Lec. 1.

Scope and Importance of vegetable crops, Area and Production, global and
national scenario. Industrial importance, export potential of tropical and subtropical
vegetable crops and Institutions involved in vegetable crops research;
Classification of vegetable crops

Horticulture is gaining importance as it gives more returns per unit area and also gives
nutritious food to human beings thereby improves quality of life and enhances the aesthetic
beauty of nature. Vegetable growing is one of the major branches of horticulture and from the
point of view of value of the products; it is the most important branch.
“Vegetables are defined as edible herbaceous plants or parts of plants consumed as raw
or after cooking and are rich in vitamins and minerals, low in calorific value and
neutralize the acid substances produced during digestion of high-energy foods”
Olericulture is a branch of Horticulture that deals with production, storage, processing
and marketing of vegetables and has its origin when man started growing vegetables for
consumption. The term Olericulture comes from Latin words holus-holeris = any kind of
culinary vegetable, pot herb, and cultura = to cultivate.
Scope and importance of vegetable crops
Importance of vegetable in human diet
Human body requires a wide range of nutrients like carbohydrates, protein, fat,
vitamins and minerals for normal growth and sustenance of physiological activities. Protein,
carbohydrates and fat, generally referred as proximate principles are required in large
quantities and are oxidized in the body to yield energy. Protein is the major growth
promoting or body building nutrient. Vitamins and minerals are required in small quantities
for physiological processes and metabolic activities.
Vegetables are rich in carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins and other protective
substances. They are important for neutralizing the acidic effect produced during digestion of
meat, cheese and other fatty foods and roughages promote digestion and help to prevent
constipation. The vitamins which are available in almost all kinds of vegetables produce
profound and specific physiological effects in human body.
Vegetables are rich and comparatively cheap sources of vitamins like β-carotene, folic
acid, vitamin-B, vitamin-C, vitamin-E etc. and minerals like iron, calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus etc. and dietary fibres. It also supplies fair amount of carbohydrates, protein (4%)
and energy (10%).
Vitamin-A is essential for clear vision in dim light and its deficiency leads to night
blindness and dry-eye or Xerophthalmia. Vitamin-A as β-carotene or pro-vitamin-A,
which gets converted to vitamin-A in liver and intestine. Former is found only in foods of
animal origin. The β-carotene is found in green leaf vegetables and yellow fruits / tubers like
carrot, pumpkin, papaya and sweet potato. This fat-soluble vitamin is not soluble in water
and is not easily lost while cutting, washing and cooking.
Prolonged deficiency of Thiamine (vitamin-B1) leads to beri beri disease Vitamin B
2 complex consisting of riboflavin and nicotinic acid (niacin), vitamin-B6 (pyridoxine),
vitamin-B12 and folic acid (folacine) are all essential for metabolic activities and their
deficiency lead to pellagra, anemia and other disorders. Leguminous vegetables, onion
bulbs, green onion, sweet potato and cabbage contain a fair amount of vitamin-B group.
Folic acid is abundant in spinach, other green leaf vegetables and beans.
Man requires about 50 mg of vitamin-C (Ascorbic acid) daily and is mainly met from
fruits and vegetables. Its deficiency causes “scurvy” characterized by weakness, bleeding
gums and defective bone growth. Vitamin-C is a strong reducing agent and is lost easily on
exposure to air and on cooking. Vegetables like tomato, sweet pepper, chilli, immature bean
seed and bean sprouts are good sources of vitamin-C.
Vitamin-E (α-tocopherol) prevents oxidation of β-carotene and vitamin-A in
intestine. Green leaf vegetables are fairly good sources of this vitamin. Leaf vegetables like
palak, fenugreek, drumstick etc. supply a fair amount of minerals like calcium, iron,
phosphorus etc. Tender fruits of okra contain iodine, essential for prevention of goiter
disease.
Root and tuber vegetables like potato, sweet potato, cassava, yams and elephant foot
yam contain high amount of carbohydrates. Leguminous vegetables like peas, beans, cowpea
and hyacinth bean are good sources of proteins (14%).
Vegetables are rich sources of dietary fibre consisting of cellulose, non-starch
polysaccharides and lignin. Role of dietary fibre in protection against colon cancer, lowering
of blood pressure and diabetes is realized now. It is recommended to include-40.0 g of
dietary fibre in our daily diet. Most of leaf vegetables are rich sources of dietary fibre.
Ten mineral elements are required apart from carbohydrates and proteins for proper
growth and development of human health. Out of this calcium, iron and phosphorous are
required in larger quantities but they are not present in sufficient amount in other food stuff
except vegetables. Iodine and sodium elements are also supplied by vegetables. The nutrients,
source and deficiency symptoms presented in table 1.
Table 1: Nutrient, source and deficiency symptoms of vegetables.
Sl. Type of Name of the vegetables Deficiency symptoms
No. mineral/vitamin &
their role
1. Carbohydrates: Provide Tuber vegetables ie., potato, Retarded growth
energy sweet potato, tapioca and
yams.
2. Proteins: Made up of Immature seeds of lima bean, Retarded growth, retarded
amino acids, growth broad bean, peas, garlic, onion mental development,
and repair of the body etc. discoloration of skin,
swelling of leg and feet,
fatty liver (kwashiorkor)
3. Calcium: Important for Amaranthus, cauliflower, Irritability, retarded growth
bones, teeth, blood drumstick leaves, lettuce, and bone weakness.
clotting, resistance methi, carrot, onion, turnip,
against infection green peas, tomato, coriander,
spinach, cabbage.
4. Iron: Essential part of Moringa-leaves, amaranthus, Anemia, pale smooth
red blood corpuscles. methi, mint,coriander, tongue, pale lips.
drumstick, spinach.
5. Phosphorus: Cell Potato, carrot, tomato, Retarded growth
multiplication, proper cucumber, spinach,
maintenance of liquid cauliflower, lettuce, onion.
content in the tissue,
role in oxidation of
carbohydrates
6. Vitamin A: Provides Carrot, spinach, palak, leafy Night blindness, respiratory
general health vegetables, sweet potato infections, formation of
(yellow), pumpkin (yellow). stones in kidney, rough skin,
growth in children retarded.
