportion of black jelly beans is
set by the manufacturer to be 0.2. Suppose that 10 boxes of jelly beans are selected at
random, and the proportion of black jelly beans in each box determined.
a Use your calculator to generate 10 values of the sample proportion p̂ of black jelly
beans in a box.
b Use your calculator to find an approximate 80% confidence interval for the
population proportion p from each of these values of the sample proportion p̂.
c How many of these intervals contain the value of the population proportion p?
d How many of these intervals would you expect to contain the value of the population
proportion p?
e Suppose that we generate 50 approximate 80% confidence intervals for p. How
many of these intervals would you expect to contain the value of the population
proportion p?

Review
The distance between the sample estimate and the endpoints of the confidence interval is
called the margin of error (M) and, for a 95% confidence interval,
p̂(1 − p̂)
M = 1.96
n
A 95% confidence interval for a population proportion p will have margin of error
approximately equal to a specified value of M when the sample size is
1.96 2
n= p∗ (1 − p∗ )
M
where p∗ is an estimated value for the population proportion p.

Short-answer questions
1 A company has 2000 employees, 700 of whom are female. A random sample of
100 employees was selected, and 40 of them were female. In this example:
a What is the population?
b What is the value of the population proportion p?
c What is the value of the sample proportion p̂?

2 To study the eﬀectiveness of yoga for reducing stress levels, a researcher measured the
stress levels of 50 people who had just enrolled in a 10-week introductory yoga course,
and then measured their stress levels at the end the course.
a Do you think that this sample will be representative of the general population?
Explain your answer.
b How would you suggest that the sample could be chosen?

3 A coin is tossed 100 times, and k heads observed.

a Give a point estimate for p, the probability of observing a head when the coin
is tossed.
b Write down an expression for a 95% conﬁdence interval for p.

4 A sample of n people were asked whether they thought that income tax in Australia was
too high, and 90% said yes.
a What is the value of the sample proportion p̂?
b Write down an expression for M, the margin of error for this estimate at the
95% conﬁdence level, in terms of n.
c If the number of people in the sample were doubled, what would be the eﬀect on the
margin of error M?

5 Suppose that 40 independent random samples are taken from a large population, and a
95% confidence interval for the population proportion p is computed from each sample.
a How many of the 95% confidence intervals would you expect to contain the
population proportion p?
b Write down an expression for the probability that all 40 confidence intervals contain
the population proportion p.
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Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
668 Chapter 15: Sampling and estimation
Review
6 Suppose that 50 independent random samples were taken from a large population, and
that a 90% confidence interval for the population proportion p was computed from each
of these samples.
a How many of the 90% confidence intervals would you expect to contain the
population proportion p?
b Write down an expression for the probability that at least 49 of the 50 confidence
intervals contain the population proportion p.

7 A newspaper determined that an approximate 95% conﬁdence interval for the

proportion of people in Australia who regularly read the news online was (0.50, 0.70).
a What was the value of p̂ which was used to determine this conﬁdence interval?
b What is the margin of error?
c How could the newspaper increase the precision of their study?

Multiple-choice questions
1 In order to estimate the ratio of males to females at a school, a teacher determines the
number of males and the number of females in a particular class. The ratio that he then
calculates is called a
A sample B sample statistic C population parameter
D population E sample parameter

2 In a complete census of the population of a particular community, it is found that

59% of families have two or more children. Here ‘59%’ represents the value of a
A sample B sample statistic C population parameter
D population E sample parameter

3 From a random sample, a 90% conﬁdence interval for the population proportion p is
found to be (0.7, 0.8). This means that
A the population proportion p = 0.75
B the probability that the population proportion p lies in the interval (0.7, 0.8) is 0.9
C the probability that the population proportion p lies in the interval (0.7, 0.8) is 0.1
D 90% of random samples lead to conﬁdence intervals which contain the population
proportion p
E none of these

4 A survey showed that 15 out of a random sample of 50 football supporters attend at

least one match per season. If this information is used to ﬁnd a 95% conﬁdence interval
for the proportion of all football supporters who attend at least one match per season,
then the margin of error will be
A 0.3 B 0.004 C 0.065 D 0.254 E 0.127

Review
5 Of a random sample of 50 golfers, four were found to play golf left-handed. A
95% conﬁdence interval for the proportion of golfers in the population who play
left-handed is given by
A (0.053, 0.107) B (0.026, 0.134) C (0.005, 0.155)
D (0.006, 0.154) E (0.075, 0.085)

6 Fourteen of a random sample of 88 people said they prefer to watch the news on a
particular channel. A 90% conﬁdence interval for the proportion of people in the
population who prefer to watch the news on that channel is given by
A (0.083, 0.236) B (0.083, 0.197) C (0.085, 0.233)
D (0.095, 0.223) E (0.120, 0.198)

7 If the sample proportion remains unchanged, then an increase in the level of conﬁdence
will lead to a conﬁdence interval which is
A narrower B wider C unchanged D asymmetric
E cannot be determined from the information given

8 Which of the following statements is true?

I The centre of a confidence interval is a population parameter.
II The bigger the margin of error, the smaller the confidence interval.
III The confidence interval is a type of point estimate.
IV A population proportion is an example of a point estimate.

A I only B II only C III only D IV only E none of these

9 If a researcher increases her sample size by a factor of 4, then the width of a

95% conﬁdence interval would
A increase by a factor of 2 B increase by a factor of 4 C decrease by a factor of 2
D decrease by a factor of 4 E none of these

10 The Education Department in a certain state wishes to determine the percentage

of teachers who are considering leaving the profession in the next two years. They
believe it to be about 25%. How large a sample should be taken to ﬁnd the answer to
within ±3% at the 95% conﬁdence level?
A 6 B 33 C 534 D 752 E 897

11 Which of the following statements is true?

A We use sample statistics to estimate population parameters.
B We use sample parameters to estimate population statistics.
C We use population parameters to estimate sample statistics.
D We use population statistics to estimate sample parameters.
E none of the above

Cambridge Senior Maths AC ISBN 978-1-316-63582-7 © Evans et al. 2017 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
670 Chapter 15: Sampling and estimation
Review
12 A sampling distribution can best be described as a distribution which
A gives the possible range of values of the sample statistic
B describes how a statistic’s value will change from sample to sample
C describes how samples do not give reliable estimates
D gives the distribution of the values observed in particular sample
E none of the above

13 A survey is conducted to determine the percentage of students in Year 12 who intend

to go straight to university after they ﬁnish secondary school. In a random sample
of 100 students, 78% indicated this intention. A 95% conﬁdence interval for the
percentage of students in Year 12 who intend to go straight to university is
A 68.2% to 87.8% B 68.5% to 87.5%
C 69.9% to 86.1% D 71.2% to 84.8%
E 73.9% to 82.1%

14 In Question 13, what is one way to decrease the width of the confidence interval?
A increase the sample size B use a smaller confidence level
C use a higher confidence level D both A and B are correct
E both A and C are correct

Extended-response questions
1 A survey is being planned to estimate the proportion of people in Australia who think
that university fees should be abolished. The organisers of the survey want the error in
the approximate 95% conﬁdence interval for this proportion to be no more than ±2%.
They have no prior information about the value of the proportion.
1.96 2
a Plot the sample size, n = p∗ (1 − p∗ ), against p∗ for 0 ≤ p∗ ≤ 1.
M
b For what value of p∗ is the sample size the maximum?
c What value of n would you recommend be used for the survey?
d Show that the maximum sample size required for the error in an approximate
1
95% conﬁdence interval to be no more than M is approximately n = 2 .
M

2 It is known that 60% of the voters in a particular electorate support the Liberal party.
A sample of 100 voters is taken. Let P̂ be the random variable for the sampling
distribution of the sample proportion. Use the normal approximation to ﬁnd:
a Pr(P̂ > 0.65)
b Pr(0.5 < P̂ < 0.65)

Review
3 a Summer is investigating the probability that a drawing pin will land point-up
when tossed. She tosses the drawing pin 100 times, and finds that it lands point-up
57 times. Determine an approximate 95% confidence interval for the probability that
the drawing pin lands point-up when tossed.
b Four of Summer’s friends decide to repeat her investigation, each tossing the
drawing pin 100 times. They each calculate an approximate 95% confidence interval
based on their own data, making five confidence intervals in all.
i What is the probability that all five confidence intervals contain the true value
of p, the probability that the drawing pin will land point-up when tossed?
ii What is the probability that none of the confidence intervals contain p?
iii What is the probability that at least one of the confidence intervals does not
contain p?
iv How many of these five confidence intervals would you expect to contain p?
c Summer’s four friends obtained the following results, each based on tossing the
drawing pin 100 times and counting the number of times that it lands point-up:
Emma 67 Chloe 72 Maddie 55 Regan 60
Summer suggests that the best estimate of p would be obtained by pooling their
results. Based on all the data collected, determine an approximate 95% confidence
interval for p.

4 A landscape gardener wishes to estimate how many carp live in his very large
ornamental lake. He is advised that the best way to do this is through capture–recapture
sampling.
a Suppose that there are N carp in the lake and he captures 500 of them, tags them and
then releases them back into the lake. Write down an expression for the proportion
of tagged carp in the lake.
b The next day, a sample of 400 carp is captured from the lake, and he finds that
there are 60 tagged carp in this sample. What is the proportion of tagged carp in the
second sample?
c If the second sample is representative of the population, we expect the proportion of
tagged carp in the second sample to be the same as the proportion of tagged carp in
the lake. That is,
60 500
≈
400 N
Use this equation to find an estimate for the number of carp in the lake.
d Show that an expression for a 95% confidence interval for the proportion of tagged
carp in the lake can be written as
0.1275 500 0.1275
0.15 − 1.96 < < 0.15 + 1.96
400 N 400
e Use this inequality to find an approximate 95% confidence interval for the number of
carp in the lake.

6 a D c Range = (−1, ∞) y
13
10 y = 2x + 2 −1
7
Answers

3
0 3 6 12 18 24 t
b { t : D(t) ≥ 8.5 } = [0, 7] ∪ [11, 19] ∪ [23, 24] −2
x
c 12.898 m 0 y = −1
7 a p=5 bD
d Range = (2, ∞) y
q=2 7 1
r = 30 0, 2
5 4
3
2
0 6 12 t x
0
c A ship can enter 2 hours after low tide
√ 2 a y
8 a i 25 3 ii 30
b 2.27, 0.53 d b = 8√ y = 3x
e θ = 0.927 or 1.837 f a = 4 3
9 c y = 2x
A
(0, 1) y = 0
(3, 5.196) x
0
π b y
x
0 y= 3x
d i 2.055 ii 0.858
iii 0.0738
π iv 0.0041 (0, 1)
y = 2x y=0
e nr tan x
n π 0
π
f i n sin cos
n n c y
ii A

A=π
(0, 1) y = 5x
(3, 1.3) y=0
x x
0 0 y = −5x
(0, 1)

Chapter 5 d y

Exercise 5A
1 a Range = (−2, ∞) y
y = 2x+1 −2 (0, 1) y = (1.5)x
y=0
2 x
0
x (0, −1) y = −(1.5)x
−1 −1 0 1
−2 3 a Range = (0, ∞) y
b Range = (−1, ∞) y

y = 2x − 3 −1
3 y = 3 × 2x

x
x 0
0 y = −1
3

Answers
b Range = (0, ∞) y c y d y

1 x
0 1 y=0
x
y= 1 × 5x 0
1 2
2
x Range = (−∞, 1) Range = R+
0 e f
y y
c Range = (0, ∞) y
3

5A
x
2 x 0
0 −1
y = 23x Range = (2, ∞) Range = (−1, ∞)
1 6 a Range = R+ y
x
0

d Range = (0, ∞) y
(0, 4) y = 0
x
0

x b Range = (−1, ∞) y
1 y = 23
x
0

4 a Range = (2, ∞) y x
0
−1
−x c Range = (1, ∞) y
3 y=3 +2
2
5
x
0

b Range = (−4, ∞) y 2
1
x
0 1 2
y = 2 5x − 4
x 7 a y b y
0 y = f(x) + 1
y = f(x + 1)
−3
(−1, 1) (0, 2) y= 1
(0, 2) y = 0
c Range = (−∞, −2) y x
0 x
0
x
0 c y d y
y = −2
y = f(−x) + 2 0
y = −10(x −2) − 2 (0, 3) x
y=2 y = –1
x (0, –2)
0
y = –f(x) – 1
5 a y b y e f
y y x
y=f 2
(0, 2) (1, 8) (2, 2)
(0, 1) y=0 1 x y = f(3x) (0, 1) y = 0 (0, 1) y=0
0 x x
x 0 0
0 Range = (1, ∞)
Range = R+

g y e Range = (3, ∞) y
y = 10x+1 + 3
y = 2 f(x − 1) + 1
(−1, 4) (0, 13)
Answers

(0, 2) y=3
y=1
x
x 0
0
f Range = (4, ∞) y
h y x

y = f(x − 2) y = 2 10 10 + 4
(10, 24)
(0, 6)
(2, 1) y=4
0, 1 y=0 x
4 x 0
0
9 a C1
8 a Range = (−1, ∞) y

y = 10x − 1
(100, 408.024)

x x
0 0
y=−1 b i $408.02 ii $1274.70
c 239 days
b Range = (1, ∞) x d ii 302 days
y 10
y = 10 + 1 10 36 days
11 a i y
y = 5x y = 3x
(10, 11) y = 2x
(0, 2)
y=1
x
0 (0, 1)
x
c Range = (−20, ∞) y 0
y = 2(10x) − 20 ii x < 0 iii x > 0 iv x = 0
b i x
1 y
y=
3 x
1
y=
x x 5
0 1
(1, 0) y=
(0, − 18) 2 (0, 1)
y = − 20 x
0
d Range = (−∞, 1) y ii x > 0 iii x < 0 iv x = 0
c i a>1 ii a = 1
y y
y=1 y = ax
y=1
x
0 (0, 1) 1 x
x
y = 1 − 10−x 0 0
iii 0 < a < 1
y

y = ax
(0, 1) x
0

Answers
Exercise 5B j y
1 a y b y
y = ex + 1 (1, 2)
(0, 2) (0, 2e−1)
y=1 y = 1 − ex y=1
x
x x 0
0 0
Range = (1, ∞) Range = (−∞, 1) Range = (0, ∞)
c d k y l y
y y

