DAILY

CLASS NOTES
Environment
Aquatic Ecosystems: Wetlands
Unit 4 to Reefs

Topics Covered:
z Aquatic Ecosystem
z Wetland Ecosystems
z Coral Reef
Unit 4 2

Space for Notes UNIT-4 : AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS: WETLANDS TO REEFS

Aquatic Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem:
z In a Freshwater ecosystem, Salt concentration is less than 5 parts per thousand (PPT).

z It covers 20% of the earth’s surface.

z Freshwater is home to 41% of fish species.

Types of Freshwater Ecosystems:

z Lentic Ecosystem:
 These ecosystems contain standing or still water.
 Water movement is minimal or very slow.
 It has High biodiversity due to light penetration and stable conditions
 Examples:
 Pond ecosystem
 Lake ecosystem
z Lotic Ecosystem:
 Ecosystems where water flows continuously in a particular direction.
 Faster water movement affects oxygen levels, temperature, and sediment transport.
 It has a Higher oxygen content due to movement
 Examples:
 Rivers
 Streams
 Brook

Significance of Freshwater Ecosystem:

z Vital for Planetary Survival: Freshwater ecosystems maintain ecological balance, support
biodiversity, regulate climate, and are essential for sustaining life on Earth, making
them crucial for planetary health.
z Natural Water Storage and Purification: These ecosystems store freshwater and
naturally filter pollutants, providing clean, usable water for wildlife and humans, thus
ensuring long-term water availability and quality.
z Essential Resource for Human Activities: They supply water for drinking, agriculture,
industry, hydropower, and transportation, supporting economic development and meeting
basic human needs across various sectors.
z Control Erosion and Flooding: By slowing water flow and stabilizing soil, freshwater
ecosystems reduce erosion and absorb excess rainwater, acting as buffers against floods
and land degradation.
z Natural Waste Disposal System: Freshwater bodies break down organic waste and
recycle nutrients, reducing pollution and maintaining environmental cleanliness through
biological and chemical purification processes.

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Threats to Freshwater Ecosystem: Space for Notes

z Overexploitation: Excessive withdrawal of water for irrigation, industry, and domestic use.
Leads to drying of rivers, lakes, and lowered groundwater levels.
Overfishing disrupts the aquatic food chain.
z Water pollution:
 From industrial discharge, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), and sewage.
 Causes eutrophication (excessive nutrients - algal blooms - oxygen depletion).
Leads to the death of aquatic life and contamination of drinking water.
z Habitat destruction:
 Urbanization, damming of rivers, and wetland drainage for farming and construction.
 Destroys breeding grounds, feeding areas, and migration routes.
 Disrupts ecological balance.
 Fact: Between 1970 and 2024, freshwater vertebrate animal populations have
declined by 83% (WWF Living Planet Report) — a major biodiversity crisis.
z Invasive of foreign Species:
 Non-native species (e.g., water hyacinth, carp, zebra mussels) have been introduced
into freshwater systems.
 They outcompete native species, alter habitats, and disrupt food webs.
z Eutrophication:
 Eutrophication is the excessive enrichment of freshwater bodies (like lakes, ponds,
and rivers) with nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, leading to overgrowth
of algae and other aquatic plants.
Marine Ecosystem:
z If the Salt concentration is more than 35 ppt in water it is known as a marine
ecosystem.
z It covers 70% of the Earth’s
surface.
z 97% of the total water supply is
in marine ecosystems.
z It provides 90% of the habitable
space on the planet.
z The average temperature of marine
ecosystems is 4 degrees Celsius.
z Water is the main habitat in aquatic
ecosystems, where aquatic organisms
are classified according to their zone
of occurrence.
Zones of Marine Ecosystem Based on Sunlight:
z Euphotic Zone:
 It is a top layer up to 200 meters.
 It receives enough light.
 Presence of most of the marine life ecosystem.

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Unit 4 4

Space for Notes z Disphotic Zone:

 It is the middle layer and extends from 200 to 1000 meters.
 This zone helps diffuse lights.
 It has photosynthesis but marine life will gradually decrease with depth.
It has lesser biodiversity in terms of animal and plant life.
z Aphotic Zone:
 It is the lowest layer below 1000 meters.
 Absence of photosynthetic process in this zone.
 It has very little marine life diversity.
Marine Food Chain:
z It starts with primary producers, such as phytoplankton, which convert sunlight into
energy through photosynthesis.
z This energy is then passed on to primary consumers (like zooplankton), secondary
consumers (small fish), tertiary consumers (larger fish), and finally to apex predators
(such as sharks and marine mammals).
z Each level of the food chain plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance and health
of marine ecosystems.
z Example Marine Food Chain:
 Phytoplankton - Zooplankton - Small Fish - Intermediate Fish - Big Fish

Significance of the Marine Ecosystem:

z Food and Transportation:

 Oceans provide a major source of marine food (fish, shellfish).