7. Vitamin B complex: Peas, broad bean, lima bean, a) Beriberi : loss of appetite
a) Thiamin (B1) garlic, asparagus, corns, b) Red coloured mouth
b) Riboflavin(B2) tomatoes cracks in the mouth
c) Niacin (B5) c) Sore tongue, pellagra
d) Pyridoxin(B6) d) Ulcer
8. Vitamin C: Essential Turnip, green chilli, brussels Scurvy, bleeding gums and
for growth and sprout, mustard, green leafy mucous membrane, cold,
resistance against vegetables, cole crops, bitter loss of energy, delay in
diseases. gourd, raddish wound healing
9. Vitamin D: Essential Green leafy vegetables Bone and teeth weakness.
for bone and teeth
10. Vitamin E: Antisterility Cabbage, lettuce, methi, Fertility is affected
and essential for Spinach and vegetable oils
reproduction
11. Roughage: (Cellulose Leafy vegetables (Cabbage, Indigestion and constipation
and fiber) Add Spinach, Lettuce), most root
digestion and prevent crops
constipation
Vegetables as protective food
Vegetables are protective foods as their consumption prevents many diseases. Almost
all vegetables are finding important roles in traditional systems of medicine. Several
chemicals having therapeutic value were identified from vegetables. Antioxidants and
flavanoids are the most important among them.
Role of vegetables as a source of antioxidants in prevention of new generation
diseases and delaying ageing is well recognized. Antioxidants like β-carotene, ascorbic
acid (vitamin-C), α-tocopherol (vitamin-E), amino acids and flavanoids present in various
vegetables. Antioxidants have definite roles in prevention of certain cancer, age related eye
diseases, coronary artery diseases and HIV. Certain minerals like selenium and flavanoids
like quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin and luteolin have also been isolated from vegetables.
Onion and garlic contain several sulphur compounds like allicin and diallyl
disulphide which are effective for control of blood cholesterol and preventing heart diseases.
It also has antibacterial properties. The diphenylamine in onion is effective against diabetes.
Bitter gourd contains a hypoglycemic ingredient ‘cheratin’ having effect against
diabetes. Leguminous vegetables and brinjal also reduce blood cholesterol level indicating
their role in preventing heart diseases. The 3-n-butyl pthalide isolated from celery is
effective against hypertension. Certain species of yams contain diosgenin, used in
manufacture of cortisone and contraceptive drugs.
Cole crops like Brussels sprouts, sprouting broccoli, knol khol and cabbage have anti-
carcinogenic properties mainly due to hydrolysed glucosinolate derived products such as
isothiocynates and indoles. Presence of Indol-3 carbinol, offers protection against bowel
cancer. Although, enzymatic hydrolytic products from glucosinolates are goitrogenic, some
of the breakdown products induce enzymes responsible for detoxification of reactive
carcinogens and eliminates carcinogens from mammalian tissue. The National Research
Council Committee on Diet, Nutrition and Cancer, India and the American Cancer Society
suggested inclusion of vegetables belonging to Brassica genus to reduce incidence of human
cancer. In ancestral times, it was used against gout, diarrhea, stomach and celiac troubles.
Cabbage juice is used as a remedy against poisonous mushrooms.
Toxic and anti-nutrient compounds
Plants produce toxins as a defense mechanism to protect from man and animals.
During course of evolution and continuous cultivation, these undesirable qualities might have
been eliminated by selection. Still a few harmful chemicals like trypsin inhibitors,
phytate,oxalates and nitrates exist in cultivated vegetables.
 Trypsin inhibitors are widely distributed in legumes, especially in raw soybeans.
They inhibit activity of trypsin in the gut and interfere with digestibility of dietary proteins
and reduce their utilization by affecting hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids.
Phytic acid (inositol hexaphosphoric acid) present in mature seeds of peas and
beans binds iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium and reduces bio-availability of iron. On
germination of grains, phytate content reduces due to enzymatic break down which improves
iron availability.
Green leaf vegetables and legumes are rich source of oxalates and oxalic acid.
Maximum oxalate concentration is noticed in amaranth (772 mg / 100 g). Oxalic acid
converts calcium from the food consumed to insoluble calcium oxalates making it unavailable
for absorption. Calcium oxalate crystals present in leaves and tubers of Amorphophallus and
Colocasia cause itching of skin, tongue and throat. Dietary oxalates contribute to increased
excretion of oxalate in urine leading to urinary stones.
Vegetables are the single largest source of nitrate in human diet. Leaf vegetables have
high concentration of nitrate. Nitrate accumulation results in serious deleterious effects.
Within gastrointestinal tract, nitrate is reduced to nitrite, which is absorbed into blood stream
where it binds with hemoglobin, oxidizing ferrous ion to ferric ion to form methaemoglobin.
Methaemoglobin is incapable of oxygen transport and results in anoxia specifically referred
to as “methaemoglobinaemia”. When nitrite ions combine with secondary or tertiary amines,
N-nitroso compounds are formed, a few of which are potent carcinogens. On cooking, nitrate
content gets reduced drastically.
Tapioca leaves contain glucosides, which liberate hydrocyanic acid by action of
enzymes in stomach. Dioscorea species contain a toxic alkaloid, dioscorin that can be made
harmless by boiling. Potato tubers when exposed to sunlight become green and produce an
alkaloid called solanin, which is bitter in taste. A few brinjal varieties were also found bitter
due to high solanin content.
All the brassicas contain glucosinolates (thioglucosides), which are sulphur
containing compounds. Break down of glucosinolates with help of their associate enzymes
produce the culinary flavour to cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli. The thioglucosides
(sinigrin) are non-goitrogenic. But on enzymatic hydrolysis in the presence of an enzyme
myrosinase, it produces allyl thiocynate-a goitrogen. At high intake levels, it causes
enlargement of thyroid glands. Though cabbage contains goitrogen, its goitrogenic properties
would be lost during cooking.
Yield per unit area
Vegetables are not only good in taste and rich in vitamins but also give higher yield
per unit area than cereals and other crops. Comparison of yield for cereals vs vegetables.
Sl.No. Crops Average yield/ha in quintals
1 Wheat 20-25
2 Paddy 25-30
3 Potato 150-200
4 Cauliflower 125-175
5 Watermelon 200-225
Suitability for succession and inter cropping resulting in greater intensity of cropping
Vegetables are important source of farm income. Most of the vegetables are quick growing
and ready for harvest within a short time enabling the grower to practice succession cropping
and inter cropping and thus providing the grower, with more profit compared to cereals. A
number of vegetables are found to be most suitable for growing as intercrop along with trees.
During early stage (up to 5 years) crops like potato, bhendi, tomato, brinjal, onion, peas etc.,
can be grown successfully while during later stage(from 5-10 years) crops like chilli, palak
and ginger can be grown effectively .