5B
y = e−2x y=2
y = 1 − e−x y=1
(0, 1) (0, 3e − 2) x
x x 0
0 x 0 (0, −1)
0 y = −2
Range = (−∞, 1) Range = (0, ∞) Range = (−2, ∞) Range = (−∞, 2)
e y 2 a Translation 2 units to the left and 3 units
down
y = ex−1 − 2 b Dilation of factor 3 from the x-axis, then
(0, e−1 − 2) translation 1 unit to the left and 4 units
0 down
x c Dilation of factor 5 from the x-axis and
factor 12 from the y-axis, then translation
y = −2 1
2
unit to the left
Range = (−2, ∞) d Reflection in the x-axis, then translation
f y 1 unit to the right and 2 units up
e Dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis,
y = 2ex reflection in the x-axis, then translation
2 units to the left and 3 units up
(0, 2) f Dilation of factor 4 from the x-axis and
x factor 12 from the y-axis, then translation
0
1 unit down
Range = (0, ∞) 3 a y = −2e x−3 − 4 b y = 4 − 2e x−3
g y c y = −2e − 4
x−3
d y = −2e x−3 − 8
y = 2(1 + ex) e y = 8 − 2e x−3
f y = −2e x−3 + 8
4 a Translation 2 units to the right and
(0, 4)
y=2 3 units up
b Translation 1 unit to the right and 4 units
x
0 up, then dilation of factor 13 from the x-axis
Range = (2, ∞) c Translation 12 unit to the right, then dilation
h of factor 15 from the x-axis and factor 2
y
from the y-axis
d Translation 1 unit to the left and 2 units
down, then reflection in the x-axis
y=2 e Translation 2 units to the right and 3 units
x down, then dilation of factor 12 from the
0 x-axis and reflection in the x-axis
y = 2(1 − e−x) f Translation 1 unit up, then dilation of
Range = (−∞, 2) factor 14 from the x-axis and factor 2 from
the y-axis
i y
5 a x = 1.146 or x = −1.841
b x = −0.443
y = 2e−x + 1 c x = −0.703
(0, 3)
d x = 1.857 or x = 4.536
y=1
x
0
Range = (1, ∞)

1
5C → 5E

6 a y b y 11 ,2
y = f(x) 4
y = f(−x) y = f(x) 2 3 8
12 N = =
3 27
1 y = f(x − 2) 1 y=f x
3 Exercise 5E
e −2
x x
0 0 1 a y

y = ln(3x)
Answers

Exercise 5C
6y2
1 a 6x6 y9 b 3x6 c d8 x
x2
5x 28 1
5 10 2
e 16 f 6 g 24x y h 2xy 3
y
2 2
i xy b y
1 1 3
2 a4 b c 8 d e f3
2 4 5 y = 4 ln(5x)
5
g h 6 i4
2
3
3 a1 b1 d3 c −
e −2 f 4
2
10 3 3 1 x
g − h − i6 j k± 1
3 2 5 2 5
4 a1 b2 c 1 d 1, 2 e 0, 1 c y
f 2, 4 g 0, 1 h −1, 2 i −1, 0

Exercise 5D y = 2 ln(4x)
1 a3 b −4 c −3 d 6 e6 f −7
2 a log10 6 b log10 4 c ln(10 ) = 6 ln 10
6
x
1 1
d ln 7 e ln = − ln 60
60 4
f ln(u3 v6 ) = 3 ln(uv2 ) g ln(x7 ) = 7 ln x d y
h ln 1 = 0
x
3 a x = 100 b x = 16 c x = 6 d x = 64 y = 3 ln 2 ()
e x = e3 − 5 ≈ 15.086 f x = 12 g x = −1
1 x
−3
h x = 10 = i x = 36 2
1000
4 a x = 15 b x = 5 c x=4
d x = 1 (x = − 12 is not an allowable solution)
e x = 32
5 a log10 27 b log24 = 2 2 a Domain = (3, ∞) y
a
1 a 10a Range = R x=3
c log10 = log10 d log10 1
2 b b
1 b3
e log10 = −3 log10 2
8
x
6 a1 b1 c 2 12 d3 e0 0 3 4
7 a −x b 2 log2 x c 0
3e
8 a x=4 b x= ≈ 0.7814 b Domain = (−3, ∞) y
5 + 2e
√ Range = R x = −3
−1 + 1 + 12e
9 a x= , i.e. x ≈ 0.7997
6 (4.39, 0)
b x = ln 2 ≈ 0.6931
1 0 x
10 a x = 3 b x= −3 −0.9
2

Answers
c Domain = (−1, ∞) y 3 a Domain = R+ y
Range = R x = −1
y = log2 2x

−1 0 (0.65, 0) x
x 0 1, 0
(0, −1) 2

2
d Domain = ,∞ y b Domain = (5, ∞) y
3

5E
x=2 x=5
Range = R 3
y = log10 (x − 5)
x
0 (6, 0)
x
0 2 (0.79, 0)
3

e Domain = (−2, ∞) x = −2 y c Domain = R+ y

Range = R
y = −log10 x
0 x (1, 0)
x
−2 −1 (0, −1.4) 0

f Domain = (2, ∞) y d Domain = R− y

Range = R
x=2
y = log10 (−x)
(3, 0)
x x
0 2 (−1, 0) 0

g Domain = (−1, ∞) y y
x = −1 e Domain = (−∞, 5)
Range = R x=5
y = log10 (5 − x)
(0, log10 5)
(0, 1) x
x 0
(4, 0)
−1 0
(1.72, 0)
h Domain = (−∞, 2) y f Domain = R+ y
Range = R x=2
(0, 0.69)
1
,0
4 x
x 0
0 1
y = 2 log2 2x + 2
4
y g Domain = R+ y
i Domain = −∞,
3
x=4 y = −2 log2 (3x)
Range = R 3
1, 0
3 x
(0, 0.39) 0
x
0
(0.43, 0)

h Domain = (−∞, −5) y 6 A dilation of factor ln 3 from the y-axis

x = −5 1
7 A dilation of factor from the y-axis
ln 2
1
−5100, 0
x Exercise 5F
0
6 5e4 − 11
1 a= ,b= 4
e4−1 e −1
2
y = log10 (−x − 5) + 2 2 a= , b = −4 3 a = 2, b = 4
Answers

ln 6
i Domain = R − y 14 14
4 a= ,b= (a ≈ 8.148, b ≈ −8.148)
e−1 1−e
1
5 a = 250, b = ln 5 6 a = 200, b = 500
− 1, 0 3
3 x 7 a = 2, b = 4 8 a = 3, b = 5
0
1
y = 4 log2 (−3x) 9 a = 2, b = ln 5 10 a = 2, b = 3
3
2
y 11 b = 1, a = , c = 8 (a ≈ 2.885)
j Domain = (−∞, 2) ln 2
2
y = 2 log2 (2 − x) − 6 x = 2 12 a = ,b=4
ln 2

x Exercise 5G
(−6, 0) 0 1 log2 7 − 4
(0, −4) 1 a k= b x=
log2 7 log2 7
ln 7 − 1
c x=
k Domain = ( 12 , ∞) y y = ln(2x − 1) ln 14
2 a 2.58 b −0.32 c 2.18 d 1.16
x= 1 e −2.32 f −0.68 g −2.15 h −1.38
0 2
x i 2.89 j −1.70 k −4.42 l 5.76
1
m −6.21 n 2.38 o 2.80
3 a x < 2.81 b x > 1.63
c x < −0.68 d x ≤ 3.89
e x ≥ 0.57
1
l Domain = (−∞, 32 ) 4 a log2 5 b (log3 8 + 1)
y 2
y = − ln(3 − 2x) 1
c (log7 20 − 1) d log3 7 e log3 6
x=3 3
2 f log5 6 g x = log3 8 or x = 0 h x = 1
x
0 1
1 5 a x > log7 52 b x < log3 120
(0, − ln 3) 2
1 5
c x ≥ log2 d x ≤ log3 7290
6 4 3
e x < log3 106 f x < log5
5
4 a x = 1.557 b x = 1.189 y+4
6 x=e 3
5 a y b y
y = f(3x) 1 y 1 y−1
7 a x= e b x= e 3
y = f(−x) y = f(x) 2 2
1 y = f(x) c x = ln(y − 2) d x = ln(y) − 2
3 (1, 0) 1 1 y
x x e x = (ey − 1) f x = e4 − 2
(−1, 0) 0 (1, 0) 0 3 2 3
y
x g x = 10y − 1 h x = ln +1
y = −f(x) y=f 2
3

Answers
8 a i y y = ex y = x 9 18.4 years
10 a 607 millibars b 6.389 km
11 21.82 hours
1 y = ln x
12 6.4◦ C
x
0 1 13 k = 0.349, N0 = 50.25
5
ii y x−3 y=x 14 a k = ln b 7.21 hours
4
y = e2 1
15 a a = 1000, b = 15 5 b 3 hours
y = 2 ln(x) + 3
c 13 hours d 664 690

5H → 5 review
− 23 Exercise 5I
e
x 1 a m = 2 and c = log4 3
0 −3 b log y c y
e2 4

iii y y = 10x 5 1024

y=x 4 256
3 64
2 16
1 log4 3 4 3
x 1 x
0 0 1 2 3
1 y = log 10 x 0 1 2 3
x 2 a m = 3 and c = log5 2
0 1 y
b log5 y c

b The graphs of y = f (x) and y = g(x) are 5 3125

4 625
reﬂections of each other in the line y = x 3 125
−1 P − b 2 25
9 t= ln 1 log5 2 5 2
k A x
y−5 1 P 0 x 1
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
10 a x = e 2 b x = − ln
y 6 A
ln y 3 Street 10−9 watt/cm2 ; Quiet car 10−11 watt/cm2
a
c n= d x = log10 4 a Increases by 10 log10 2 ≈ 3 dB
ln x y 5 b Increases by 10 log10 10 = 10 dB
ln c Pnew = (Pold )3 × 1032
1 5−y 6
e x= e 3 f n= d P = 10−16 e P = 10−6
2 2 ln x
5 λ
1
g x = (ey + 1) h x = ln 5 P1 = 10 10 × P2 6 5 + log10 5
2 5−y 7 7.3 − log10 4 8 [10−4 , 10−2 ]
11 a 0.544 b 549.3
1 2
13 a 9u b u+ c Chapter 5 review
2 u
1 2 Short-answer questions
14 625, 15
625 p 1 a y b y
f(x) = ex − 2
Exercise 5H (ln 2, 0)
t
1 a N = 1000 × b 50 minutes
2 15
13 1 20 x f(x) = 10−x + 1
2 1 0 (0, 2)
2 d0 = 52 , m = log10 (0, −1)
20 2 13 y=1
3 a i N0 = 20 000 ii −0.223 y = −2 x
0
b 6.2 years
c y d y
4 a M0 = 10, k = 4.95 × 10−3 1 x
h(x) = (e − 1)
b 7.07 grams c 325 days 2 y=2
1 (0, 1)
5 a k= ln 2 b 3924 years
1690 x
6 55 726 years x 0
0
7 7575 years
8 a 16 471 b 35 years on from 2002 y =−1 (− ln 2, 0)
2

Chapter 7

Answers
16 a (− 14 , ∞) \ {2} b (−∞, − 14 )
c − 14 , 2
5 183
17 a (2, −12) b (3, −11) c ,−
Exercise 7A 4 16
1 −1 21 a (−∞, −1] b [2, ∞) c (−∞, 0] d 32 , ∞
2 −1
Exercise 7C
3 a h+9 b9
1 a f(x)
4 a x+1 b 2x3 + 1 c 40 d0
e 5 f1 g 2x + 1 h 3x
i 3x3 + x j 6x