 Oceans enable global transportation through shipping routes.
z Energy:
 Tidal Energy: Harnesses tidal movements to generate power.
 Wave Energy: Uses ocean surface waves for energy.
 Ocean Thermal Energy: Converts the temperature difference between warm surface
water and cold deep water into energy.
z Sustain Biodiversity:
 Oceans provide habitats for diverse species, especially in coral reefs, mangroves,
and deep ocean areas.
z Fisheries and Aquaculture:
 Oceans support the fishing industry and aquaculture, providing food and livelihoods
to billions globally.
z Offshore Oil and Gas:
 Oceans contain oil and natural gas reserves, crucial for energy production and
global economies.
z Moderates Global Climate:
 Oceans absorb and redistribute heat, regulating global climate and contributing to
stable weather patterns.
z Tourism and Recreation:

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Beaches, coral reefs, and coastal areas attract tourists, generating revenue through
 Space for Notes
scuba diving, swimming, and beach activities.
Threats to Marine ecosystem:
z Overfishing:

 Excessive fishing depletes fish

populations and disrupts food chains.
 It can lead to the collapse of fisheries
and the loss of biodiversity.
z Habitat Destruction:
 Coral reefs, mangroves, and
seagrasses are being destroyed due
to coastal development, pollution,
and trawling.
Loss of habitats impacts marine
species that rely on these ecosystems.
z Invasion by Foreign Species:
 Non-native species introduced to
marine environments can outcompete
or prey on native species.
 Disrupts ecosystems and can cause the decline of native marine biodiversity.
z Ocean Acidification:
 Increased CO2 emissions dissolve in the ocean, lowering pH levels.
 This affects marine life, particularly shellfish, corals, and plankton that rely on
calcium carbonate to build their shells and skeletons.
z Ocean Warming:
 Rising sea temperatures due to climate change cause coral bleaching, disrupt
marine species’ reproductive cycles, and lead to the migration of species.
Alters ocean currents and impacts global weather patterns.


Classification of Aquatic Organism:

z Neuston: Organism living at the water-air interface. Eg. Beetles and floating insects.

z Periphyton: Organisms attached to the stems and leaves of aquatic plants are known
as periphyton. E.g.- Insects, Labeotropheus, Trewavasae, and Pseudotropheus zebra.
z Planktons: Planktons are Microscopic plants (phytoplanktons, Algae) and animals (eg,
Zooplanktons, Jellyfish) which flow passively with water current.
z Nekton: Nektons are Swimming animals (eg, Frogs, Fish).
z Benthos: Organisms at the bottom of water bodies (eg, seastar, crabs, sea snail etc,)

Extra Info:
Important topics related to aquatic ecosystems:
z Biological oxygen demand(BOD)

z Chemical oxygen demand(COD)

z Eutrophication

z Algal bloom

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Space for Notes Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

z The amount of oxygen required by bacteria for their own respiration and biological
oxidation of organic material in water is known as BOD.
z When sewage is mixed with
river water BOD level will
rise.
z It measures the amount of
oxygen that microorganisms
will consume while
decomposing organic matter
in a water sample over a
specific period.
z BOD indicates the degree of
water pollution. Higher BOD
values suggest higher levels
of organic pollution, which
can deplete oxygen in water
bodies, harming aquatic life.
Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD):
z COD is the amount of oxygen needed for the chemical oxidation of both organic and

inorganic substances present in water.

z COD will always be higher than BOD.

Extra Info:
z In a healthy water body both, BOD and COD will be less, whereas in a polluted
water body, both BOD and COD are high.

Eutrophication:
z Eutrophication is a process in which there is
an overabundance of nutrients in a water body
resulting in excessive growth of simple plant
life like algae.
z This process is indicated by algae’s hypergrowth,
known as an algal bloom in the waterbody.
z Eutrophication is a severe environmental concern
because it leads to water quality degradation
and an increase in biological oxygen demand.
z Eutrophication eventually will turn water bodies
into a dead zone that can not sustain life.
z Eutrophication is caused by the addition of nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate
to aquatic ecosystems, through fertilizers, sewage, etc, such nutrients are known as
problem nutrients.