Vegetables are usually grown with intensive cultivation practices. Vegetable industry
requires more labourers for one or the other operations continuously throughout the year
starting from soil preparation to marketing.
Vegetables can be grown throughout the year. In the perennial crop orchard
vegetables can very much grown as an intercrop. Few vegetables can be grown twice or even
thrice in a year.
Flexibility in production Programme:
The production programme can be adjusted and changed for better profits according
to the need compared to fruit crops. In fruit crops it is difficult, time consuming and also
expensive to change the production programme if it turns out to be unprofitable.
Joy and pleasure
Immense joy and pleasure is derived in producing vegetables in kitchen gardens.
Scope of vegetable cultivation
A large number of vegetable crops are being cultivated in India in temperate, tropical
and sub tropical regions. Most of the vegetables are quick growing, high yielding, and give
very high remuneration. India is the world’s second largest producer of vegetables next only
to China. Vegetable crops in India occupy only 2.8 per cent (9.396 m.ha) of the total
cultivated land producing 162.897 million tonnes of vegetables in 2013-14. India shares 14
per cent of world production of vegetables with a productivity of about 17.3 t/ha which is
quite low as compared to many countries.
The present production is not sufficient to meet the requirement of 300 g of vegetables
on an average per capita per day. At present our per capita availability is around 145 g / day.
By the end of 2030 according to an estimate we need 151-193 million tonnes of vegetables to
meet our requirement. According to the recommendations given by ICMR, an average man
with vegetarian or non vegetarian food habit should consume 125 g leafy vegetables, 100 g of
roots and tubers and 75 g other vegetables. Since the availability of vegetables per day per
capita is very low, it is necessary that the vegetable production and consumption in India will
have to be increased three to four fold. Area, production and productivity of leading vegetable
producing states are given in the table
The vegetable industry contributes heavily to the national economy. Millions of
farmers, business people (marketing) and industries (seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides,
machinery manufactures etc.) are directly or indirectly dependent on vegetable cultivation.
Vegetables have great potential to contribute directly to the income, employment and
nutrition. Due to varied geographical situation and favourable climatic conditions, India can
develop into one of the leading countries exporting fresh vegetables and their seeds. During
2013-14 India exported fresh vegetables worth of Rs. 2617.9 crores. Of all the fresh
vegetables exported the share of onion is around 75 %. Other traditional vegetables which are
presently exported are potato, gherkins, okra, bitter gourd, chilli, cauliflower and some root
vegetables.
In addition to these traditional vegetables, non traditional vegetables which have
export potential are asparagus, celery, sweet pepper, sweet corn, green pea, french bean and
tomato. Cole crops and root vegetables are much more demand in temperate countries during
winter. In India, these vegetables are grown in the open during winter and thus the cost of
production is less as compared to those grown under protective cover. There is a lot of
opportunity for exporting these vegetables to the European and North American countries
from India.
 Problems in vegetable cultivation
Indian vegetable industry is developing in faster rate. Many aspects on the vegetable
improvement and the production practices are developed still the following are limitations of
vegetable farming in India.
Vegetables are highly perishable:
Fresh vegetables are like living organisms and as such undergo normal life processes
even after harvest. They respire, loss of water occurs through transpiration and undergo
chemical changes if not sold immediately after harvest. Deterioration of vegetables is also
influenced considerably by temperature, atmospheric humidity and other factors. The losses
in leafy vegetables and fruit vegetables are much more than in root and tuber vegetable crops.
Thus, a considerable quantity of vegetables produced in our country is wasted every year.
Ignorance on nutritive value of vegetables:
A majority of community is quite unaware about the nutritive value of different
vegetable crops. Hence, inspite of available facilities for cultivation they are not giving much
attention to vegetable gardening. In our country most of the population residing in villages are
not educated who do not realize the importance of vegetable crop which are an important
source of vitamins and minerals.
Illiteracy and lack of technical knowledge of scientific cultivation:
Authentic literature on vegetable cultivation is still not available to the farmers.
Literature is very essential for selection of suitable varieties for different regions for different
purposes, economic methods of cultivation including doses of nutrients, methods of
controlling insect pests and diseases and the ways to get maximum return from these crops.
At present ICAR-New Delhi, CFTRI-Mysore, State Agricultural Universities are publishing
literature on vegetable crops but yet there is inadequate supply of the same to growers.
Lack of transportation facility:
Timely and speedy delivery of vegetables with minimum damage and deterioration
enroute at the lowest cost are important aspects of transportation. Most of the Indian villages
though there are proper facilities for growing vegetables, yet organized cultivation not taken
place due to lack of proper transportation facilities,.
Lack of enough refrigeration and storage facilities:
The losses during the storage may be lesser if vegetables are stored properly under
regulated conditions of temperature and humidity. In India this type of storage facility is
available only in cities at higher rent. Hence a small grower cannot use it for harvested
vegetables. Therefore, it could be advantageous if cold storage houses are constructed near
production regions for storing the produce.
Non availability of sufficient quantity of quality seed in time:
There should be proper arrangement for supplying good vegetable seeds for both early
and late crops. The vegetable seed industry is largely in the hands of private agencies and few
of them have adequate facilities for scientific production. As a result, the seeds available in
the market are often of doubtful origin and usually give indifferent performance. National
Seed Corporation, New Delhi started supply of improved and hybrid seeds of many
vegetables directly and through its branches to cultivators and vegetable growers. However,
still there is a great scope for evolving and standardizing new varieties of the best quality of
vegetables in India.
Malpractice in marketing:
Marketing includes all the steps from the time the produce is ready for harvest till it is
in the hands of the consumers. The main aim of marketing is that the producers should get a
suitable price for their produce. At present due to more middlemen and the price meant for
the produce is not received by the producer.
Problem of Insect pests, diseases and weeds:
Due to the tenderness of vegetables, the insect pest, disease and weed attack is more in
vegetable crops than cereals/ fruit crops/forest trees.
Lack of irrigation facilities:
Light and frequent irrigation are very essential for vegetable growing. During summer
it is not possible to grow vegetables if irrigation facilities are not available. Perennial and
large season vegetables are grown if better irrigation facilities are available.
Lack of research, technical guidance and sufficient capital:
Before 1970, there was no co-ordinated scheme in the country but at present All India
Co-ordinated Improvement Project on potato, vegetables and tuber crops are running at
country level and conducting research work on important vegetable crops. Generally
vegetable growers in our country have not well developed as yet and can not afford heavy
expenditure in vegetable growing. Due to lack of capital they are not using better chemicals,
fertilizers and labour saving equipments. Due to these facts they are not getting better yields
and quality.