7A → 7D
f(x)= 22
5 a 2 + 3h + h2 b2 x
6 2x + h, 2x
x
7 h + 6, 6 0
8 a 10x b3 c 0 d 6x + 4 −2(2 + h)
e 15x2 f 10x − 6 b c −4
(1 + h)2
−1 −1
Exercise 7B 2 a b
(x − 3)2 (x + 2)2
1 a 5x4 b 28x6 c 6 d 10x − 4 3 −4x−5
e 12x + 12x + 2
2
f 20x3 + 9x2 15
g −4x + 4 h 18x2 − 4x + 4 4 a −6x−3 − 5x−2 b 12x − 4
x
2 a −4 b −8 c −2 d −4 15 8 2
c 4 − 3 d −18x−4 − 6x−3 e − 2
x x x
3 a −4 b −36
4 −18 − 2z
4 a 3t2 b 3t2 − 2t c x3 + 9x2 5 a 2 b c 3z−4
z z4
5 a −2 b0 c 15x2 − 6x + 2 −2z3 + z2 − 4 6 − 12z
6x2 − 8 d e
d e 4x − 5 f 12x − 12 z2 z4
5 6
f −6x − 2
g 50x4 h 27x2 + 3 x
6 a 4x − 15x 2
b −4z − 6 c 18z2 − 8z 1
6 a 11 34 b c −1 d 5
d −2 − 15x 2
e −4z − 6 f −3z2 − 8z 32
7 f (x) = 10x−6 > 0 for all x ∈ R \ {0}
7 a 1 1
(− 2 , 3 2 ) b (2, 32), (−2, −32)
1
c (2, 6) d (0, 0), (2, −4) 8 ± 9 a = −1, b = 4
5 59 2
8 a b 1
(1, 7) ,
4 8 10 11 a = −9, b = 1
√ 2
1+ 3 3
9 a x=1 b x=0 c x= 12 k = 0 or k =
2
√ 2√
3+ 3 1− 3
d x= e x= Exercise 7D
6 2
10 a 78.69◦ b 0◦ c 45◦ d 135◦ 1 a dy
e 63.43◦ f 116.57◦ dx
11 a 8x − 4 b 2x + 2 c 6x2 − 12x + 18
(0, 2)
d x2 − 2x + 1
12 a (3, 16), gradient = 8 x
0
b (0, −1), gradient = −1
c (−1, 6), gradient = −8
b
d (4, 594), gradient = 393 dy
e (1, −28), gradient = −92 dx
f (2 12 , 0), gradient = 0
x
13 a x=1 b x=1 c x>1 d x<1 0
e x = 2 23 f x = 4 or x = −2
(0, −3)
14 a (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) b (−1, 1) c 1, −1
15 a (−1, 0.5) ∪ (2, ∞) b (−∞, −1) ∪ (0.5, 2)

c −1, 0.5, 2

c b dy
dy
dx
dx −3, 2
3 2
x 3
Answers

0 2
x
0

d −5 3, −5
3
dy 3
dx c dy
dx
x
−1 0
x
0
e dy
dx
d dy
(1, 2)
x dx
0

x
−1 0 1 2
f dy
dx (−3, −0.25) (1, −2.5)
(2, −2.5)
x e
−10 2 dy
dx

g
dy x
dx −1.5 0 1.5

x
0 2 f dy
dx
h dy
dx
0 x
1 2
x
0 1 3 g dy
i dy dx
dx

x
−2 0 1
x
0
2 a dy h dy
dx 1 dx

x x
0 1 0
−1

Answers
i dy Exercise 7E
dx 1 a 8x(x2 + 1)3 b 20x(2x2 − 3)4
c 24(6x + 1)3 d an(ax + b)n−1
6x
e 2anx(ax2 + b)n−1 f
x (1 − x2 )4
0 1 −4 2
g −3 x2 − 2 2x + 3 h (1 − x)−2
x x
2 a 6(x + 1)5 b 4x3 (3x + 1)(x + 1)7
3 aD bF c B dC eA f E 2 3
2
4 a b y c 4 6x3 + 18x2 − 2 d −4(x + 1)−5

7E → 7G
x x
y = f(x) 1 1 √
y = f ′ (x) 3 −10 4 − and 5 2x 3x2 + 1
2 2
− f (x)
6 a n[ f (x)]n−1 f (x) b
[ f (x)]2
x
0 1 2 Exercise 7F
1
1 x− 2
4
ci0 ii 0 iii 0 iv 96 x− 5 5 3
di1 ii 0.423 2 a b x2
5 2
5 y 5 3 3 1 3 − 1 20 2
c x2 − x2 d x 2 − x3
2 2 2 3
y = f(x) 6 − 13 1 5 1
y = f′ (x) e − x 7 f − x− 4 + 2x− 2
7 4
1 1 2 5
3 a b c d
27 12 9 2
x 1 −3
0 1 4 a √ b √
2x + 1 2 4 − 3x
Gradient is 0 at (1, 43 ); x −1
c √ d
Gradient is positive for R \ {1} x +2
2 3
(4 − 3x)2
6 3√ 1 √ 5x + 6
y e x− √ f 3 x
y = g′(x) 2 x3 2
x 2x − 5
y = g(x) 7 a √ b
x2 + 2 3 (x2 − 5x)2
3

2x + 2
c
5 (x2 + 2x)4
5

x
0 Exercise 7G
1 a 5e5x b −21e−3x
Gradient is always positive; c −12e−4x + e x − 2x d e x − e−x
Minimum gradient where x = 0 e e−2x (e x − 1) f 2e2x − 2e−2x
7 a y 2 a −6x2 e−2x
3
b
2
2xe x + 3
(2x − 4)e x −4x + 3
2
(2x − 2)e x −2x+3 − 1
2
c d
h h′ 1 1 1 1 1
e − 2ex f x− 2 e x 2
x 2
9 1 1
2 3 a b e2 + 4
2 2
1 4 a 5 b 5e4 + 2
x 5 a 2 f (x)e2 f (x) b 2e2x f (e2x )
−1 −2 0 1 2 √
e x ex
b i x = −1.4945 or x = 0.7976 6 a 8e2x (e2x − 1)3 b √ c √
ii x = 0.6300
2 x 2 ex − 1
2 x 23 − 1
d e x 3 e (2x − 3)e(x−1)(x−2)
3
e x +x
f e

1
7H → 7K

Exercise 7H h 2x3 (5x2 − 2)(2x2 − 1)− 2

2 2 3 √3 2x2 (x + 1)
1 a b c 2x + i 2x x2 + 2x +
x x x 3 (x2 + 2x)2
3

3x − 1 3+x 1 4(5x − 4) (5x + 2)

2 2 2
d e f j
x2 x x+1 x3
1 3 6 3(x6 − 16) 2x3 (9x2 − 8)
g h i k l
x+2 3x − 1 6x − 1 x 4
5 (x3 − x)4
5

3 3(ln x)2 2x + 1 2 a e x (x2 + 2x + 1)

Answers

2 a b c 2
x x x +x−1 b e2x (2x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 5)
3x2 + 2x 4 4 −8x − 7
d e f c 2e4x+1 (x + 1)(2x + 3) d √
x3 + x2 2x + 3 2x − 3 2e4x x + 1
2x ex
3 a b1 3 a 1 + ln x b 2x + 4x ln x c e x ln x +
x2 + 1 x
1 d 1 + ln(−x)
4 a (e, 1), m = 2x3 (2 − x)
e 4 a b 2e2x+3
2e e2x
b e, ln(e2 + 1) , m = 2 e x (x − 1)
e +1 3 1
c (2e2x + 1)(e2x + x) 2 d
1 2 x2
c (−e, 1), m = − d (1, 1), m = 2 1 2
e e xe 2 x f −x2 e−x
e (1, 0), m = 0 f ( 32 , ln 2), m = 1 e x ( f (x) − f (x))
1 1 + 2x 3 5 a e x ( f (x) + f (x)) b
5 6 7 82 [ f (x)]2
2 1 + x + x2 5 c f (x)e f (x)
d 2e f (x) f (x) + [ f (x)]2 e x
x

6 a 3x cos(x) − x3 sin(x)
2
Exercise 7I b 2x cos x − (1 + x2 ) sin x
1 a 5 cos(5x) b −5 sin(5x) c −e−x sin x + e−x cos x
c 5 sec2 (5x) d 2 sin x cos x d 6 cos x − 6x sin x
e 3 sec2 (3x + 1) f −2x sin(x2 + 1) e 3 cos(3x) cos(4x) − 4 sin(4x) sin(3x)
π π f 2 sin(2x) + 2 tan(2x) sec(2x)
g 2 sin x − cos x − g 12 sin x + 12x cos x
4 π 4π
h 2xesin x + x2 cos x esin x
h −2 cos x − sin x −
3 3 i 2x cos2 x − 2x2 cos x sin x
π π j e x tan x + e x sec2 x
i 6 sin 2x +
2
cos 2x +
6 6 7 a −eπ b 0
π π
j 6 sin 2x +
2
cos 2x + 8 2
4 4
1 √ Exercise 7K
2 a √ , 2 b 1, 0 c 2, 0
2 1 1
d 0, 0 e 1, 0 f 1, 4 4 4x x− 2 − x 2
1 a b c
3 a −5 sin(x) − 6 cos(3x) (x + 4)2 (x2 + 1)2 2(1 + x)2
b − sin x + cos x c cos x + sec2 x (x + 2)2 (x − 3)(x − 1) 2 + 2x − x2
d e
d 2 tan x sec2 x (x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 2)2
π π −4x x + 4x + 1
2
4 a − sin x◦ b cos x◦ f g 2
90 60 (x2 − 1)2 (x + x + 1)2
π
c sec2 (3x)◦ −2(4x + 3x + 1)
3 2
60 h
−1 (2x3 + 2x)2
5 a tan x b 2 a 81, 378 b 0, 0 c 0, 0
sin x cos x
1 3 1
6 a 2 cos(x) e2 sin x b −2 sin(2x) ecos(2x) d , 0 e , −
2 2 2
2x2 + x + 1 x(7x3 + 3x + 4)
Exercise 7J 3 a √ b √
3 1
1 x +1
2 2 x3 + 1
1 a 20x + 36x + 4x
4 2
b + x− 2
9x 2 5
2 c
c 3(2x − 1)2 (8x − 1) d 8(2x2 + 1)(6x2 + 1) (x + 3)2
3e x − 2e4x (x + 1) sin(x) + cos(x)
1 5x2 − 8x + 1
e 5(3x + 1) 2 (3x + 4) f √ 4 a b −
2x − 4 (3 + e3x )2 (x + 1)2
g x2 (3x2 + 4x + 3)(3x2 + 2x + 1)−2

x − x ln(x) + 1

Answers
c c Discontinuity at x = 0 as f (0) = 1,
x(x + 1)2 lim+ f (x) = 1, but lim− f (x) = 0
x→0 x→1
1 − ln x 1 + x2 − 2x2 ln x
5 a b 4 R \ {1}
x 2 x(1 + x2 )2
9e 3x
−2e x −8e2x Exercise 7N
6 a b x c 2x
(3 + e )3x 2 (e − 1) 2 (e − 2)2
1 a y
1
7 a −2 b −6π c −eπ d−
π

Exercise 7L 0 y = f′(x)

7L → 7N
x
−1 −1 1
1 a0 b 56x 6
c √
4 x3
d 48(2x + 1) 2
e − sin x f − cos x
−1 2 b y
g ex h 2 i
x (x + 1)3
π
j −4 sin 2x +
4
√ 0
15 x x
2 a b 8(x2 + 3)2 (7x2 + 3)
4 −3 2 4
1 x
c − sin d −48 cos(4x + 1) c
4 2 y
−4
e 2e2x+1 f g 12x2 + 6
(2x + 1)2
1 y = f′ (x)
h (x3 + 6x2 + 6x)e x i
x
3 a f (x) = 24e3−2x x
0
f (x) = 8e−0.5x (1 − x2 )
2
b c f (x) = 0
−2(x2 + 2x + 2)
d f (x) = d y
(x2 + 2x)2
e f (x) = 360(1 − 3x)3
2 y = f′(x)
f f (x) = (4x2 + 2)e x
−4 3
g f (x) = h f (x) = x
(x + 1)3 4 (1 − x)5 0
i f (x) = −5 sin(3 − x)
j f (x) = −9 cos(1 − 3x) e y
1 x 1 x
k f (x) = − sin l f (x) = − cos
9 3 16 4
4 a 1 b −1 c −1 d0
5 a
2
x=− b x=
1
c x = ±√
1 x
3 15 2 −1 0 1
6 a x = −2 b x = 0√or x = −3 √
c x = 0, x = −3 + 3 or x = −3 − 3
f y
Exercise 7M
1
1 a 17 b3 c −4 d
8√
x
e3 f4 g2 h 2 3 −1 0 1
11 1
i −2 j 12 k l ⎧
9 4 ⎪
⎪
⎨−2x + 3 if x ≥ 0
2 a 3, 4 b7 2 y f (x) = ⎪
⎪
⎩3 if x < 0
3 a Discontinuity at x = 0, as f (0) = 0,
lim+ f (x) = 0, but lim− f (x) = 2
x→0 x→0
b Discontinuity at x = 1 as f (1) = 3,
lim+ f (x) = 3, but lim− f (x) = −1 x
x→1 x→0 0