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Steps of Eutrophication: Space for Notes

z Nutrient load up: Excessive nutrients from fertilizers are flushed from the land into
rivers or lakes by rainwater.
z Plants flourish: These
pollutants cause aquatic plant
growth of algae, duckweed,
and other plants.
z Algae blooms, oxygen is
depleted: Algae blooms,
preventing sunlight from
reaching other plants. The
plants die and oxygen in the
water is depleted.
z Decomposition further
depletes oxygen: Dead plants
are broken down by bacteria
decomposers, using up even
more oxygen in the water.
z Death of the ecosystem: Oxygen levels reach a point where no life is possible. Fish
and other organisms die.
Mitigation of Eutrophication:
z Implementing precision farming techniques to optimize fertilizer use, promoting cover

crops, and adopting crop rotation can minimize runoff.

z Upgrading treatment facilities to remove nutrients before they enter water bodies.
z Algae growth can be controlled by some chemicals such as copper sulphate and sodium
arsenite.
Terms Related to Eutrophication:
z Eutrophic lake or waterbody: An eutrophic lake or waterbody is characterized by high

levels of nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, which can lead to excessive
growth of algae and aquatic plants.
z Oligotrophic lake: An oligotrophic lake is characterized by low nutrient levels, particularly
nitrogen and phosphorus.
z Dead zone or hypoxia: A dead zone, or hypoxic zone, refers to areas in aquatic
environments where biological oxygen demand is so low that it cannot support marine
life.
z Harmful algal bloom: Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are hypergrowth of certain algae
in water bodies, due to the addition of a problem nutrient.
z Red Tide: A red tide is a harmful algal bloom (HAB) that occurs when algae rapidly
grow and accumulate in coastal waters, causing the water to discolor.
Wetland Ecosystem:
z Wetlands are unique ecosystems characterized by shallow depths of water, saturated
soil for most or all of the year, and the presence of hydrophytes—plants specially
adapted to thrive in waterlogged conditions. These areas act as natural water filters,
support rich biodiversity, and help in flood control and groundwater recharge.

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Unit 4 8

Space for Notes z Wetland ecosystems are

transitional ecosystems
between terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems. They
can be considered as an
ecotone.
z Wetlands are unique
ecosystems with open
standing water i.e. water
is at surface level.
z Vegetations of wetlands are
adapted to soil saturation conditions.
z Wetlands can be temporary or permanent and can be manmade or natural.
z They can improve freshwater, brackishwater and saltwater.

Types of wetlands:
z Coastal wetlands like mangroves- Mangroves are coastal trees adapted to saline

water, protecting shorelines, preventing erosion, supporting biodiversity, and acting as

carbon sinks.
z River wetlands like riverbanks- River
banks are land areas alongside rivers,
helping prevent erosion, supporting
vegetation, and wildlife habitats, and
are often used for agriculture and
settlements.
z Lake wetlands like lake margins-
Lake margins are transitional zones
between land and water, supporting
diverse plants, and wildlife, aiding in
filtration, erosion control, and habitat
formation.
z Swamps- Wetlands with woody
vegetation such as trees.
z Marshes- Wetlands with non-woody vegetation like grasses.
z Bogs- wetlands with more peat, they are oligotrophic with less nutrients, as
decomposition is less.
z Fens- Wetlands with more peat i.e. decomposition is more and therefore nutrients
will be more.

Peat- Peat is partially decomposed organic matter found in wetlands, storing carbon,
used as fuel, and supporting unique plant and animal life.
Significance of Wetlands:
z They support rich biodiversity- They support fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
numerous invertebrates, making them one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems

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on Earth. Migratory birds also heavily rely on wetlands as breeding and resting Space for Notes
grounds.
z Helps in the nutrient cycle- They trap and transform pollutants through natural
processes involving soil, water, and plant life, thus improving water quality.
z Carbon sink- Because of slow decomposition in waterlogged conditions, carbon gets
trapped for long periods, helping mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere.
z Very useful in water recharge- Wetlands act like natural sponges. They absorb

rainwater and slowly release it, helping to recharge groundwater aquifers.

z Biosheild against urban floods- Urban wetlands act as natural buffers by absorbing

excess rainwater and surface runoff, which reduces the impact of flash floods.
z Acts as a buffer zone or natural shock absorber, during extreme weather conditions,

reduces flooding and delays draughts.

Products of Wetlands:
z Plants animals and minerals- Wetlands are a source of diverse plant species such as

reeds, cattails, lotus, and medicinal herbs. These plants are used for food, fodder,
medicine, and handicrafts.
z Fish is a source of protein and income- Wetlands serve as breeding and nursery
grounds for many fish species. These fish are not only a rich source of protein for
local diets but also provide livelihood opportunities through fishing, aquaculture, and
trade.
z Rice cultivation in wetlands- Wetlands are essential for rice farming, as paddy
requires standing water to grow. Wetlands provide the ideal conditions for traditional
and intensive rice cultivation, especially in countries like India.
z Honey- Wetlands, especially those with flowering plants and mangrove forests, support
beekeeping and honey production. For example, the Sunderbans are famous for honey
production.
Major Threats to Wetlands:
z Encroachment due to unplanned urbanisation- As cities expand, wetlands are often