In technical sense all parts are vegetables used for consumption. The term, however, is
usually applied to the edible plants which store up reserve food in roots, tubers, bulbs, stems,
petioles, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits, and seeds which are eaten either cooked or raw.
Growing vegetables is not only important for providing the protective food but also serve as
an important subsidiary food playing a more significant role in the food consumption. They
are rich in nutrients and are essential components of a balanced diet. Vegetables contribute
vitally to the general well being due to the following reasons.
India is the world's second largest producer of vegetables, but hardly 2 per cent of the
produce is processed. About 25-30 percent of the production is wasted due to lack of
adequate processing and infrastructure facilities. Besides meeting domestic requirement, the
country is meeting the adhoc demands of various foreign markets from the vegetables being
produced every year and exports sizeable quantity of vegetable and processed products after
completing domestic requirement of vegetables.
Export
The non -traditional items meet the requirement of Indian expatriates in South East
Asia and Gulf countries and to some extent in the UK go to European countries where
growing conditions are not ideal during November. There is a great demand for vegetable
products for export because vegetables have shown to earn 20-30 times more foreign
exchange per unit area than cereals.
India exports sizeable quantity of vegetables and processing products. In the year
2013-14 dried and preserved vegetables worth Rs 74272 crores were exported. Currently
onion accounts for 70 per cent of the total foreign exchange earned through export of fresh
vegetables. Among other vegetables, 60% share goes to okra, 20% to green chillies and 20%
to bitter gourd, french bean, capsicum and other mixed vegetable.
In global vegetable markets, Thailand, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Kenya, Zimbabwe,
Guatemala, China, Argentina, Indonesia, Egypt. Turkey, Iran, Cyprus, Australia, NewZealand
and Holland are the main competitive countries, which export vegetables to different
countries.
In India, Vegetables are grown in the open and thus their cost of production is less as
compared to those grown under protected condition. There is a lot of opportunity to export
these vegetables to the European and North American countries from India. Presently our
share in world export market is very negligible. If we are to make our presence felt in the
export market, considerable development is required in infrastructure and export from India.
Different processed products of vegetables, particularly, paste, sauce ketchup (tomato
products), pickles (cucumbers, carrot, mixed vegetables), saurkraut (lactic acid fermented
product of cabbage), dehydrated products (onion, potato, pea) and frozen vegetables (sweet
pepper) have steady export demand.
 The export of horticultural products and foreign exchange earnings during 2000-2001
are given in Table
Vegetable Having Export Potential: The Agricultural and Processed Food Products
Export Development Authority (APEDA) has identified traditional vegetables like onion,
potato, okra, bitter gourd, chilli and non-traditional vegetables like asparagus, celery, sweet
pepper, sweet corn, baby corn, green peas, French bean, cucumber and gherkin and cherry
tomato having good export potential. Among other vegetables, potato, okra, tomato, baby
corn, cucumber & gherkins, chillies, French beans, capsicum, bitter gourd & bottle gourd are
being exported. Vegetables are also being exported in processed form. The total export of
vegetables in processed form is over Rs. 231 crores annually.
Importing Countries: Onions and traditional vegetables are being exported to
Malaysia, Singapore, Gulf Countries, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal.
Non¬traditional vegetables are exported to European countries and Australia in addition to
Gulf countries and South East Asian countries. Onions and garlic are transported by ships and
other vegetables by air. Kuwait Airways, Saudi Airways, Air India and TWA are the
important airlines, which transport vegetables.
Variety and Quality Requirement: The requirement of foreign markets in terms of
varieties and qualities differ from domestic requirements. The requirement also differs
between different foreign markets. European markets, Japan, Australia, USA etc., require
different qualities and varieties than Gulf countries and South East Asian countries. For
example, in case of onion, European and Japanese markets require yellow/brown coloured
mild pungent onions of big size, whereas, gulf countries and South East Asian countries
require light red to dark red coloured strong pungent onions of varying sizes. South East
Asian countries and Sri Lanka also demand small rose and multiplier onions.
Parbhani Kranti, Arka Anamika, Varsha hybrid, Varsha Uphar varieties of okra;
Awsari, Panvel, G 4 and Pusa Jwala varieties of chilli; Pusa Navbahar variety of cluster bean;
Contender, Premier, Tweet Wonder, Astrel and Monel varieties of French bean; Varad
bottlegourd, MBTH-1 bittergourd, Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Arka Niketan,
Baswant 780 and N-2-4-1 varieties of common big onion in red types, Granex 33, Spanish
Brown, Tana F-1 in yellow types, Agrifound Rose, Arka Bindu in small rose type, Agrifound
Red, CO, & CO4 in multiplier type of onion; Sugarbaby in watermelon; Great Lake in
Lettuce; Nantes and Zino Carrot; Agrifound Parvati & G-282 in garlic are some of varieties
of different crops, which are in good demand. Some of the specific requirements of size,
colour, shape etc., are given in Table
The quantity of different vegetables required, though, differs in different months in view of
local production particularly in South East Asian countries; the demand is round the year. In
European markets, the demand is from November- December to April-May, when there is no
local production or even stored produce is not available. India having varied agro-climatic
conditions can produce and supply the vegetables to different markets from one to the other
parts comfortably round the year if necessary infrastructure facilities are created for pre-
cooling and transport etc.
Competing countries: Thailand, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Zimbabwe, Guatemala, China,
Argentina, Indonesia, Egypt, Turkey, Iran Cyprus, Australia, New Zealand and Holland re the
other countries which export different vegetables to different countries details of some of the
exporting counties and items being exported are given in table
Name of the Vegetables exported
countries
Thailand Brinjal, Baby corn, Chillies okra, multiple onion garlic and yellow
onion.
Holland Onion, Baby corn, Capsicum, Cole crops , Tomato cucumber lettuce,
root crops and tomato
Spain Onion and garlic.
Australia Onion, beans, cote crop, cucumber and root crops.
Iran Onion.
Turkey Onion.
Egypt Onion and garlic.
China Onion and garlic and other European vegetables
Argentina Yellow onion.
Indonesia Multiplier onion and bigger cloyed garlic.
Kenya Beans, peas and okra.
Guatemala Asparagus.
Morocco Gherkin.
Jordon Assorted vegetables.