3 y Deﬁned for R \ {1} d 2 cos(2x) cos(3x) − 3 sin(2x) sin(3x)

⎧ 2
⎪
⎪
⎨2x + 2 if x > 1 e = 2 sec2 (2x)
f (x) = ⎪ cos2 (2x)
⎪
⎩−2 if x < 1
4 f −9 cos2 (3x + 2) sin(3x + 2)
g 2x sin2 (3x) + 6x2 cos(3x) sin(3x)
x 6 a 2e2 ≈ 14.78 b0
0 1
–2 c 15e3 + 2 ≈ 303.28 d 1
Answers

7 a aeax b aeax+b c −bea−bx

4 y Deﬁned for R \ {−1} d abe − abebx
ax
e (a − b)e(a−b)x
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎨−2x − 2 if x > −1 8 a
f (x) = ⎪ dy
⎪
⎩−2 if x < −1 dx
−1
x x
0 0
−3
−2
b dy
1 2 dx
5 a R \ {1}, f (x) = (x − 1)− 3
3
1 4
b R \ {0}, f (x) = x− 5 x
5 0
2 1 1
c R \ {0}, f (x) = x− 3
3
2 3
d R \ {−2}, f (x) = (x + 2)− 5 c dy
5
dx
Chapter 7 review
Short-answer questions 0 x
1 a 8 b −8 1.5
x −4x2 − 2x + 12
2 a 1− √ b
1−x (x2 + 3)2 9 9
2
3
3 −2 1 3 9 2 4 − 2 4x + , x = ±
c √ d 2 − x− 2 x x 2
2 1 + 3x x 2
10 b ( 32 , ∞) ∩ (−1, 4) = ( 32 , 4)
3x − 15 1 + 2x2 4x
e √ f √ g 2 − f (x)
2 x−3 1 + x2 (x + 1)2 11 a x f (x) + f (x) b 2
−x2 + 1 10x 2 f (x)
h 2 i (2 + 5x2 )− 3 f (x) − x f (x) 2x f (x) − 2x2 f (x)
(x + 1) 2 3 c 2 d
−2x2 − 2x + 4 1 f (x) [ f (x)]3
j k 4x(3x2 + 2)− 3 12 a f ◦ g(x) = 2 cos3 x − 1
(x + 2)
2 2

1 b g ◦ f (x) = cos(2x3 − 1)
3 a −6 b 1 c 5 d c g ◦ f (x) = − sin(2x3 − 1)
6
1 d (g ◦ f ) (x) = −6x2 sin(2x3 −√1)
4 a b 3 cos(3x + 2) 3 3 3
x+2 e f −
1 x 2 4
d (2x − 2)e x −2x
2
c − sin 13 a 24(2x − 1)
2
b 2e x +1 (2x2 + 1)
2 2
1 c 2 cos x − x sin x
e f 2π cos(2πx)
x−3 Multiple-choice questions
1
g 6 sin(3x + 1) cos(3x + 1) h √ 1 A 2 B 3 C 4 A 5 A
2x ln x 6 B 7 C 8D 9 E 10 A
2 − 2 ln(2x)
i 11 B 12 C 13 B 14 B
x2
j 2x sin(2πx) + 2πx2 cos(2πx) Extended-response questions
5 a e x sin(2x) + 2e x cos(2x) 1
1 a i −4 ii −6 iii −18 iv −18 v 6 vi −
1 − 3 ln x 6
b 4x ln x + 2x c 5 7
x4 b a = , b = 1, c = − , d = 6
2 2

31
8C → 8D

11 a v = 6t2 − 18t + 12 11
b t = 1, x = 5; t = 2, x = 4 30
c −6 m/s2 , 6 m/s2 d −1.5 m/s 12 10πh cm2
12 a 8 cm from O b 2 cm/s 13 4%
1
c 9 cm from O after 1 s d −2 cm/s2 14 a i f (x) = ii f (0) = 1
√ √ (1 − x)2
2t 2 1 1
13 a v = √ b a= 3 15 a i f (x) = √ ii f (0) =
t +1
2
(t2 + 1) 2 2 1+x 2
1 2
c 1 cm/s, 2 cm/s 8π 16π
Answers

2
17 a cm ; 2.5% b cm3 ; 3.75%
14 When t = 0, v = 0.4 m/s; 5 5
When t = 1, v = 0.4e ≈ 1.0874 m/s; 18 2h
When t = 2, v = 0.4e2 ≈ 2.956 m/s 19 a f (x) = aeax b f (h) ≈ 1 + ah
15 a y b 3.33 c f (b + h) ≈ f (b) · (1 + ah)
a
y = 600 20 a δy ≈ he 2 b δy ≈ −2hea
c δy ≈ (1 + a)hea d δy ≈ (1 − a)he−a
21 0
h
22
t 2
0 23 0.01
h a
16 a −2y b ky 24 a δy ≈ −2h sin(2a) b δy ≈ cos
2 2
17 a 0.18 kg h a
b 3.47 hours c δy ≈ 2h sec2 (2a) d δy ≈ − sec2
2 2
c i 6.93 hours ii 10.4 hours π h a
d 0.2m e δy ≈ h sin − a f δy ≈ − cos
4 2 2
Exercise 8C 25 a i h sec2 θ ii 2h
π
1 −28h b +1
90
dy π 1 π 1
2 a = 12x2 − 16x b 16 c 0.32 26 a f = √ , f = −√
dx 4 4
2 2
dy 8 1−h
3 = 5 − 2 , δy ≈ 3h b i √ ii 0.6967
dx x
h 2
4 a δy ≈ 3h b δy ≈ √
−6h 2 a Exercise 8D
c δy ≈ d δy ≈ 8h(2a + 1)3
(3a + 1)2 1 a (2, −16), (−2, 16) b (1, −2)
e δy ≈ 36ah(6a2 − 1)2 c (0, 0), (1, 1) d (4, 48)
−2h(a2 + 5a − 1) 2 16 −2 16 1 14
f δy ≈ e (0, 0), √ , , √ , f ,
(a2 + 1)2 3 3 3 3 3 3
2ah 5h g (3, 2) h (0, −10), (2, 6)
g δy ≈ h δy ≈ 1
3 (a + 10)
3 2 2 (a + 1)2 1
2 a (0, 1) b ,−
5 −0.48 3e 3e
π π
dT π π 10 c (0, 1), (−π, 1), − , −1 , , −1 , (π, 1)
6 a = b seconds 2 2
d g 40 g d (−1, −e−1 ) e (0, 0), (2, 4e−2 )
1 f (e−1 , −2e−1 )
7 cm
20 3 a a=6 b b=3
8 4% 4 b = −2, c = 1, d = 3
4600h
9 a 46h b % 5 a = 2, b = −4, c = −1
111
1 3 1 6 a = 23 , b = −2 12 , c = −3, d = 7 12
10 a i f (x) = − x− 2 ii f (100) = − 7 a a = 2 and b = 9 b (−1, −5)
2 2000
3 1 1 − 4n
b − 8 x = or x =
2000 2 2n + 2
c 0.0985 9 x = ±1 or x = 0
1 1 h
d √ ≈ √ − √ 3 10 (1, 12 ), (−1, − 12 )
a+h a 2( a)

c ii Minimum population is 297, occurs Exercise 9C

when t = 100.24 1 1
3 1 1 t 1 a (2x − 1)3 + c b − (t − 2)4 + c
d i N3 (t) = − t 2 + e 20 6 4
2 10 1 1
π c (5x − 2)4 + c d +c
49 c sec2 (α◦ ) metres 20 24 − 16x
180
1 −1
e +c f +c
8(6 − 4x)2 8(3 + 4x)2
Chapter 9 2 3
(3x + 6) 2 + c
2 1
h (3x + 6) 2 + c
g
Answers

9 3
Exercise 9A 1 9 1 7
i (2x − 4) 2 + c j (3x + 11) 3 + c
1 a 3.81 square units b 1.34 square units 9 7
35 2 3 1
c square units k − (2 − 3x) 2 + c l − (5 − 2x)5 + c
2 9 10
2 a 13.2 square units b 10.2 square units 1 1
2 a ln(x) + c b ln(3x + 2) + c
3 a 10 square units b 10.64 square units 2 3
5
4 a 0.72 square units c ln(1 + 4x) + c d ln(3x − 2) + c
b 2.88, decrease strip width 3
3
5 a 36.8 square units b 36.7 square units e − ln(1 − 4x) + c f −6 ln(x − 4) + c
4
6 11.9 square units 3 a 5 ln |x| + c b 3 ln |x − 4| + c
7 a ≈ 48 square units b Distance travelled c 5 ln |2x + 1| + c d −3 ln |2x − 5| + c
1
9 e −3 ln |1 − 2x| + c f − ln |3x − 4| + c
8 a b9 c 4 3
2 4 a 3x + ln |x| + c b x + ln |x| + c
Exercise 9B 1 x2
c − +c d 2x + + ln |x| + c
x+1 2
x4 5 4
1 a +c b x − x2 + c 3
8 4 e− +c f −2x + ln |x| + c
x4 5 2(x − 1)2
c − x3 + c d 2z + z2 − z3 + c 1
5 2 5 a y = ln(x) + 1, x > 0
1 4 2
2 a y=− 2 +c b y = 3x 3 + c 5
2x b y = 10 − ln(5 − 2x), x <
4 5 5 2 2
c y = x4 + x5 + c 6 y = 10 ln(x − 5)
5 2
3 2 7 a x − ln |x + 1| + c
3 a − +c b− + 3x2 + c b −2(x + 1) + 3 ln |x + 1| + c
x 3x3
2 3 9 4 20 9 c 2(x + 1) − ln |x + 1| + c
c − − 2 +c d x3 − x4 + c 2 − x
x x 4 9 8 y = 3 ln + 10
12 7 14 3 5 8 9 8 2
e x4 − x2 + c f x5 + x3 + c 5 5
7 3 2 2 9 y = ln + 10
4 1 − 2x
x4
4 a y = x − 3x + 3
2
b y= +6 5 1
4 10 y = ln + 10
2 3 1 22 4 2x − 1
c y = x 2 + x2 −
3 2 3 Exercise 9D
4 3 2 5 3z3 − 4
5 a x2 + x2 + c b +c 1 6x 1 2x 3 2
3 5 2z 1 a e +c b e + x +c
6 2 2
5 4 5 2 7
c x3 + x2 + c d x2 + x2 + c 1 1 −2x 1 2x
3 5 7 c − e−3x + x2 + c d − e + e +c
3 2 2
2x3 3x5 3 7 3 16 1 2x x
e + +c f x3 + x 3 +c 2 a e − 2e 2 + c b e x − e−x + c
3 5 7 16 2
1 17 2 3x x x
6 f (x) = x3 + − c e + e−x + c d 15e 3 − 10e 5 + c
x 2 3
3 2 8 9 2x 15 7x 15 4x 9 2x
7 s= t + −8 e e 3 − e 5 +c f e 3 − e 3 +c
2 t 2 7 4 2
8 a k = −32 b f (7) = 201 1 2x 3
3 a y = (e − x2 + 9) b y = − x − ex + 8
2 e

Answers
4 y = 9 − 2e−2 d y
1 1
5 a k=2 b y = e2x + e2
2 2 4
1 2 y = 4 − 2x2
6 a k=3 b y = − e3x − e3
3 3

Exercise 9E x
0
7 1 −÷2 −1 1 ÷2
1 a b 20 c − d9
3 4 e y
1 140

9E → 9F
e f g 15 13 h 343 11
20
2 3
13 1 y = √x
2 a 10 b1 c d
3 3
10 2 3
e f 34 g 22 − 1
441 3
1 1
h 2 − 22 i x
15 0 2 4
1 2 1
3 a (e − 1) b (3 − e−2 ) f y
2 2
1
c 6e 3 − 4 d e2 − e−2
y = (1 − x)(1 + x)2
4 a 10 b 17 c −5 d9 e −3
1 1 3 19 1
5 a ln b ln 5 c ln
3 2 2 17
x
Exercise 9F −1 0
1
1 a3
b 44 321
4 square units
c i 8 ii 10 10
4 1 1 √ 3
2 a b c 121 12 d e 4 3 f 108 5 y Area = square units
3 6 6 4
3 a y
y = 2x + 1 1

x
−1 0

1
x 6 y Area = 2e2 + 1
0
−1 1 4 ≈ 15.78 square units
2
b y
7
y=3
3
3
y =3 − x x
0
1
7 y Area = 0.5 square units
x
0
3
c y
y = x2
(4, 16) x
0 1 2

x
0 4

5 π
3
9G

8 a square units b 8 16 square units b y 0

3 sin(2x) dx =
6 4
9 a A(0, 3), B(1, 0) b 2 square units
10 y
Answers

1
2
x x
−3 −2 0 2 0 π π π
3 4 3 2
√
1 11
π
3
ln c y
6
−π cos(2x) dx =
3 8 6 2
11 y
1

y =2
x
−9 −4 −2 0 x
2 −π −π 0 π π
4 6 6 4
π
ln 2 + 4 d y 0
2 cos θ + sin θ dθ = 2
12 b Derivative: (ln a)e = (ln a) · a
x ln a x

e x ln a ax √2
Antiderivative: =
ln a ln a

Exercise 9G
1 1
1 a sin(3x) b −2 cos x c sin(3x) x
3 2 π
1 1 π
0
d −4 cos x e − cos 2x − 2
2 2 3 π
π
1 1 e y
2 sin(2θ) + 1 dθ = 1 +
f sin(3x) − cos(2x) 0 2
3 2
1 1 2
g sin(4x) + cos(4x)
4 4
1 1
h cos(2x) + sin(3x)
4 3 1
1 π 1
i − sin 2x + j − cos(πx)
4 3 π x
1 1 1 0 π
2 a 1− √ b c 1+ √ d2 e1 2
2 2 2 √ π
π
2 1 1− 3 f y
4
1 − cos(2θ) dθ = −1
f g− h4 i j −2 −π
2
√3 2 4 4