filled or drained to make space for buildings, roads, and other infrastructure.
z Overexploitation for water and agriculture- Excessive withdrawal of water alters the

water balance, reduces wetland depth, and affects aquatic life. Conversion of wetlands
into farmlands or fish farms also leads to habitat destruction and degradation.
z Pollution from different sources like, solid waste disposal, agri-runoff, industrial
runoff, and domestic savage.
z Invasion by exotic species- Non-native plant and animal species like water hyacinth
or African catfish often invade wetlands, outcompeting native species. These invasive
species disrupt the ecological balance, degrade habitat quality, and reduce
biodiversity, making the ecosystem more fragile
and less resilient.
Mangroves:
z A mangrove is a small tree or shrub that grows
along coastlines, where roots of the plant is under
in saline water.

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Space for Notes z The term mangrove also refers to the environment as a whole.
z Mangroves are a type of littoral plant found along tropical and subtropical coastlines.
z Mangroves are a salt-resistant and heat-resistant plant group.
z Mangroves are more prevalent in areas with high rainfall and temperatures.
z Mangrove species have various adaptations in their morphology, anatomy, and physiology
to enable them to survive wet soil, high salinity, stores, and tide surges.
Characteristics of Mangrove:
z It is part of the litoral forest ecosystem.

z It is found primarily between

25 degrees north to 25 degrees
south i.e. tropical and subtropical
regions.
z Typically grow up to 8 meters to
20 meters tall.
z They have a complex salt filtering
system in their roots.
z They have breathing roots called pneumatophores to collect oxygen from the
atmosphere.
z They have a viviparity mode of reproduction where seeds germinate within the tree
before falling.
z Highly productive ecosystem.
Plant Vivipary:
z Mangrove forests have a viviparity mode of reproduction where the seed germinates

within the fruits when the fruit is attached to the stem, in other words, seeds
germinate within the tree before the falling. This is known as vivipary germination.
z This is an adaptation to overcome the saline water germination challenge.
z Succulent leaves: Mangroves, like desert plants, store fresh water in their flashy and
thick leaves. A waxy covering on leaves reduces evaporation.
Significance of Mangroves:
z Buffer Between Land and Sea: Mangroves

form a transition zone between terrestrial

and marine ecosystems, balancing ecological
interactions and supporting species adapted
to both saline and freshwater conditions.
z Natural Barriers Against Disasters: Mangroves
absorb the impact of storms, waves, and tidal
surges, protecting coastal communities from
floods, cyclones, and sea-level rise through
natural defense mechanisms.
z Prevention of Coastal Erosion: Their dense
root systems hold soil and sediments in place, reducing shoreline erosion and maintaining
the structural integrity of coastal landscapes.

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z Water Filtration and Sediment Trapping: Mangroves improve water quality by trapping Space for Notes
sediments, filtering heavy metals and pollutants, and preventing them from reaching
fragile marine ecosystems like coral reefs.
z Source of Livelihood and Resources: They provide wood, fuel, food, medicinal plants,
and other resources, sustaining the daily needs and traditional practices of coastal
populations.
z Biodiversity Hotspot (Ecotone Zone): As ecotones, mangroves host diverse species
due to the “edge effect,” making them rich habitats for flora and fauna, including
endangered species.
z Breeding Grounds for Marine Life: Mangrove creeks and roots offer ideal breeding,
nursery, and shelter areas for fish, crabs, shrimps, mollusks, and birds, supporting
local fisheries.
z Economic Source for Coastal Communities: Mangroves generate income through the
sustainable harvest of honey, wax, timber, and medicinal products, supporting local
economies and traditional coastal livelihoods.
z Major Blue Carbon Sink: Despite their small area, mangroves store 10–15% of oceanic
carbon, making them vital carbon sinks and crucial for climate change mitigation
strategies.
z Tourism and Research Opportunities: Mangroves attract eco-tourism and provide
unique environments for scientific study in ecology, climate resilience, and biodiversity
conservation, generating income and awareness.
Threats to Mangroves:
z Overexploitation of Resources: Excessive cutting of mangroves for agriculture, firewood,