Export policy
Fresh vegetables export other than onion is allowed freely. Under this category any
person may export vegetables to any country except to a country where export is prohibited
by law enforced from time to time. Government has also started the policy of giving cash
incentives of 10-20 per cent depending upon the kind of vegetable being exported. Export of
onion up to 20 kg per consignment is allowed by air as a part of assorted vegetables. Onion
export has been canalized through National Agricultural Co¬operative Marketing Federation
of India (NAFED) under the present policy of export. In this system, the exporters are
required to register with NAFED and get NOC for export. Other vegetables are exported on
consignment basis under OGL (Open General License).
Problems in export
Inadequate Air Cargo Space:
Except onion and tuber vegetables, all other items are transported by air. Non-
availability of sufficient air cargo space at a time has been a major constraint in increasing the
export.
Higher Air Freight:
Air freight of vegetable export from India to Gulf countries and UK etc. is very high
compared to Kenya, Jordan, Lebanon etc. This is one of the major bottlenecks in increasing
the export.
Restriction in the Export:
Many times because of failure of a particular crop and increased local demand, the
export has to be restricted. This does not allow regular export due to which we loose many
foreign markets.
Non-Availability of Suitable Varieties:
In onion, we do not have production of yellow onions which are in demand in
European and Japanese markets. Bigger clove garlic is also not available in adequate
quantities, which are now demanded by almost every country.
Absence of Cultivation of Suitable Crops/Varieties Exclusively for Export as Fresh or
For Processing:
Presently, there is no exclusive production of suitable varieties for export as fresh or
processing. This increases cost which affects export adversely.
Improper Packing of the Produce:
In many vegetables, open mesh jute bags are still being used, whereas, preference is
there for open mesh plastic woven bags. The corrugated fiber board boxes being used at
present also do not have required strength and thus rare damaged in transit. No proper space
handling / storage of material at ports/airports. Cold storage facilities at all ports or airports
do not exist. Adequate handling space also does not exist. This results in damage to stock.
Inadequate Research & Development Backup:
Not much export oriented Research & Development programmes are being taken up in
vegetables. The quality of the produce is, therefore, not uniform as per the requirement of
foreign markets. Lot of labour is thus wasted in sorting and grading of the produce.
Suggestions
 In order to meet the international requirement without affecting the domestic supply,
there is a need for a well thought out strategy for the coming years so as to produce quality
crops at competitive price and remain regularly in the market. Followings are the suggestions
for improvement:
Export policy should be long term and consistent. Frequent changes in export policy
should be avoided in view of likely adverse affects on foreign markets and growers.
Exclusive production of different vegetables for different seasons in suitable pockets
should be arranged so as to continue supply throughout the year at a competitive price
without affecting domestic supply.
Enough quality control measures should be made for weight, mixtures, size, disease
etc. We must export the quality product only in order to remain in the market regularly.
Regular assessment of international market for products originating from the local
areas. Suitable diversification of export both in terms of countries and commodities for
increasing the quality and also value.
Suitable pockets for growing different vegetables economically round the year should
be identified and agro techniques from export angle for production of quality produce of
different crops should be standardized. Organic farming as well as integrated pest
management should be introduced. Exclusive production of suitable crop/varieties for export
as fresh and in processed form should be introduced.
Production and distribution of quality seeds of different crops may be arranged in
adequate quantities by different seed producing agencies.
Pre-cooling units and cold storage for fresh vegetables should be established for
prolonging the shelf life and minimizing the losses in post harvest handling.
Ventilated and temperature controlled transport system should be introduced and
highest priority for loading and transportation of perishable items should be given.
Cold storage and transit ventilated storage facilities as per the need of different crops
should be created at all ports/airports where from vegetables export is being taken.
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registered. The party has right to use in the court of law. Firm registration is done under
Indian Registration Act, 1958.
Trade Mark/Trade Name:
A trademark means identification of your goods. It is a symbol, which a person uses in
the courses of trade in order to that the purchasing public from similar goods of other traders
may distinguish his goods. Registration of trademark done under Trade Mark and
Merchandise Act, 1958.
Patent:
A patent granted under Patent Act, 1970 centers upon the patentee, where the patent is
for an article or a substance, the exclusive right by him self his agents or licensees to make
use, exercise, sell or distribute such articles.
Agmark:
Under Agmark registration, vegetable producers are covered: Vegetable oil cakes,
dried edible mushroom, table potato, Kanchan (Bathua), seed potatoes, table potatoes
(export), water chestnut, curry powder, chillies powder, celery seeds etc.
FPO:
Under FPO registration, vegetable processed products are covered:
Dehydrated vegetables, tomato products, ketchup and sauces etc.
Quality Labelling Produce:
Still, vegetable growers and specialists have not equipped themselves with the
qualitative aspects of production and pre and post harvest core, which play a very vital role in
the export of vegetable produce. This requires government intervention and also sizeable
investment in research and development. It is also necessary to familiarize the growers and
the exporters with the technologies to qualitative aspects.
While promoting vegetable exports in India quality should be the watchword, we must
provide such quality as would be the consumer' S delight. It is no longer sufficient, if we
ensure stomach's satisfaction. In the export world, the sum is fast transforming from customer
satisfaction to consumer delight. And to achieve to this, the entire outlook in agricultural
industry and business should be radically transformed to adopt the proven three pronged
commitment, consistency and competence; commitment to lift agricultural from its present
state of stagnated growth to achieve buoyant agrarian economy; consistency in terms of
supply of quality products and competence to sell India’s products at competitive rates by
increased productivity an adoption of innovative and appropriate technology and expertise.
Tomato
Tomato has been identified as a potential vegetable for export by the Agricultural and
Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), New Delhi. The specific
requirement of tomato for export in Middle East are round, medium size and red colour, while
cherry tomato is preferred for export to European countries. Tomato is being exported from
the areas like Nasik and Pune in Maharashtra and Bangalore in Karnataka.
 Processed products of tomato especially puree and pastes have great demand in
export. Tomato is exported from India, but due to lack of suitable varieties/ hybrids
exclusively for exports, our tomato do not compete in foreign market. For encouraging export
potential of tomato and its products there is an urgent need for development of suitable
varieties, proper packing procedure and long term and consistent export policy. Pre cooling
units and cold storage for fresh tomato should be established for prolonging the shelf life and
minimizing the losses in post harvest handling.
Chilli
India has emerged today as the foremost producer and exporter of chillies contributing
to almost one fourth of the world production. Indian chillies are exported mainly to Sri Lanka,
USA, Canada, UK, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Malaysia and Germany. Important products
such as chilli dry, chilli seed, chilli fresh, chilled, chilli crushed, pigments are exporting from
India.