3 − 2 + 2 square units
π 1
4 cos x dx =
4 a y 0
√
2

1
x
−π 0 π
4 4
√ √
x 2 1 3 1
0 π π 5 a b− c − d −√
4 2 2 3 3 2

Answers
2π 2 19 a (x2 + 1)3 + c b sin(x2 ) + c
6 y
3 2 + sin(3x) dx = +
0 3 3 c (x2 + 1)3 + sin(x2 ) + c
d −(x2 + 1)3 + c e (x2 + 1)3 − 4x + c
3 f 3 sin(x ) + c
2

2 3 2
20 2 x−1
+ 4 dx = 2 ln 2 + 4
1 y

x
0 π 2π y = x 2− 1 + 4
3 3

9H → 9I
y= 4
Exercise 9H x
√ 0
5 3 (0, 2) 2 3
1 a 4 23 b 2 23 c 12 d −2 x= 1
4
e 4
e 2 3√ 1 3
e + 4 ln 2 − f4 21 y 2
2x − 4 + 1 dx = × 22 + 1
2 2 3
5π2 51 1
g +1 h 8 ln 2 + i
8 4 12
2 0.5 square units
6x 1 19 (2, 1)
3 , ln
3x2 + 7 6 7
1 1
4 a ln(x + 3) 3
b ln(x2 + 4x) x
3 2 0 2 3
1 1 √
c ln(3 + e ) 2x
d ln(x3 + 3x) 4 2 2 22
5
1
2 3 22 a − b c ln 4
5 3 3 3 3
e ln(3x − 2) 1 √
3 d ln 3 + 3 e −2 23 f 2 2−2
1 2 cos(2x) 2
5 a , tan x b − 2 , −
cos2 x sin (2x) 2 sin(2x) Exercise 9I
1 π
c sin(x) + x cos(x), −1 + √ + √ 1 36 square units
2 4 2
6 a 1 + ln(2x), −x + ln(2x) 2 Area = 9 square units y
1 x2
b x + 2x ln(2x), x2 ln(2x) − 5 g(x)
2 √ 4
x
c 1+ √ , ln(1 + 2) (–1, 4) f(x)
√
1 + x2
e x √
1 (2, 1)
7 √ , 2e 2 − 2e x
2 x 0 1
1
8 6 sin2 (2x) cos(2x),
6 3 a 36 square units b 20 56 square units
9 a 139.68 b 18.50 c −0.66 c 4 square units d 4 12 square units
10 b 5 ln 3 + 4 e 4 12 square units
11 b 5 + 6 ln 2 4 a 2 square units
1
12 f (x) = 1 − 2 cos x b e + e−1 − 2 ≈ 1.086 square units
2
5 3.699 square units
1
13 a f (x) = sin(2x) + 1 1
2 x
6 y Area = square unit
4
b f (x) = 3 ln x + 6 c f (x) = 2e 2 − 1
14 sin(3x) + 3x cos(3x) y = sinx
π π 1
Hence 0 6 x cos(3x) dx = − x
18
√ 9 0 π π π
12 3 − π − 12 3 2 y = sin2x
15 a = 1, b = −2; Area =
3π
square units 1
7 square unit
16 a 1.450 square units b 1.716 square units 2
8 P(ln 3, 3); Area ≈ 2.197 square units
17 0.1345
1
18 f (x) = x2 − cos(2x) + 3
2
Cambridge Senior Maths AC ISBN 978-1-316-63582-7 © Evans et al. 2017 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods Y12 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
796 Answers
9J → 9 review

Exercise 9J 13 a When t = 0, 1000 million litres per hour;

2 2 2 1 When t = 2, 896 million litres per hour
1 a b c d 0 e (e2 − e−2 )
3 π π 2 b i t = 0 and t = 15
2 10(e5 − 1)e−5 ≈ 9.93◦ C ii 1000 million litres per hour
3 a y b y c dV
(5, 100) dt
24 1000
48
50 π
t t 0 10 15 t
(0, 0) 0 4
Answers

d i 5000
c y ii 5000 million litres ﬂowed out in the ﬁrst
10 hours
(5, 5(1− e−5)) 14 a When t = 5, ≈ 17.9 penguins per year;
4 + e− 5 When t = 10, ≈ 23.97 penguins per year;
When t = 100, ≈ 46.15 penguins per year
t b R
0
R(t) =10 ln(t + 1)
147
4 m/s
10
2
a
5
6 0 t
6 a 3000(2 − 20.9 ) N/m2 c 3661; the growth in the penguin population
b 1000(40.1 − 1) N/m2 over 100 years
7 a x = t2 − 3t b x = 0 c 0 m/s 15 71 466 23 m3
9 3 16 1.26 m
d m e m/s
2 2
3 17 a 6 metres
2t
8 a x= − 4t2 + 6t + 4, a = 4t − 8 b 18π m2 a
3 −1
20 c i y − 3 + 3 cos = a (x − a)
b When t = 1, x = m; 3 sin
3 3
When t = 3, x = 4 m ii 5.409 √
c When t = 1, a = −4 m/s2 ; 3( 2 + 2)
When t = 3, a = 4 m/s2 18 a i 9 ii iii 12
2
9 Initial position is 3 m to the left of O b Max value is 12; Min value is 0.834
646 48(π + 1)
10 Velocity = 73 m/s; Position = m c litres
3 π
11 a Velocity = −10t + 25
5 Exercise 9K
b Height = −5t2 + 25t c s
2 1 a ln x b − ln x c ex − 1 d 1 − cos x
125
d m e 5s
4
12 a H dH Chapter 9 review
dt Short-answer questions
7/4 3
65 −5a 2 55
1 1 a b 0 c d −
200 4 3 3
1/4 1
0 e f 1 g 0 h0
60 120 180 240 t 2
b t ∈ (10, 50) ∪ (130, 170) 23
c t = 30 or t = 150 2 3 3 4 4 5 820
2
d i 120 kilojoules 85 5 5
ii 221.48 kilojoules 6 7 8
4 3 3

b c

Answers
9 f (x) − g(x) dx + b g(x) − f (x) dx + 9 99 999
d
a e , ,
11 101 1001
f (x) − g(x) dx
c f Area between the curves approaches 1
10 a P(3, 9), Q(7.5, 0) b 29.25 square units
4 a 968.3◦ b θ(°C)
20
11 a 5 b p=
7
12 3.45 square units (0, 30)
13 a A(0, 6), B(5, 5) b 15 16 square units
125 0 t (min)
c square units
6 ◦

9 review
c 2.7 minutes d 64.5 C/min
14 a y
y =ex +1 5 a 5 × 104 m/s
b Magnitude of velocity becomes very small
c 5 × 104 (1 − e−20 ) m d x = v(1 − e−t )
(0, 2) e x (m)

x v
0
b e2 + 1 ≈ 8.39
15 a y
0 t (s)
y = e–x
y = ex
d −3x
6 a e sin(2x) =
dx
(0, 1) −3e sin(2x) + 2e−3x cos(2x)
−3x

d −3x
e cos(2x) =
x dx
−2 0 2 −3e cos(2x) − 2e−3x sin(2x)
−3x

b 2 − 2e−2 c e−3x sin(2x) dx =
−1 −3x
16 a e − 1 ≈ 1.72 3e sin(2x) + 2e−3x cos(2x)
b 2(e − 1) ≈ 3.44 square units 13
4 4 3
17 2 + e2 ≈ 9.39 square units 7 a i tan a = ii sin a = , cos a =
3 5 5
18 3 121 square units y b 2 square units
dy x x dy 1
8 a = − e 10 , = −x(100 − x2 )− 2
dx 10 dx
dy
b When x = 0, = 0 for both functions
x dx
c −e
–1 0 2
d 6.71 square units
2 3 π2
e 8.55%
19 a 3 − e−2 b ln − c +1 f (25π − 50) square units
3 2 8 g i 10(10e − 20)
1 5 2 2
d ln − 4 + 5 ii (25π − 100e + 200) square units
2 6 e e
dy e
Multiple-choice questions 9 a = ln x + 1, ln x dx = 1
dx 1

1 C 2C 3B 4B 5A dy
b = (ln x)n + n(ln x)n−1
6 D 7E 8C 9C 10 D e
dx
Extended-response questions d 1 (ln x)3 dx = 6 − 2e
3 √3 √3
10 s = a2 b, r = ab2
1 a 4y − 5x = −3 b ,0
5 11 a i R(0) = 0 ii R(3) = 0
9 t 10π πt πt
c (1, 0) d
40
e 9 : 49 b R (t) = e− 10 cos − sin
3 3 3
1 c i 1.41, 4.41, 7.41, 10.41
3 a square units
3 ii Local max: (1.41, 8.65), (7.41, 4.75);
n−1 2 Local min: (4.41, −6.41) (10.41, −3.52)
d 1− = square units
n+1 n+1 d t = 0, 3, 6, 9 or 12

√ 1
10 revision

3
e y 37 a 4 − 2 2 b 2(e 4 − 1) c ln 2
2
1 1 1
d − ln 2 e f
y = R(t) 2 4 20
1 4
39 a 2 − ln b 0 < m < 4e−2
m m
t
0 40 δV ≈ 30 cm3
3 6 9 12
41 2%
Answers

f i 16.47 litres ii 12.20 litres iii 8.27 litres 42 y

g 12.99 litres
π
12 b 1 − (0, 9)
4

Chapter 10 −3 −1 01 3
x

( ) ( )
Short-answer questions 5 44
5 44 ,−
−2x5 + 4x3 − 2x − ,− 3 9
1 a b {0} 3 9
(x4 − 1)2
2 4(6x − 4)(3x − 4x) 2 3
3 2x ln(2x) + x
4 a b=
1
b k = (2b − 1)e2b+1
(−√5 , −16) (√5 , −16)
2
1 22 28 Multiple-choice questions
5 m= , a=− , c=− 1 E 2 D 3 E 4 D 5 B 6 C
12 3 3
1 7 E 8 A 9 D 10 A 11 E 12 B
6 ln 7 13 E 14 D 15 E 16 C 17 B 18 C
6
3 3 19 E 20 B 21 E 22 D 23 B 24 D
7 a ln(5x − 2) b
5 10 − 25x 25 B 26 A 27 D 28 D 29 A 30 D
8 a −7 b −14 c −20 31 B 32 B 33 D 34 D 35 C 36 C
1 1 37 D 38 B 39 A 40 E 41 D 42 A
9 a 52 b
√ 8 43 A 44 A 45 B 46 D 47 B 48 B
10 2x 3x + 1 2 49 C 50 D 51 B 52 D 53 C 54 A
11 a 4x − 3 b −3 c {1} 55 C 56 B 57 E 58 C 59 C 60 D
f (x) 145 61 D 62 D 63 C 64 B 65 E 66 B
12 13 a = 67 D 68 C
f (x) 144
1 √ Extended-response questions
14 m = −3 + 105
4 1 a 54.06 g b s
15 a (0, −4) and (−2, 0) b 0 c 4 d 9 12
3 18 80
16 f (2) = − , f (2) = 18 24π (10, 54.06)
25 125
5 5 2 8x 50
19 , 20 21 − 2
18 36 3 (x − 2)2
22 6 23 3528(5 − 7x)7
1 2 0 t
24 25 26 −70 ds 1 ds 1
9 3 c = −6e− 5 t d = − (s − 50)
27 0 28 −1 dt dt 5
2 e 0.8 g/L f 17 seconds
29 a − b −2
(2x + 1)2 2 a 60◦ C
30 a x = 0 or x = −2 b x > 0 or x < −2 b T
c −2 < x < 0
2
31 x > 1 32 x = ± √ 60
3
1
33 a b (y + 1)2
(1 − x)2 20
5
−
34 −3x(x + 1) 2 2
0 t
36 f (x) = 10x4 > 0 for all x ∈ R \ {0}. If b > 0, dT
then b5 > 0, and if b < 0, then b5 < 0. c = −14.4e−0.36t
dt

dT 160 000

Answers
d = −0.36(T − 20) 13 a $17 000 bC= + 10V 2
dt V
3 a 1.386 minutes b 2200, 5.38% c C
c 66.4 spores/minute d 0.9116 minutes ($)
e
1200 (20,12 000)
1000
0 V(km/h)
f
d V = 20, C = 12 000 e $12 560
g 60 60
14 a √ ≈ 9.61 km b √ ≈ 9.61 km