fodder, and timber leads to habitat degradation, biodiversity loss, and disruption of the
delicate coastal ecosystem balance.
z Coastal Land Acquisition and Encroachment: Urbanization, industrial expansion, and
agriculture near coasts result in large-scale mangrove destruction, reducing forest cover
and increasing vulnerability to environmental hazards.
z Pollution from Domestic and Industrial Waste: Untreated sewage, industrial effluents,
and agrochemical runoff contaminate mangrove waters, leading to poor growth, toxicity,
and reduced survival of sensitive flora and fauna.
z Oil Spills and Marine Pollution: Oil spills smother mangrove roots and soil, disrupt
gas exchange, and poison marine life, severely impacting the health and regeneration
of mangrove ecosystems.
z Unsustainable Aquaculture Practices: Unregulated shrimp farming and other aquaculture
activities lead to deforestation, water salinization, and pollution, causing irreversible
damage to mangrove habitats.
z Biotic Pressure from Human and Animal Activity: Overgrazing, overharvesting, and
increasing population pressure in coastal areas put stress on mangrove ecosystems,
leading to resource depletion and habitat fragmentation.
z Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: Rising sea levels caused by global warming threaten
to submerge mangroves, alter salinity levels, and disturb their delicate ecological balance.

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Space for Notes z Impact of Natural Disasters: Cyclones, tsunamis, floods, and droughts physically
damage mangrove forests, uproot vegetation, and alter hydrological conditions, affecting
their growth and survival capacity.
z Agricultural Chemicals and Pesticides: Runoff containing chemical fertilizers and
pesticides seeps into mangrove areas, harming aquatic life and disrupting nutrient
cycling and food chains.
z Industrial Waste and Toxic Substances: Heavy metals and hazardous waste discharged
by industries accumulate in mangrove sediments, degrading ecosystem health and
making it uninhabitable for many organisms.
Some Important Facts:
z Recently the IUCN red list mangrove ecosystem has indicated that about 50% of
mangrove ecosystems are in danger.
z In the absence of additional conservation efforts, 5% of the mangroves will be lost
by 20250.
z 16% of Mangroves will be submerged due to sea level rise.
z 1.8 billion tons of loss of carbon sink is at risk.
z 2.1 million people are at risk from coastal flooding.
z The mangrove ecosystems of South India, Sri Lanka, Maldives and Northwest Atlantic
were identified as critically endangered.
z Nearly 33% of mangrove ecosystems on the planet are threatened by the impact
of climate change.
Mangroves in the World:
z According to the Global Forest Resource Assessment Report, in 2022 113 countries

have forests of 14.8 million hectares.

z More than 40% of mangroves are present in four countries Indonesia (19%), Brazil
(9%), Nigeria (7%), and Mexico (6%).
z Asia has more mangroves as compared to Africa.

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Mangroves in India: Space for Notes

z International Day for Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystems is celebrated every year

on July 26.
z As per the Indian state report, IFSR 2021, mangrove cover in India is 4992 square
kilometers which is 0.15 percent of the total geographical area (India).

Sunderban Mangrove:
z The Sunderbans (West Bengal) are the largest mangrove forest in the world and it

is listed as a World Heritage site.

z Over 10000 sq km in India and Bangladesh.
z Important species found here are the royal Bengal tiger, gigantic dolphin, and saltwater
crocodile.
z The deltas of the Ganges, Mahanadi, Krishna Godavari, and Kaveri rivers contain
mangrove forests.
z Top 5 states that contain mangroves: West Bengal (40% of India’s mangroves), Gujarat,
Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Odisha
Bhitarkanika Mangrove:
z It is the second-largest mangrove in India.

z An important species is saltwater crocodile.

z Largest known nesting site of olive ridley sea turtle.

Initiative for Mangroves Conservation:

z According to the India State of Forest Report, 2021, Mangrove cover in India has
increased by 17 sq km.
z MISHTI(Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitat and Ttangible Income)-

 This initiative is under the Ministry of Environment to increase the mangrove cover
along the coastline.
 It provides financial assistance to the local community to undertake mangrove
plantations.

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Unit 4 14

Space for Notes It also conducts awareness campaigns to educate people about the importance of
mangroves and their role in environmental protection.
z SAIME(Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystem)-
 The aim of this initiative is to build aquaculture parks, that use a sustainable
integrated mangrove ecosystem.
Shrimp farming is responsible for at least 35% of the overall loss of the mangrove
ecosystem.
z Magical Mangrobve Campaign-
 WWF in India along with citizens of 9 coastal states are working for mangrove
conservation under this campaign.
z Global Mangrove Alliance-
 It launched at a conference of parties- 27 in Egypt and it provides a framework
for all stakeholders to work together towards securing the future of 15 million
hectares of mangroves globally.
 This alliance will focus on:
1. Stopping mangrove loss.
2. Restoring half of the recent losses.
3. Doubling the protection of mangroves globally.
4. Ensuring sustainable long-term finance for all existing mangroves.
Ramsar Convention:
z The Ramsar Convention was adopted in 1971 with the aim of conserving and promoting
the wise use of wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation.
India became a party to the convention in 1972.
z The Ramsar Convention is founded on three pillars:
Wise Use of Wetlands (sustainable use)
Listing of Wetlands of International Importance
 International Cooperation