The total export of chillies from India is on an average of only 4 per cent of total
production. This is mainly because of domestic consumption. China has emerged as a
principal exporter and the main competitor in international market. Exports of chilli from
India fluctuate widely because of varying factors such as availability of produce for internal
use and international market. These are an increasing demand for organic food colours which
offers good potential for developing exports.
Chillies are exported in the form of fresh chillies, dry, green chillies, pickles, chilli
powder and also oleoresin both colour as well as pungent. The Directorate of marketing and
inspection under the ministry of agriculture has prescribed grades for the internal as well as
export markets known as AGMARK grades for chillies. The specifications are based on
colour, pod length, stalk less pods, broken chillies, loose seeds, damaged and discolored pods,
foreign matter, per cent of moisture etc.
Okra
Okra has tremendous export potential as fresh vegetable. It accounts for 70 percent of
the 30 percent exchange earnings, other than onion, from export of vegetables. Major targets
have been our neighboring countries in the gulf and south East Asia, particularly Singapore,
Mauritius, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Middle East countries which are upcoming
potential markets for export of vegetables from India. For fresh fruits export, bhendi fruits
should be green, tender, 6-9 cm long. Among them the suitable varieties for export are Pusa
Sawani, Parbhani Kranti, Varsha Uphar and Pusa A-4. Although bhendi is grown for export
in different parts of the country, the major exporting areas are Nasik, Ozar, Saikheda, Kolhar,
Dindori and Sholapur in Maharashtra.
Watermelon
There is no proper survey of the foreign markets taken up regarding the quality
requirements. Further, no new market has been explored. There is a need to have research and
development activities of export oriented types in each crop. In 1997-98, 3,593 mt melons
were exported from India which was valued at Rs.1.60 lakh.
Cucumber
India has varied agro-climatic condition making the cultivation of whole range of
vegetables possible from temperate to tropical. In 1997-98, the cucurbits and gherkins are
exported in quantity of 10766 mt which valued Rs.1784 lakhs. The fruits exported should
have good keeping quality.
Bottlegourd
India is an important supplier of fresh vegetables to South-East Asia and Gulf
countries. Bottle gourd has great export potential. The fruits exported should be light-green to
dark green colour having length of 30-100cm and should be straight. They should have good
packing ability in carton boxes. The varieties Pusa Summer, Prolific Long, Pusa Hybrid 3 and
Samrat have good export potential. Research is needed to survey other countries for their
requirement and production of such marketable produce to the consumers according to their
liking to meet their requirement.

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES

Quite a large number of vegetable crops are grown in the country either on a
commercial scale or limited to backyards of homesteads. A few crops have similarity while
others have dissimilarity in their climatic and soil requirements, parts, used, method of
cultivation etc. While describing individual vegetables, there is possibility of repetition in
many aspects. In order to avoid repetition, it is essential to classify or group into different
classes/groups. Different methods of classification followed in vegetables are described
below :
Botanical classification
Botanical classification is based on taxonomical relationship among different
vegetables. Plant kingdom is divided into four viz. Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteriodophyta
and Spermatophyte. All vegetables belong to division Angiospermae of Spermatophyta. It is
further divided into two classes viz., Monocotyledoneae and dicotyledoneae.
The family wise distribution of vegetables under the classes is as follows :
Monocotyledoneae
Family - Alliaceae
Allium cepa Onion
Allium cepa var. aggregatum Multiplier onion
Allium cepa var. viviparum Top onion
Allium porrum Leek
Allium sativum Garlic
Allium fistulosum Welsh onion
Allium ascalonicum Shallot
Allium schoenoprasum Chive
Family - Liliaceae
Asparagus officinalis Asparagus
Family - Araceae
Dioscorea alata Larger yam
Dioscorea esculenta Lesser yam
Colocasia esculenta Taro
Family - Poaceae (Graminae)
Zea mays Sweet corn
Dicotyledoneae
Family - Aizoaceae
Tetragonia expansa New Zealand spinach
Family - Chenopodiaceae
Beta vulgaris Beetroot and Palak
Beta vulgaris var. cicla Swiss chard
Spinacia oleracea Spinach
Artiplex hortensis Chakwat / orach
Chenopodium album Bathua
Family - Asteraceae (Compositae)
Cichorium intybus Chicory
Cichorium endivia Endive
Lactuca sativa Lettuce
 Cynara scolimus Artichoke
Family - Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea batatas Sweet potato
Family - Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)
Brassica oleracea var. acephala Kale
Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera Brussels sprouts
Brassica oleracea var. capitata Cabbage
Brassica oleracea var. botrytis Cauliflower
Brassica oleracea var. italica Sprouting broccoli
Brassica caulorapa Kohlrabi or knol khol
Brassica napus var. napobrassica Rutabaga
Brassica campestris var. rapa Turnip
Brassica juncea Leaf mustard
Brassica chinensis, B. pekinensis Chinese cabbage
Armoracia rusticana Horse-radish
Raphanus sativus Radish
Family - Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbita pepo Summer squash
Cucurbita moschata Pumpkin
Cucurbita maxima Winter squash
Citrullus vulgaris Water melon
Cucumis melo Musk melon
Cucumis melo var. momordica Snap melon
Cucumis melo var. utilissimus Long melon
Cucumis melo var. conomon Oriental picking melon
Cucumis sativus Cucumber
Praecitrullus fistulosus Tinda
Sechium edule Chow-Chow
Luffa acutangula Ridge gourd
Luffa cylindrica Sponge gourd
Lagenaria siceraria Bottle gourd
Trichosanthes dioica Pointed gourd / Parwal
Trichosanthes anguina Snake gourd
Momordica charantia Bitter gourd
 Benincasa hispida Ash gourd
Family - Euphorbiaceae
Manihot esculenta Tapioca
Family - Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
Pisum sativum Peas
Phaseolus vulgaris French bean
Phaseolus lunatus Lima bean
Vicia faba Broad bean
Vigna unguiculata Cowpea
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Cluster bean
Vigna unguiculta var. sesquipedalis Asparagus bean / Yard long bean
Lablab purpureus Lablab bean
Glycine max Soybean
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Winged bean
Tigonella foenum graecum Methi / fenugreek
Tigonella corniculatia Kasuri methi
Family - Malvaceae
Abelmoschus esculentus Okra / Bhendi
Family - Solanaceae
Solanum tuberosum Potato
Solanum melongena Brinjal
Lycopersicon esculentum(old name) Tomato
Solanum lycopersicum(New name)
Capsicum annuum Chilli
Family - Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Daucus carota Carrot
Petroselinum crispum Parsley
Apium graveolens Celery
Pastinaca sativa Parsnip
Cultural and climatic requirements of crops belonging to a family are not always
similar. Cultural requirement of radish is entirely different from that of cabbage. Similarly
climatic requirement of peas are different from that of cowpea.