10 revision
0 0.91 t (minute) 39 39

4 a V 12
15 4 − ≈ 2.7 m
7
100
16 a { x : x > 1 } b {x : 0 < x < 2}
3
c { x : x > 1 }, x : 0 < x <
2
n+1
d { x : x > 1 }, x : 0 < x <
0 t n
V 1 1
b i 20e −0.2t
m/s 2
ii 20 − m/s2 17 a (1, 1), (−1, −1) b ±2 6 , 2− 3
5 1 n
c 8.05 seconds c ±n 2n+2 , n− 2n+2
5 100 108
6 b k = 0.028 c 0.846◦ C/min 18 a A = 48 + 16x +
x
7 a i 0.1155 ii 0.2 b A
b 13.86 days (m2)
y = 48+16x
8 $600
9 a 5 × 104 m3 b −12 500 m3 /day (2.6, 92.14)
c −3500 m /day
3
d After 222.61 days
e V
(m3) (0, 5 × 104) 0 6 x(m)
√ √
3 3 4 3
c Height = m, width = m
2 3
0 t(days) d 172 m2
10 a C 19 a (a, 0), (−a, 0) y
($'000)
(10, 5.65)
2
0 N
3N 2 x
b 3 B 0 A
4(N 3 + 16) 4 (−a, 0) (a, 0)
c Rate of change of cost in $1000s with
(0, −a2)
respect to the increase in the number of 3 2
bottle tops produced 4a 2a
b c d 2:3
3 3
11 p = 4; Number of items sold = 50
20 a −5 31
c a = 1 or a = −2
12 a = ±3, b = ±2 y
21 a i 50e−1 litres/minute
ii t = 5
iii 2 minutes 18 seconds
iv 3 minutes 48 seconds
x b 14.74 litres
−2 0
c 53 seconds
3
x = −2
3

2 1 8
Chapter 11
11A → 11C

15 a b c
5 15 15
2 7 7 7
Exercise 11A 16 a b c d
5 40 16 15
1 1H, 1T, 2H, 2T, 3H, 3T, 4H, 4T, 5H, 5T, 6H, 6T 5 3
17 a b
2 HH1, HH2, HH3, HH4, HH5, HH6, 14 5
HT1, HT2, HT3, HT4, HT5, HT6, 18 a 0.735 b 0.453
TH1, TH2, TH3, TH4, TH5, TH6, 3
19
TT1, TT2, TT3, TT4, TT5, TT6 44
1 3 4 2
Exercise 11C
Answers

3 a b c d
13 4 13 13
1 2 1 a Discrete b Not discrete
4 a b c Discrete d Discrete
2 3
5 0.8 2 a Not discrete b Discrete
c Not discrete d Discrete
6 0.65
3 a HHH, T HH, HT H, HHT ,
7 a 0.067 b 0.047
HT T , T HT , T T H, T T T
8 5%
1
6 b x Outcomes c
9 2
7 0 TTT
17 9 41 41
10 a b c d 1 HT T , T HT , T T H
500 250 125 500
2 T HH, HT H, HHT
13 7
11 a b 3 HHH
20 20
57 2 27 1 4 a Yes, as the sum of the probabilities is 1 and
12 a b c d p(x) ≥ 0 for all x
100 19 100 250
9 b 0.8
13 5 a
25 x 0 1 2 3
1 1 5 125 300 240 64
14 a b c p(x)
2 6 6 729 729 729 729
15 a 0.13 b 0.32
604 304
16 a 0.40 b 0.67 c 0.18 b c
729 729
17 a 0.35 b 0.18 c 0.12 d 0.17 6 a {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}
b Y = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
Exercise 11B
2nd die
1 a 0.2 b 0.675 c 0.275 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1
2 a b 1st 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 3
die 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
3 a 0.06 b 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5
3 24 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
5 59
1 77 40 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
6 a b c d 0.4 1 1 1 7 1 2
2 200 77 c i ii iii iv v vi
65 115 21 61 6 3 5 10 5 7
7 a b c d 7 a
224 448 65 246 2nd die
8 a 0.24 b 0.86 1 2 3 4 5 6
9 a Yes b No c No 1st 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 a 0.5 b 0.2 c 0.7 die 2 1 2 2 2 2 2
3 1 2 3 3 3 3
11 0.39
1 4 1 2 3 4 4 4
12 5 1 2 3 4 5 5
7
13 0.0479 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
14 a 0.486 b 0.012 c 0.138 b 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 c 0.19
8 a 0.288 b 0.064 c 0.352 d 0.182

Answers
9 a {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)} 17 a x 0 1 2 b
1 1 5 15
b Pr(A) = , Pr(B) = , Pr(C) = , 1 8 2
6 6 12 p(x)
1 3 15 15
Pr(D) =
6 18 a x 10 20 100
1 1 1
c Pr(A | B) = , Pr(A | C) = , Pr(A | D) = 3 6 1
6 5 6 p(x)
d i Independent ii Not independent 4 25 100
iii Independent b y 20 30 40 110 120 200
10 a Yes b 0.5

11D
9 9 36 3 3 1
11 a and c p(y)
16 25 625 200 625 10000
12 a x 0 1 2 3 1
19 a
27 54 36 8 4
p(x) b {EENE, ENEE, ENNN, NEEE,
125 125 125 125
3
b NENN, NNEN}, Pr(X = 4) =
x 0 1 2 3 8
3
5 15 9 1 c Pr(X = 5) =
p(x) 8
30 30 30 30
13 x 0 1 2 Exercise 11D
p(x) 0.36 0.48 0.16 1 $60
3 1 2 a E(X) = 4.6 b E(X) = 0.5
14 a x 1 2 3 4 5 b c c E(X) = 2.38 d E(X) = 0.569
5 3
1 1 1 1 1 e E(X) = 7 f E(X) = 0
p(x)
5 5 5 5 5 3 Expected proﬁt = $3000
15 a {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)} 4 A loss of 17c
b x 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 5 a x 0 1 2 3
p(x)
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1 Pr(X = x) 0.12 0.36 0.38 0.14
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
b E(X) = 1.54
c p(x) 6 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
6/36 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
p(x) 0
5/36 6 6 6 6 6 36 36 36 36 36 36
4/36 49
E(X) =
3/36 12
2/36 7 a E(X) = 4.11 1 ) = 78.57
b E(X 3

1/36 c E(5X − 4) = 16.55 d E = 0.255

X
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x 8 $5940
5 7 1
d e 9 a p= b E(X) = 2 c Var(X) = 3.5
18 10 16
16 a {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), . . . , (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)} 1 91 20
10 a k = b E(X) = c Var(X) =
b y 0 1 2 21 21 9
11 5 2 11 a x 1 2 3 4 6 8 9 12 16
p(y)
18 18 18 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1
p(x)
c 16 8 8 16 8 8 16 8 16
p(y)
1 25 275
b i ii iii
11/18 4 4 16
21 7 497
12 a b c
4 12 48
5/18 13 a Var(2X) = 64 b Var(X + 2) = 16
c Var(1 − X) = 16 d sd(3X) = 12
2/18 14 a c = 0.35 b E(X) = 2.3
0 1 2 y c Var(X) = 1.61, sd(X) = 1.27 d 0.95

1
11 review → 12A

15 a k = b E(X) = 3.667 5 a i 1.21

15 ii Var(P) = 1.6659, sd(P) = 1.2907
c Var(X) = 1.556 d 0.9333
iii 0.94
16 a 7 b 5.83 c 0.944 b i t 1 0.40 0
17 a 3 b 1.5 c 0.9688 p(t) 0.39 0.27 0.34
18 c1 = 40, c2 = 60 ii E(T ) = 0.498 ≈ 0.50 iii 1
6 a E(Y) = 2.002
Chapter 11 review b Var(Y) = 2.014, sd(Y) = 1.419
Short-answer questions c i b 0 100 200
1 Yes, as Pr(A ∩ B) = 0 p(b) 0.677 0.270 0.053
2 Pr (A′∩ B′) ii E(B) = $37.60
A B a μ = 13.5%, σ = 16.2%
= Pr (A∪B)′ 7 b 0.95
Answers

c E(G) = 6.9%, sd(G) = 9.726%

8 Yes
40 5 9 $1.00
3 a b 10 a i 0.65 ii 0.2275 iii 0.079625
81 9
4 0.4 iv 0.042875
6 a 0.1 b 1.3 c 2.01 b Expected cost: $8 439 375
√ c Expected proﬁt: $10 703 125
53 29 3
7 a 21.5 b c 630.75 d 1 49
256 2 11 b x= ,
4 2 288
8 a p x − 2 −2 b x−2 1 8 4 4 56
5 12 a i ii iii iv v
4 1 81 81 81 27 81
Pr(P = p) b 4.4197 cents (as the lowest value coin is 5c,
5 5
he can settle for that)
c x > $2.50
47 7 35
9 a 0.47 b 13 a i E(X) = ii Var(X) =
70 2 12
10 21.5% n+1 n2 − 1
b i E(X) = ii Var(X) =
1 17 5 11 2 12
11 a b c d
24 24 6 18 1 2 11 33
c i ii iii iv
Multiple-choice questions 10 5 2 4
1A 2D 3D 4E 5C
6 C 7B
Chapter 12
Extended-response questions
1 a 0.1 b 0.2 c4 Exercise 12A
2 a 0.6 J 1 a and b
J
0.4 0.4 J 2 0.2734
0.3
A 0.6 3 a 0.0256 b 0.0016
A 4 a 0.0778 b 0.2304 c 0.01024
0.6 J
0.4 J 5 a Pr(X = x) = 3x (0.5) x (0.5)3−x , x = 0, 1, 2, 3
0.7
0.4 A b 0.375
A
0.6 A 6 a Pr(X = x) = 6x (0.48) x (0.52)6−x ,
b i 0.396 ii 0.604 x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 6
ci ii 2.4 b 0.2527
x 2 3
7 a 0.0536 b 0.0087 c 0.2632
Pr(X = x) 0.6 0.4
8 a Pr(X = x) = 10x (0.1) x (0.9)10−x ,
d 0.46
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10
3 $14 b i 0.3487 ii 0.6513
25
4 a 0.5 b 0.05 c 0.033 d 9 a Pr(X = x) = 11x (0.2) x (0.8)11−x ,
33
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 11
b i 0.2953 ii 0.0859 iii 0.9141

Answers
10 a Pr(X = x) = 7x (0.2) x (0.8)7−x , Exercise 12C
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 7 1 a i (0.8)5 ≈ 0.3277 ii 0.6723
b i 0.000013 ii 0.2097 iii 0.3899 b 14 c 22
11 0.624 2 a i 0.1937 ii 1 − (0.9)10 ≈ 0.6513
x 6 6x5 (100 − x)
12 a b b 12
100 1006 3 7 4 7 5 10 6 42 7 86
x6 6x5 (100 − x) 15x4 (100 − x)2
c + +
1006 1006 1006
13 0.6836 Chapter 12 review

12B → 12 review
14 a 0.1156 b 0.7986 c 0.3170 Short-answer questions
15 0.6791 16 32 16 65
1 a b c d
16 a 0.1123 b 0.5561 c 0.000 01 81 81 27 81
54
d 0.000 01 2
125
17 0.544
1 6 3 0.40951 √
18 a ≈ 0.000 24 b 0.1694 3 5
4 4 a 2 b
19 a 0.0138 b 0.2765 c 0.8208 d 0.3368 5
5 a (1 − p) 4
b 4p(1 − p)3 c 1 − (1 − p)4
20 a (0.8)8 ≈ 0.168 b 0.001 23
d p4 e 1 − (1 − p)4 − 4p(1 − p)3
c 0.0021
5p(1 − p)4 5 32
21 a (0.15)10 ≈ 0.000 000 006 6 120 7 8 9
b 1 − (0.85)10 ≈ 0.8031 c 0.5674 1 − (1 − p)5 16 625
Multiple-choice questions
Exercise 12B 1 D 2 A 3 E 4 B 5 A
1 2 6B 7 C 8 C 9 E 10 B
Extended-response questions
1 a 0.0173 b 0.2131
2 Probability that a
p
batch is accepted
3 a b
0 1
0.01 0.9044
0.02 0.8171
0.05 0.5987
0.1 0.3487
c The distribution in part b is the reﬂection of
0.2 0.1074
the distribution in part a in the line X = 5.
0.5 0.00098
4 a Mean = 5; Variance = 4 1 0
b Mean = 6; Variance = 2.4
500 1000 y
c Mean = ; Variance =
3 9
Probability that a batch