Two Major Parameters Used by the Ramsar Convention for Declaring Wetlands of
International Importance:
z Wetlands Supporting Rich Biodiversity: The wetland must have a diverse range of
species, including plants, animals, and microorganisms.
z Rare and Unique Wetlands: The wetland should have rare or unique features that
make it ecologically or scientifically valuable.
India and the Ramsar Convention:
z India ratified the Ramsar Convention in 1982, and as of 2025, 89 Ramsar sites
are there in different states of India.
z The first Ramsar site in India was Chilika Lake in Odisha and Keoladeo NP in
Rajasthan, recognised in 1981.
z The largest Ramsar site in India is the Sunderban in West Bengal, and the smallest
is Renuka Wetlands in Himachal Pradesh.
z Latest Ramsar sites in India, added in February 2025:
 Sakkarakottai Bird Sanctuary and Therthangal Bird Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu

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 Khecheopalri Wetland in Sikkim Space for Notes

 Udhwa Lake in Jharkhand.
z Tamil Nadu has the highest number of wetland sites in India, followed by Uttar
Pradesh and Odisha.
z Area-wise wise West Bengal has the largest area declared under the Ramsar site,
followed by Odisha and Tamil Nadu.
z Montreux Record:
 It is a list of wetlands that are experiencing or at risk of ecological changes, it is
part of the Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance, and it helps
identify wetlands that need special attention and conservation.
 The record was established in 1990 at COP-4 at Montreux, Switzerland.
 India’s wetlands in the record are:
i. Keoladeo NP in Rajasthan and
ii. Loktak Lake in Manipur
Chilika Lake was part of the Montreux record, but it was removed in 2002


after extensive rehabilitation and conservation.

Examples:
z Ramsar Sites in India: India has a total of 85 Ramsar sites (as of 2024), the

highest number in South Asia.

 Tamil Nadu (TN): Tamil Nadu has the highest number of Ramsar sites in India,
with 16 sites, followed by Uttar Pradesh (UP) with 10 sites.
 Sundarbans, West Bengal: The Sundarbans is the largest wetland in India.
 Renuka Wetlands, Himachal Pradesh: Recognized as the smallest Ramsar site in
India.
 Chilika Lake, Odisha: Chilika Lake was the first and oldest wetland in India to be
recognized as a Ramsar site. It is well-known for its biodiversity and unique
ecosystem.
Coral Reefs:
z Coral reefs are marine ecosystems found in warm tropical seawater. Although they
cover less than one percent of the marine
area, they provide habitat for 25% of marine
species and are often referred to as the
“tropical rainforests of the ocean.
Formation of Coral Reef: Coral reefs are formed
by the gradual accumulation of calcareous
(calcium carbonate) skeletons of corals over
long periods.
z Corals: These are invertebrate animals
belonging to the phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria).
z Corals are in symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae Zooxanthellae which lives
on corals.
z Coral reefs form through a symbiotic relationship between:

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Unit 4 16

Space for Notes  Coral Polyps: These are the colourless living organisms that form the structure of
the reef.
 They provide a protected environment for their symbiotic partners.
 Zooxanthellae: These are brightly coloured algae living within coral tissues.
 They provide nutrients to the coral polyps through photosynthesis.
 Zooxanthellae live in the tissues of coral polyps.
 Symbiotic Relationship: Coral polyps and zooxanthellae depend on each other for
survival.
 The polyps offer a safe habitat and carbon dioxide, while zooxanthellae supply
oxygen and organic products of photosynthesis, which are essential for coral
growth.

Conditions for Survival of Coral Reefs: Coral reefs are fragile ecosystems which can
survive in a narrow range of environment conditions.
z Temperature: Coral reefs flourish in warm tropical seas with temperatures ranging

from 25-27°C, typically found between 30°N to 30°S latitude.

z Ocean Water Salinity: Coral reefs need water salinity levels of 32-35 parts per
thousand.
z Ocean Water Depth: Coral reefs generally grow in shallow waters, at a depth of
60-80 metres, where sunlight can reach them.
z Clean and Clear Water: Coral reefs require clean, clear water without pollution or oil
spills to allow sunlight penetration and avoid contamination.
Coral Bleaching:
z Wherever environmental conditions degrade the coral polyps expel Zooxanthellae algae
from their tissue and this causes discoloration of the coral reef and it is known as
coral bleaching.