Classification based on hardiness
 This classification is based on ability to withstand frost and low temperature and it
will be useful to know season of cultivation of a crop. Here the vegetable crops are classified
into hardy, semi hardy and tender. Hardy vegetables tolerate frost and low temperature and
are basically winter or cool season or temperate vegetables. Warm season or subtropical or
tropical vegetables are considered as tender since they cannot withstand frost. Temperate
vegetables, in general, can be stored for long periods under low temperature. Tropical
vegetables are bulky and more perishable compared to temperate vegetables.
Hardy Semi hardy Tender
Asparagus Carrot Amaranth
Crucifers Celery Okra
Garlic Beet root Brinjal
Leek Globe artichoke Chilli
Onion Lettuce Cluster bean
Parsley Palak Cucurbits
Peas Parsnip Tomato
Radish Potato Colocasia
Rhubarb Amorphophallus
Spinach Yams
Sweet potato

Classification based on parts used

In this system, crops are classified based on their parts used for vegetable purpose.
Tender stem and leaves : Cabbage, Chinese cabbage, knolkhol.
Amaranth, palak etc.
Fruits : Tomato, brinjal, chilli, cowpea etc.
Flower parts : Sprouting broccoli
Under ground portion : Carrot, radish, beet root, potato etc.
The cultural requirements of crops in each group may not be same. For eg., cultural
requirement of cowpea is different for that of tomato. Same is that of cabbage and palak.
Classification based on cultural requirement
This is the most convenient and widely used system of classification of vegetables.
Vegetables having similar cultural requirements are grouped together and placed in one
group. For eg., crops belonging to group Cucurbits are seed propagated, direct sown, trailing
and vigorous growing, cross pollinated and the cultural practice are almost same.
1. Solanaceous fruit vegetables
2. Cucurbits
3. Peas and beans
 4. Cole crops
5. Bulb crops
6. Root crops
7. Potato
8. Tuber crops
9. Okra
10. Pot herbs / greens
11. Salad crops
12. Perennial vegetables
Classification based on method of raising
Direct sown crops – Okra, carrot, radish, beans, peas, garlic
Transplanted crops – tomato, brinjal, chillies
Vines and cuttings – sweet potato, cassava, pointed gourd
Bits of tubers and corms – potato, yam
Classification based on season of cultivation
This is one of the most important classifications from the grower’s point of view since
majority of vegetables are season bound and specific to particular seasons. Vegetables are
classified into summer season crops, rainy season crops and winter season crops based on
growth and production during particular seasons.
Spring / summer season prevails from February to June / July under North Indian
plains and from January to May / June in South Indian plains. October to January is winter
season, experiencing chilling temperature, in most parts of the country. However, in high
rain warm humid climatic condition of Kerala, a distinct winter season is lacking and rainy
season starts from June and extents up to September. Here vegetable crops can be grouped as
rainy season, mild winter season, and summer season crops.
A few typical vegetables suited to each group are :
Winter season crops - Cruciferous vegetables, carrot, radish, beetroot,
onion, garlic, peas etc.
Mild winter - Hyacinth bean, winged bean, tomato
Summer season - All gourds, amaranth
Rainy season crops - Bhendi, chilli, brinjal, cluster been, cowpea etc.
However, depending on receipts of rain, slight variation is noticed in different parts of
country. Usually early rains are received in Kerala where monsoon starts during last week of
May or first week of June.
Classification based on rate of respiration
The vegetables having lowest rate of respiration possess the longest storability.
Very high : Asparagus, Broccoli, Pea, Spinach
High : Bean, Lettuce, Lime bean
Moderate : Beetroot, Carrot, Celery, Cucumber
Low : Cabbage, Sweet potato, Turnip
Very low : Onion, Potato, Muskmelon, Pepper,Tomato
Classification based on soil reaction
pH 6.8 – 6.0 – Asparagus, Beetroot, Cabbage, Okra, Cauliflower, Onion, Lettuce
pH 6.8 – 5.5 (Moderately tolerant) – Bean, Carrot, Tomato, Brinjal, Garlic
pH 6.8 -5.0 – (Highly tolerant) – Potato, Sweet potato, Watermelon
Classification based on salt tolerance
Tolerance based on salinity level
Sensitive - Tomato, Snake gourd
Medium tolerant - Chillies, Okra, Cabbage, Sweet potato, Onion
Highly tolerant - French bean, Ribbed gourd, Bitter gourd
Rooting depths
It will help in the preparation of land and selection of site for vegetable production.
Shallow rooted (30-40 cm) – Cabbage, Cauliflower, Onion, Potato
Moderately deep (50-70 cm) – Beetroot, Carrot, Brinjal, Cucumber
Deep (80-100 cm) – Tomato, cow pea, Watermelon

Vegetable crops can also be classified based on duration of crop growth and flowering
Annual - Tomato,Bhendi,chillies
Biennial – with respect to seed production – cabbage , cauliflower, radish
Perennial- Moringa, coccinia
Ability to grow and set seeds under a particular climate
Temperate – cabbage, cauliflower
Tropical – tomato, brinjal, chilli
Sub tropical- Radish, beans
Mode of pollination
Self pollinated (<5% cross pollination) - Tomato, peas and beans
Cross pollinated (>12% cross pollination) - Amaranthus, cucurbits, cole crops
Often pollinated (5-12% cross pollination – brinjal, Okra, Chillies
None of above classifications, except botanical classification, is hard and fast since
one and the same crop fall in different groups or can be accommodated in more than one
class. For example, crops like brinjal and chilli are treated as rainy season crops and bitter
gourd, snake gourd and cucumber as summer season crops. These vegetables can be
successfully cultivated in other seasons as well, by taking adequate care. Varieties within a
crop also exhibit variations in their response to season of cultivation, temperature requirement
etc. In crops like cowpea, there are specific varieties suited to rainy season, summer season
and winter season.
Lec. 2. Vegetable production in nutrition garden / kitchen garden, truck garden, market
garden, roof garden and floating garden

Kitchen garden or home garden or nutrition garden is primarily intended for

continuous supply of fresh vegetables for family use. A number of vegetables are grown in
available land for getting a variety of vegetables. Family members do most of works. Area
of garden, lay out, crops selected etc. depend on availability and nature of land. In rural area,
land will not be a limiting factor and scientifically laid out garden can be established. The
main purpose of kitchen or home gardenis to provide the family daily requirement with fresh
vegetables rich in nutrients and energy. There is to be more or less continuous supply of a
variety of vegetables throughout the year according to the season. It also provides recreation
and exercise especially for ladies. In urban areas, land is a limiting factor and very often crops
are raised in limited available area or in terraces of buildings. Cultivation of crops in pots or
in cement bags is also feasible in cities.