1
d Mean = 8; Variance = 6.4 0.9
0.8
is accepted

5 a1 b 0.2632 0.7
0.6
6 37.5 0.5
0.4
1 0.3
7 n = 48, p = , Pr(X = 7) = 0.0339 0.2
4 0.1
3 p
8 n = 100, p = , Pr(X = 20) = 0.0076 0
0.1 0.2 0.5 1
10 √
9 Mean = 10, sd = 5; The probability of 3 a 0.0582 = 5.82%
obtaining between 6 and 14 heads is 0.95 b μ = 0.4, σ = 0.6197, μ ± 2σ = 0.4 ± 1.2394
√
10 Mean = 120, sd = 4 3; c Yes
The probability that between 107 and 4 0.0327
133 students attend a state school is 0.95 5 a i 0.0819 ii 0.9011
b i P = 15p2 (1 − p)4
dP
ii = 30p(1 − p)3 (1 − 3p)
dp

1
13A → 13C

6 a2 b n = 6, p = 12 a y b 0.190
3
c x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.1
Freq 17.56 52.68 65.84 43.90 16.46 3.29 0.27
7 a 0.9139 b 0.041 45 c 10.702
8 a 0.0735 b 0.5015 c 27 x
1 −10 −5 0 5 10
9 ≤q≤1 13 a k = 1000 b 0.5
3
2 17
14 a b
3 30
Chapter 13
Answers

15 a 0.202 b 0.449
16 a 0.45 b 0.711
Exercise 13A 17 a y
1 a 0.16 b 0.24
2 a 0.18 b 0.5 1
x
11 0
4 k=−
6 1 1
5 a c b Pr(X < 0.5) =
5 b i 1 − e− 2 ii e−1 iii e− 2
y 16
2.5 Exercise 13B
2 1 1
2 1 a b c d Does not exist
3 3 2
1.5 2 a 1 b 2.097 c 1.132 d 0.4444
1 3 a 0.567 b 0.458
2
0.5 4 0 5 A= , B=3
9
x 6 a 2 b 1.858
0.5 1
7 a 0.632 b 0.233 c 0.693
6 a k=1 b 0.865
8 a 1 b 0.5
7 a y 9 0.1294 10 2.773 minutes
0.4 11 a 1 b 1
12 a 0.714 b 0.736
0.2
13 12 √
x 19 − 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 14 a 0.4 b
6
b 0.259 c 0.244 d 0.28
−kx 2 −kx −(kx + 1) −kx
8 b i 0.024 = 2.4% ii 0.155 = 15.5% 15 a ke − k xe , e
k
9 a k = 0.005 b 0.007 c y
10 a y b k=1
2
k 1.5
1
0.5
x
−1 0 1 x
0 1 3 2
3
c 1
4 d y = e−x is dilated by factor from the
11 a y b 0.406 λ
x-axis and by factor λ from the y-axis
3 Exercise 13C
2 √
1 2
1 1 Var(X) = , sd(X) =
18 6
x 2 (384, 416)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 3 a 0.630 b 0.909 c 0.279

Answers
4 a y b 1.386 3 a y b e−4 c 0.0182

0.5
x x
0 0

1 1 1
5 a b E(X) = 3.641, Var(X) = 4.948 4 a k= b
ln 9 36 48
6 a 0.366 b E(X) = 0.333, Var(X) = 0.056 2 80
5 a b 20 c
7 0.641 3 3

13D → 13 review
8 a 0.732 b E(X) =
4
, Var(X) =
2 6 a y
3 9 1
16
9 a 0.0004 b c 2.21
3
3 √ 1
10 a b2 5 2
4a3
11 a y x
0
3k 0.5e−0.5x
b f (x) =
(1 + e−0.5x )2
y
x 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 8
1
b k= d 4.5
9

Exercise 13D 0 x
1 1300
2 μ = 1010 g, σ = 50 g Chapter 13 review
3 a 0.708, 0.048 b $98.94, $0.33 Short-answer questions
4 a 0, 5.4 ⎧ b 3, 0.6 c 1, 5.4 1 a 2 b 0.21 c 0.44
⎪
⎪
⎪ x2
⎪
⎨ if −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 1
2 a= , b=2
d g(x) = ⎪⎪ 18 3
⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise π
⎧ 3
⎪
⎪
⎪ (x − 1) 2 2
⎪
⎨ if −2 ≤ x ≤ 4 1 1 1
e h(x) = ⎪⎪ 18 4 a b c
⎪
⎪
⎩0 2 2 3
otherwise
5 a y
31 91
5 a i ii 2 , 16
40 20
3 9
17 71 71
b i , ii
12 144 36

Exercise 13E
⎧ x
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 if x ≤ 0 0 1 1
⎪
⎪
⎨1 3 2
1 a F(x) = ⎪
⎪ x if 0<x<5 b
⎪
⎪
⎪
5 5 5
⎩1 if x ≥ 5 b Pr(X < 0.5) =
⎧ ⎧ 16
⎪
⎪ if x < 0 ⎪
⎪
⎪0 if x < 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
0 ⎪
⎪
⎨ 3
⎪
⎪
⎪ c F(x) = ⎪ x (4 − 3x) if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
1
⎨4 x if 0 ≤ x < 1 ⎪
⎪
2 a F(x) = ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩1
⎪
⎪
⎪
1
(x 4
+ 4) if 1≤x<2 if x > 1
⎪
⎪
⎪
20
⎩1 if x ≥ 2 16
√4 6 a k = 12 b Pr(X < 3 ) = 2

b 6 27
3
c Pr(X < 13 | X < 23 ) =
16

8
Chapter 14
14A

7 a 0.008 b
27
2
8 Exercise 14A
3
7 1
9 a b a=1
Answers

3
3
10 a c = b0
4
12 a 1.649 b 0.833
μ1 μ2
13 (320, 340) 14 (246, 254)
2 c
Multiple-choice questions 3 a 1
1 B 2D 3D 4A 5E 1 ∞ − 1 x−2 2
b i E(X) = √ xe 2 3 dx
6 B 7C 8D 9A 10 A 3 2π −∞
ii 2
Extended-response questions 1 ∞ 2 − 1 x−2 2
c i E(X 2 ) = √ xe 2 3 dx
−2 3 2π −∞
1 a a= b 700 hours c 736.4 hours
81 √ ii 13 iii 3
1 5− 5 1 8 4 a 1
2 a
4
b
5
c ,
3 15 1 ∞ − 1 x+4 2
b i E(X) = √ xe 2 5 dx
10 5 2π −∞
3 a Median = 6, IQR = ii −4
1 ∞ 2 − 1 x+4 2
3
b E(X) = 6, Var(X) = 4.736 c i E(X 2 ) = √ xe 2 5 dx
7 5 2π −∞
4 a b $22.13 ii 41 iii 5
25
8 5 a μ = 3, σ = 10
5 c = or c = 4 b f(x)
3
2 2
6 a k = 25 b d
3 3
1 2 3
7 a k= b μ = 2, Var(X) = c
√ 4 3 4
4 5
d ≈ 1.8 x
5 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 40
8 a i y 6 a μ = −3, σ = 1
b f(x)
1
7
x
0 1 8
⎧ x
⎪
⎪
⎪ if x < 0
⎪
⎪
⎨1
0 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
ii F(x) = ⎪
⎪ (x − 1) if 1≤x≤8
⎪
⎪
⎪
7 7 a μ = 0, σ = 3
⎩1 if x > 8 b f(x)
9 49
iii E(X) = iv Var(X) =
2 12
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 if x < a
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨x−a
b i F(x) = ⎪ if a ≤ x ≤ b 0 x
⎪
⎪
⎪ b−a
⎪
⎪
⎪
−9 −8−7−6−5−4 −3 −2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

⎩1 if x > b 8 a Dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis and

a+b (b − a)2 dilation of factor 12 from the x-axis, then
ii E(X) = iii Var(X) =
2 12 translation 3 units to the right
⎧ b Dilation of factor 12 from the y-axis and
⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 if x < 0
⎪
⎪
⎨1 dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis, then
c i F(x) = ⎪
⎪ x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 15
⎪
⎪
⎪
15 translation 3 units to the right
⎩1 if x > 15 c Dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis and
ii 7.5 minutes iii 18.75 dilation of factor 12 from the x-axis, then
translation 3 units to the left

Answers
9 a Translation 3 units to the left, then dilation 18 a 0.9772 b 0.9772 c c = 10.822
of factor 12 from the y-axis and dilation of d k = 9.5792 e c1 = 9.02, c2 = 10.98
factor 2 from the x-axis
b Translation 3 units to the left, then dilation Exercise 14D
of factor 2 from the y-axis and dilation of 1 a i 0.2525 ii 0.0478 iii 0.0901
factor 12 from the x-axis b 124.7
c Translation 3 units to the right, then dilation
2 a i 0.7340 ii 0.8944 iii 0.5530
of factor 12 from the y-axis and dilation of
b 170.25 cm
factor 2 from the x-axis
c 153.267 cm

14B → 14 review
Exercise 14B 3 a i 0.0766 ii 0.9998 iii 0.153
b 57.3
1 a 16% b 16% c 2.5% d 2.5%
4 4 a 10.56% b 78.51%
2 a μ = 135, σ = 5 b μ = 10, σ =
3 5 Mean = 1.55 kg; sd = 0.194 kg
3 a 68% b 16% c 0.15% 6 a 36.9% b c = 69
4 21.1, 33.5 7 a 0.0228 b 0.0005 c 0.0206
5 one, 95, 99.7, three 8 a 3.04 b 350.27
6 2.5% 9 1003 mL
7 a 16% b 16% 10 a Small 0.1587; Med 0.7745; Large 0.0668
8 a 68% b 16% c 2.5% b $348.92
9 a 95% b 16% c 50% d 99.7% 11 a i 0.1169 ii 17.7
5 b 0.0284
10 a 0 b− c 1.5
4 34
11 a −1.4 b 1.1 c 3.5 12 a A: 0.0228; B: 0.1587 b c=
3
12 Michael 1.4, Cheryl 1.5; Cheryl
13 Biology 1.73, History 0.90; Biology
Exercise 14E
14 a Student French English Maths 1 0.9632
Mary 1 0.875 0 2 0.2442
Steve −0.5 −1 1.25 3 a 0.0478 b 0.2521
Sue 0 0.7 −0.2 4 a 0.7834 b 0.3208
b i Mary ii Mary iii Steve 5 0.2819
c Mary 6 a 0.0416 b 0.0038

Exercise 14C
Chapter 14 review
1 a 0.9772 b 0.9938 c 0.9938 d 0.9943
Short-answer questions
e 0.0228 f 0.0668 g 0.3669 h 0.1562
1 a 1− p b 1− p c 2p − 1
2 a 0.9772 b 0.6915 c 0.9938 d 0.9003
e 0.0228 f 0.0099 g 0.0359 h 0.1711 2 a a = −1 b b=1 c 0.5
x−8
3 a 0.6827 b 0.9545 c 0.9973 3 (x, y) → , 3y
3
4 a 0.0214 b 0.9270 c 0.0441 d 0.1311 q 1− p
5 c = 1.2816 6 c = 0.6745 4 a b 1−q c
p 1−q
7 c = 1.96 8 c = −1.6449 5 a Pr(Z < 12 ) b Pr(Z < − 12 ) c Pr(Z > 12 )
9 c = −0.8416 10 c = −1.2816 d Pr(− 12 < Z < 12 ) e Pr(− 12 < Z < 1)
11 c = −1.9600
6 a 0.84 b 0.5 c 0.16 d 0.68
12 a 0.9522 b 0.7977 c 0.0478
d 0.154538 7 a 0.16 b 0.34 c 0.32 d 0.02
13 a 0.9452 b 0.2119 c 0.9452 d 0.1571 8 a 0.69 b 0.19 c 0.15 d 0.68
14 a c = 9.2897 b k = 8.5631 9 Best C, worst B
15 a c = 10 b k = 15.88 10 a 0.5 b b = −1.5
16 a a = 0.994 b b = 1.96 c c = 2.968 Multiple-choice questions
17 a 0.7161 b 0.0966 c 0.5204 1 A 2 C 3 B 4 B 5 E 6 E
d c = 33.5143 e k = 13.02913 7 C 8 D 9 A 10 D 11 D 12 C
f c1 = 8.28, c2 = 35.72