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 17 Unit 4

z Coral bleaching indicated degrading marine ecosystems and marine environments. Space for Notes
z Corals are indicator species. Indicator species are those species which are the first
one to indicate degradation in the ecosystem.
z According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), more than 70% of
coral reef ecosystems will be degraded by the end of this century. If the temperature
rises by 2 degrees, more than 90% of coral reefs will be degraded.
Major Reasons for Coral Bleaching:
z Climate Change: An increase in water temperature due to global warming leads to

heat stress on corals, causing them to expel zooxanthellae, resulting in bleaching.

z Increase in Tropical Cyclones: Physical damage to reefs caused by tropical cyclones,
which are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change, also contributes
to coral bleaching.
z Fluctuations in Water Salinity: Changes in salinity levels stress coral reefs. This can
be due to:
 Global Warming: Higher temperatures lead to an increase in evaporation rates,
resulting in higher salinity levels.
 Melting of Glaciers: As glaciers melt, rivers overflow, adding more freshwater to
oceans, which can lower salinity levels near coral reefs.
z Ocean Acidification: Increased CO2 in the atmosphere interacts with the ocean surface.
This results in the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3), leading to ocean acidification.
 Impact on pH: The normal pH of ocean water is around 8.2.
 If the pH falls to 8.1, it can cause a 30% degradation in coral reefs.
 Effect on Coral Reefs: Acidification leads to a decrease in the rate of calcification,
which is essential for coral skeleton formation.
This weakens coral reefs, making them more susceptible to erosion and damage.


z Marine Pollution: Oil spills, plastic pollution, agricultural runoff, industrial effluents,
and sewage disposal are major sources of marine pollution.
 Effects of Pollution: Pollution obstructs sunlight, which is essential for
photosynthesis in zooxanthellae algae (symbiotic algae in corals). This leads to a
lack of photosynthesis, resulting in the smothering of coral reefs.
z Destructive Fishing Practices: Ocean bottom trawling and cyanide fishing are harmful
practices that physically damage coral reefs.
 Bottom trawling (also known as ‘dragging’) refers to the process of pulling a
big fishing net along the seafloor, catching all sea creatures that reside there.
 Bottom Trawling doesn’t distinguish between specific species, which means that
young fish, turtles, and inedible species are accidentally caught and die (by-catch).
A
 Cyanide Fishing: This fishing technique uses a cyanide mixture sprayed into a fish’s
environment to stun and capture them alive.
 However, cyanide fishing doesn’t just harm the intended fish; it also affects
other marine organisms nearby. In coral reefs, its impact can be particularly
damaging.

Aquatic Ecosystems: Wetlands to Reefs | Environment | DCN

Unit 4 18

Space for Notes z Mining and Shipping: These activities contribute to habitat destruction and pollution,
further endangering coral reefs.
Ecological Services of Coral Reefs:
z Fisheries- Coral reefs support diverse marine life, providing breeding and feeding grounds
crucial for global commercial and subsistence fisheries.
z Tourism- Vibrant reefs attract tourists for activities like snorkelling and diving, boosting
local economies through sustainable ecotourism.
z Medicinal Product- Coral reef
organisms produce bioactive
compounds used in developing
medicines for cancer, arthritis,
bacterial infections, and more.
z Storm Protection- Reefs act as
natural barriers, absorbing wave
energy and reducing coastal
damage from storms, cyclones,
and tsunamis.
z Coastal Protection- By
minimising shoreline erosion,
coral reefs protect beaches and
human settlements from rising
sea levels and high tides.
z Habitat of flora and Fauna-
Reefs provide shelter to thousands
of marine species, maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance in ocean ecosystems.
z Nutrient Capturing- Corals recycle and capture nutrients efficiently, supporting

productivity in otherwise nutrient-poor tropical marine environments.

Major Initiatives for Coral Reef Protection:
z UNFCCC and CBD: UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change) and CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) have provisions to indirectly
address threats to coral reefs under climate and biodiversity goals.
z The Coral Triangle Initiative: A partnership (signed in 2006 by Indonesia, Malaysia,
Papua New Guinea and Solomon Island) that promotes coral reef conservation and
sustainable use of coral reef resources.
z International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI): It is an informal partnership between
nationals to preserve coral reefs.
Protection Measures of Coral Reefs in India
z Coral Reefs are listed in Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
z The Environment Protection Act 1986 confers exclusive power to the central government
to preserve and protect the marine environment.
z Marine Protected Area- Under this area, certain areas of national water, including
coral reefs, are being protected.

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 19 Unit 4

Major Initiative for Coral Reef Conservation: Space for Notes

● Bio Rock Technology or Mineral Accretion Technology: In this technology, electrodes emerge in ocean
water and low voltage current passes through them, this causes minerals to crystalize and form bio-
rock. This biorock serves as a habitat for coral polyps and it can grow the coral polyps at a faster rate.
A Bio Rock experiment was done by scientists at the coast of the Gulf of Kutch January 19.
Coral reefs are found in several areas of India:

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Aquatic Ecosystems: Wetlands to Reefs | Environment | DCN

Unit 4 20

PRELIMS PYQS:

1. Consider the following kinds of organisms: (2021) Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
1. Copepods
2. Cyanobacteria (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only

3. Diatoms (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

4. Foraminifera Ans: (c)

Which of the above are primary producers in the 4. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard
food chains of oceans? criterion for: (2017)

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood

(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4 (b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems

Ans: (b) (c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems

2. Why is there a great concern about the (d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions
‘microbeads’ that are released into the Ans: (c)
environment? (2019)
5. If you want to see Gharials in their natural
(a) They are considered harmful to marine habitat, which one of the following is the best
ecosystems. place to visit? (2017)
(b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves
children.
(b) Chambal River
(c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop
plants in irrigated fields. (c) Pulicat Lake

(d) They are often found to be used as food (d) Deepor Beel
adulterants. Ans: (b)
Ans: (a) 6. The scientific view is that the increase in global
3. Consider the following statements : [2019] temperature should not exceed 2°C above the
pre-industrial level. If the global temperature
1. Under Ramsar Convention, it is mandatory on
increases beyond 3°C above the pre-industrial
the part of the Government of India to protect
level, what can be its possible impact/impacts
and conserve all the wetlands in the territory
on the world? (2014)
of India.
1. The terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net
2. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management)
carbon source.
Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government
of India based on the recommendations of 2. Widespread coral mortality will occur.
Ramsar Convention. 3. All the global wetlands will permanently
3. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) disappear.
Rules, 2010 also encompass the drainage area
4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible
or catchment regions of the wetlands as
anywhere in the world.
determined by the authority.

DCN | Environment | Aquatic Ecosystems: Wetlands to Reefs

 21 Unit 4

Select the correct answer using the code given 9. Which one of the following is the correct sequence
below: of ecosystems in the order of decreasing
(a) 1 only productivity? (2013)

(b) 1 and 2 only (a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves

(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans

Ans: (b) (d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands

7. If a wetland of international importance is Ans: (c)

brought under the 'Montreux Record', what does 10. What would happen if phytoplankton of an ocean
it imply? (2014) is completely destroyed for some reason? (2012)
(a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, 1. The ocean as a carbon sink would be adversely
are occurring or are likely to occur in the affected.
wetland as a result of human interference.
2. The food chains in the ocean would be
(b) The country in which the wetland is located adversely affected.
should enact a law to prohibit any human
activity within five kilometres from the edge 3. The density of ocean water would drastically
of the wetland. decrease.

(c) The survival of the wetland depends on the Select the correct answer using the codes given
cultural practices and traditions of certain below:
communities living in its vicinity and therefore (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
the cultural diversity therein should not be
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
destroyed.
Ans: (a)
(d) It is given the status of 'World Heritage Site'.
11. There is a concern over the increase in harmful
Ans: (a)
algal blooms in the seawaters of India. What could
8. With reference to a conservation organisation be the causative factors for this phenomenon?
called 'Wetlands International', which of the (2011)
following statements is/are correct? (2014)
1. Discharge of nutrients from the estuaries.
1. It is an intergovernmental organisation formed
by the countries which are signatories to the 2. Run-off from the land during the monsoon.
Ramsar Convention. 3. Upwelling in the seas.
2. It works at the field level to develop and Select the correct answer from the codes given
mobilise knowledge, and use the practical below:
experience to advocate for better policies.
(a) 1 only
Select the correct answer using the code given
(b) 1 and 2 only
below.
(c) 2 and 3 only
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Ans: (d)
Ans: (b)

Aquatic Ecosystems: Wetlands to Reefs | Environment | DCN

Unit 4 22

12. India is a party to the Ramsar Convention and has declared many areas as Ramsar sites. Which of
the following statements best describes how we should maintain these sites in the context of this
convention? (2010)
(a) Keep all the sites completely inaccessible to man so that they will not be exploited.
(b) Conserve all the sites through ecosystem approach and permit tourism and recreation only.
(c) Conserve all the sites through an ecosystem approach for a period without any exploitation, with specific
criteria and specific period for each site, and then allow sustainable use of them by future generations.
(d) Conserve all the sites through ecosystem approach and allow their simultaneous sustainable use.
Ans: (d)

MAINS PYQS:

1. What is wetland? Explain the Ramsar concept of ‘wise use’ in the context of wetland conservation. Cite two
examples of Ramsar sites from India. (2018)

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DCN | Environment | Aquatic Ecosystems: Wetlands to Reefs