Extended-response questions 9 No; a parent’s chance of selection depends on

1 Category Range how many children they have at the school.
High > 63 10 Not a random sample; only interested people
will call, and they may call more than once.
Moderate [56, 62]
Average [45, 55] 11 People who go out in the evenings will not be
Little [37, 44] included in the sample.
Low < 37 12 a All students at this school
b p = 0.35 c p̂ = 0.42
2 k = 3.92
13 a 0.22 b p̂
3 a i 0.1587 ii 0.9747 iii 0.0164
Answers

b c = 53 592 Exercise 15B

c 3.7 × 10−11
1 2
4 a 3.17 × 10−5 b False 1 a 0.5 b 0, , ,1
3 3
c c1 = 13.53, c2 = 16.47 1
c 1 2 d
5 0.0803 p̂ 0 1 2
3 3
6 0.92%
1 5 5 1
7 a μ = 60.027, σ = 0.2 b 10% Pr(P̂ = p̂)
12 12 12 12
8 a 0.9044 b 5.88 c 9.044
3 1 2 3 4
d 0.2650 e $17.61, 54.0281 2 a b 0, , , , , 1
5 5 5 5 5
9 a μ = 0, σ = 2.658 b 0.882 c 1 2
p̂ 0
10 a 0.1056 b 0.0803 c 0.5944 5 5
Pr(P̂ = p̂) 0.0036 0.0542 0.2384
3 4
p̂ 5 5
1
Chapter 15 Pr(P̂ = p̂) 0.3973 0.2554 0.0511
d 0.3065 e 0.6924
Exercise 15A 1 2
3 a 0.5 b 0, , , 1
3 3
1 No; sample will be biased towards the type of
c 1 2 d 0.9
movie being shown. p̂ 0 1
2 a No; biased towards shoppers. 3 3
b Randomly select a sample from telephone Pr(P̂ = p̂) 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.1
lists or an electoral roll. 1 2
4 a 0.4 b 0, , , 1
3 No; only interested people will call, and they 3 3
1
may call more than once. c 1 2 d
p̂ 0 1 3
4 a No; biased towards older, friendly or sick 3 3
guinea pigs which may be easier to catch. 1 1 3 1
b Number guinea pigs and then generate Pr(P̂ = p̂)
6 2 10 30
random numbers to select a sample.
3
5 No; a student from a large school has less e
5
chance of being selected than a student from a 1 1 3
small school. 5 a 0.5 b 0, , , , 1
4 2 4
7 a Unemployed will be under represented. 5
c 1 1 3 d
b Unemployed or employed may be under p̂ 0 1 16
represented, depending on time of day. 4 2 4
c Unemployed will be over represented. 1 1 3 1 1
Pr(P̂ = p̂)
Use random sampling based on the whole 16 4 8 4 16
population (e.g. electoral roll). 1 2 3 4
6 a 0, , , , , 1
8 a Divide platform into a grid of 1 m2 squares. 5 5 5 5
Select squares using a random number b 1 2 3 4
generator to give two digits, one a vertical p̂ 0 1
5 5 5 5
reference and one a horizontal reference. 1 5 5 5 5 1
b Yes, if crabs are fairly evenly distributed; Pr(P̂ = p̂)
32 32 16 16 32 32
otherwise, ﬁve squares may not be enough.
3 25
c d
16 26

1 1 3

Answers
7 a 0, , , , 1 Chapter 15 review
4 2 4
b 1 1 3 Short-answer questions
p̂ 0 1 1 a All employees of the company
4 2 4
256 256 96 16 1 b p = 0.35 c p̂ = 0.40
Pr(P̂ = p̂) 2 a No; only people already interested in yoga
625 625 625 625 625
17 b Use electoral roll √
c k k 1.96 k(100 − k)
369 3 a b ±
8 μ = 0.5, σ = 0.25 9 μ = 0.5, σ = 0.224 100 100 1000
μ = 0.2, σ = 0.2 11 μ = 0.3, σ = 0.084 0.588

15C → 16 revision
10 4 a p̂ = 0.9 b M = √
12 μ = 0.4, σ = 0.049 13 μ = 0.2, σ = 0.04 n
14 a 0.1844 b 0.7600 c 0.9683 c Margin
√ of error would decrease by a factor
of 2
Exercise 15C 5 a 38 b (0.95)40
1 0.2858 2 0.8568 3 0.1587 6 a 45 b 5.9(0.9)49
4 0.0092 5 0.0614 7 a 0.60 b 0.10 c Increase sample size
6 a 1 b 0.5000 c 0.0412
Multiple-choice questions
7 0.9545
1 B 2 C 3 D 4E 5C
8 a 0.9650 b 0.9647 6 D 7 B 8E 9 C 10 E
9 a 0.575 b 0.0139 11 A 12 B 13 C 14 D
10 a 0.848 b 0.2817 c Yes
Extended-response questions
Exercise 15D 1 a n b 0.5 c 2401
1 a 0.08 b (0.0268, 0.1332) 2401
2 a 0.192 b (0.1432, 0.2408)
3 a 0.2 b (0.1216, 0.2784)
4 (0.2839, 0.3761)
5 a (0.4761, 0.5739) b (0.5095, 0.5405)
c The second interval is narrower because the 0 p*
sample size is larger 0.5 1
6 a (0.8035, 0.8925) b (0.8339, 0.8621) 2 a 0.1537 b 0.8257
c The second interval is narrower because the 3 a (0.4730, 0.6670)
sample size is larger b i 0.7738 ii 0.0000003
7 1537 iii 0.2262 iv 4.75
8 246 c (0.5795, 0.6645)
500
9 a 897 b 2017 4 a p= b p̂ = 0.15
N
c Reducing margin of error by 1% requires c N = 3333.33 ≈ 3333 e (2703, 4348)
the sample size to be more than doubled
10 a 2017 b 2401
c i M = 1.8% ii M = 2.2% Chapter 16
d 2401, as this ensures that M is 2% or less,
whoever is correct Short-answer questions
π
11 90%: (0.5194, 0.6801), 95%: (0.5034, 0.6940), 1 a b 2 c 0.2929 d 0.1716
2
99%: (0.4738, 0.7262); Interval width 1 4
increases as conﬁdence level increases 2 a b c 1.7 d 2.01
5 9
12 90%: (0.5111, 0.5629), 95%: (0.5061, 0.5679), 1
99%: (0.4964, 0.5776); Interval width 3 a b 0.7407 c 3
36
increases as conﬁdence level increases d 3 e 0.5185 f 0.65
13 d 8 e 40 3 3 5 5 3
4 a b c d e
28 14 7 14 14
1 1
5 a b
7 3

3 9 7 1 16
17 revision

6 a b c 11 a i ii iii 0.8281 iv 0.7677

20 35 12 2500 3
7 a 0.3369 b 0.2995 b 0.9971
8 a a = 0.34, b = 0.06 b 1.6644 12 a i Pr(X –> 80) = 0.98
9 a 0.75 b 0.28 Pr(X >– 104) = 0.04
10 b 2.726
1−q 80 104
11 ii μ = 92.956, σ = 6.3084
2 ⎧
⎪ b i 16.73% of sensors ii 81◦ C
Answers

⎪
⎪
⎪ 0 if x ≤ 0
⎪
⎨ 1 3
12 a F(x) = ⎪⎪ x(2 − x) if 0 < x < 1 b a= 13 a i 0.2 ii 0.7 iii 0.125 iv
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2 160
⎩1 if x ≥ 1 128
b i 0.360 15 ii
1 625
13 a (1 − p)3 b p= c 0.163 08
3
a+b b−a 14 a 0.1056 b 1027.92 g
14 a b 15 a i 0.0105 ii 0.0455
2 2
Multiple-choice questions b 0.4396
1149
1 E 2 D 3D 4C 5A 6 B c
1909
7 E 8 D 9 E 10 C 11 B 12 D
16 a i μ = 4.25 ii σ = 0.9421 iii 0.94 iv 0.9
13 C 14 B 15 E 16 E 17 A 18 A
b i Binomial ii 18 iii 1.342 iv 0.3917
19 D 20 D 21 C 22 E 23 B 24 C n−3 3
25 D 26 C 27 E 28 A 29 B 30 E 17 a i Pr(Black) = ii Pr(White) =
n n
31 C 32 A 33 B 34 B 35 B 36 B (n − 3)2
37 B 38 C 39 B b
n − 3n + 3
2

Extended-response questions 18 a (0.0814, 0.1186) b (0.0792, 0.1208)

9 c Larger sample of females
1 b
16 d 900 of each sex e 0.078 or 0.922
2 $0.76 ⎧
⎪
⎪0.75x − 0.5s, x ≤ s
⎨
3 a P=⎪ ⎪
⎩0.5s − 0.25x, x > s Chapter 17
b $5.95 17A Short-answer questions
s
c E(P) = (0.75x − 0.5s)p(x) 1 f (g(x)) = (3x + 1)2 + 6 = 9x2 + 6x + 7
√ √
x=24 2 k = −1 − 13 or k = −1 + 13

30
+ (0.5s − 0.25x)p(x) 3 a f (x) = 21x6 (5x2 − 3)6 (5x2 − 1)
x=s+1 b f (0) = 2
d 27 π −2 π √
1 1 1 4 a f = b f = 8π − 3 3
5 a i ii iii 2 (π + 1) 2 3
6 36 6 5 a 2 ln(2x) + 3
4 41 b f (x) = 4esin(2x) cos2 (2x) − sin(2x)
bi ii
25 100 π 5π 9π 13π
121 6 x= , , or
c 8 8 8 8
600 7 a Amplitude = 4; Period = π
6 a 0.6915 b 0.1365 b y
7 a 0.0436 b 26.67% c 183 d 59 271
8 a i 0.1587 ii 511.63 4
b 0.1809 2√3
1
9 a i ii A: 0.6915, B: 0.5625
8 x
iii E(X) = 10, E(Y) = 10.67; Machine A −π −2π −5π −π0 π π 7π 5π π
b
3 3 12 6 12 3 12 6
4
20 120 6180 4
10 a c= b E(X) = c Var(X) =
49 49 2401

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Cambridge Senior Maths Y12 Guide

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Cambridge Senior Maths Y12 Guide

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i

2J Using transformations to sketch graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

5 Exponential and logarithmic functions

6 Revision of Chapters 1–5

6B Multiple-choice questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

9G Integration of circular functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

10 Revision of Chapters 7–9

10B Multiple-choice questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

11 Discrete random variables and their probability distributions

12 The binomial distribution

12B The graph, expectation and variance of a

13 Continuous random variables and their probability distributions

14 The normal distribution

15 Sampling and estimation

16 Revision of Chapters 11–15

16B Multiple-choice questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

17 Revision of Chapters 1–16

17B Multiple-choice questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688

A Appendix A: Counting methods and the binomial theorem

A2 Summation notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711

Included in the Interactive and PDF Textbook only

Graphing transformations of f(x) = ax

8 The mapping is (x, y) → (x, 15 y).

b y The graph of y = 3 x is dilated by factor 1

1,3 The mapping is (x, y) → ( 12 x, y).

b y The graph of y = 43x − 1 is obtained

(0, 0) The mapping is (x, y) → ( 13 x, y − 1).

y = ax, a > 1 y = ax, 0 < a < 1

For a ∈ R+ \ {1}, the graph of y = a x has the following properties:

11 a i Graph y = 2 x , y = 3 x and y = 5 x on the same set of axes.

5B The exponential function f(x) = ex

To see what the value of e might be,  1 n

Like π, the number e is irrational:

y = ex+1 − 2 The mapping is

The asymptote has equation y = −2.

6 a Using a calculator, plot the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = e x .

a x × ay = a x+y a x ÷ ay = a x−y (a x )y = a xy (ab) x = a x b x

1 Simplify the following expressions:

Example 9 3 Solve for n in each of the following:

Example 10 4 Solve for x:

For a ∈ R+ \ {1}, the logarithm function with base a is deﬁned as follows:

Note: To ﬁnd log2 32, we ask ‘What power of 2 gives 32?’

Inverse relationship between logarithms and exponentials

loga (a x ) = x for all x aloga x = x for all positive values of x

The natural logarithm

ln(e x ) = x for all x eln x = x for all positive values of x

Law 1: Logarithm of a product

Law 2: Logarithm of a quotient

Law 3: Logarithm of a power

Proof Let loga m = x. Then a x = m, and therefore

loga (m−1 ) = − loga m

Proof Use logarithm law 3 with p = −1.

Proof Since a0 = 1, we have loga 1 = 0. Since a1 = a, we have loga a = 1.

Note: For part b, remember that ln x = loge x.

Using the TI-Nspire

Using the Casio ClassPad

Skillsheet 1 Evaluate each of the following:

11 Solve 2 ln x + ln 4 = ln(9x − 2).

5E Graphing logarithmic functions

Graphing transformations of f(x) = loga x

b The graph of y = − log3 (x + 4) is obtained from the graph of y = log3 x by a reﬂection

The equation of the asymptote is x = −5.

Exponential and logarithmic graphs with different bases

Since y = loga x, this gives: y

Using the inverse relationship between logarithms y

Example 17 1 Sketch the graph of each of the following:

5 a Using a calculator, plot the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = ln x.

7 Find a transformation that takes the graph of y = e x to the graph of y = 2 x .

5F Determining rules for graphs of exponential and

Using the TI-Nspire

Using the Casio ClassPad

3 The graph shown has rule y

Find the values of a and b.

6 The rule for the function f is of the form y

8 The rule of the graph shown is of the form y

Find the values of a and b. (7, 3)

To see what the value of e might be, 1 n