The unique advantages of a kitchen garden or home garden are :
 Supply fresh fruits and vegetables high in nutritive value
 Supply fruits and vegetables free from toxic chemicals
 Help to save expenditure on purchase of vegetables
 Induces children on awareness of dignity of labour
 Vegetables harvested from home garden taste better than those purchased from
market.
In addition to the above, home garden can reduce the family expenditure and improve
the standard of living.
Types of kitchen garden
a) Home garden having fruits and vegetables
b) Home garden having only vegetables
Kitchen gardens vary according to the size of the residential plot.
Eg: 1) Large size kitchen garden
2) Medium size kitchen garden
3) Small size kitchen garden
4) Terrace garden: In cities/towns where only little space is available, one can grow
vegetables in the pots, drums and other containers placed on terrace or roof.
Sites selection and size
Choice for selection of site for a kitchen garden is limited due to shortage of land in
homestead. Usually a kitchen garden is established in backyard of house, near water source
in an open area receiving plenty of sunlight.
Size and shape of vegetable garden depends on availability of land, number of persons
in family and spare time available for its care. Nearly five cents of land (200 M2) is
sufficient to provide vegetables throughout year for a family consisting of five members. A
rectangular garden is preferred to a square plot or a long strip of land.
Layout
Layout of garden and selection of crops suited to each season depends on agro-
climatic conditions prevailing in the area. Depending on climatic and seasonal changes,
modifications are to be done in layout and crop allotment.
Arrangement of crops:
Perennials and fruit crops should be on one side or at one end of the garden, such a way
that they should not obstruct field preparation and intercultivation. Cucurbitaceous and other
vine vegetables should be grown near the fence. Quick growing plants should be planted in
continuous rows as per our plan of supply of vegetables throughout the year.
Manuring:
FYM or compost is best suited for kitchen garden. For best growth and development of
crops chemical fertilizers are also used in addition to kitchen waste.
Inter culture:
As and when required, take up weeding, staking, thinning, earthing up etc., for good
growth and development of vegetable crops.
Irrigation:
Plants should be irrigated regularly
Control of pest and Disease:
Plant protection measures based on the need are taken up at appropriate intervals to
control respective pest / disease.
Harvesting:
Generally harvesting is done at right stage in order to get the quality products .according
to requirement.
General features / principles to be followed in the layout are follows :
 Perennial vegetables like drumstick and curry leaf should be allotted to one side of the
garden so that they may neither shade remaining plants nor they interfere with
intercultural operations.
 One or two compost pits may be provided on one corner of kitchen garden for
effective utilization of farm / kitchen waste.
 Fences on all sides should be made with barbed wire or with live stakes. Fencing on
four sides may be planting chekkurmanis, ivy gourd, dolichos bean, trailing cowpea
and ridge gourd. Fence may be made strong by planting agathi (Sesbania
grandiflora) at 1.0 m. distance along the fence.
 An arch made of red or green Basella may be erected at entry point or gate of kitchen
garden.
 After allotting areas for perennial crops, remaining portion is divided into 6-10 equal
plots for raising annual vegetable crops. By following scientific crop rotation, three
annual crops can be raised in the same plot.
 Companion cropping or accession cropping, inter cropping and mixed cropping can
be followed for effective utilization of space.
 Provide walking path at centre as well as along four sides. Path can be made
attractive by planting red and green amaranthus or indeterminate tomato on either
side.
 Utilize ridges for growing root and tuber crops.
 As intensive and continuous cropping is done in a kitchen garden, fertility and texture
of soil may be maintained by applying adequate quantities of organic manure
frequently.
 Organic farming should be given thrust for a kitchen or home garden. However, in
order to harvest good crop, chemical fertilizers are also essential.
 Since fresh vegetables are directly utilized, follow clean cultivation, mechanical
removal of pest / disease affected plants, planting of resistant varieties, biological
control, use of bio-pesticides or bio-fungicides for pest and disease control in a
kitchen garden.
 In a kitchen garden, preference should be given to long duration and steady yielding
varieties than high yielding ones, which require constant care.
  Crop arrangement : While allotting or arranging crops in each sub-plot, care should be
taken to plant varieties / crops at ideal time of planting or season. Principles of crop
rotation also should be followed in continuous cropping.
 A bee-hive may be provided for ensuring adequate pollination of crops besides
obtaining honey.
Cropping pattern of kitchen/nutrition garden
Plots May-June to September – October to December-January to
September-October December-January May-June
Annual crops
(a) Bitter gourd Yard long bean Snake gourd
(b) Brinjal and chilli Contd. Okra
(c) Ash gourd Pumpkin Amaranth
(d) Bushy / semi-trailing cowpea Tomato Cucumber / OP melon
(e) Okra Ash gourd Chilli / brinjal
(f) Pumpkin Okra Yard long bean
Perennial crops
(a) Vegetables Drumstick, curly leaf, bilimbi, culinary banana.
(b) Fruits Banana, acid lime, Malta lemon, papaya, West
Indian cherry, guava, rose apple etc.
Inter-crops in perennial plots
(a) Fruits Pineapple
(b) Vegetables Taro, elephant foot yam, yams, Chinese potato,
tapioca water leaf.
(c) Spices Perennial chilli, ginger, turmeric, mango ginger
Border of walking paths Amaranth, bush cowpea, bush dolichos bean
Fence
Perennials Chekkurmanis, Ivy gourd, agathi, giant granadilla
Rainy season Sword bean, clove bean
Winter season Ridge gourd, yard long bean
Rainy to summer Dolichos bean, winged bean
(July-February)

II. Commercial vegetable gardening:

The vegetables are grown on large scale for sale in the market. This is further divided
into following types.
i) Market gardening
ii) Truck gardening
iii) Vegetable forcing
iv)Vegetable growing for processing
Canning
Freezing
Dehydration
Pickling and fermentation
v) Vegetable seed production garden
vi) Vegetable forcing

Market garden
The main objective of market gardening is to produce vegetables for the local market.
At present due to development of transport facilities, growers are sending their produce even
to distant markets where prices are more attractive and profitable. Now vegetables are
brought to the mandies from distant villages by trucks. Timely and proper irrigation facilities,
good seed, enough nutrition, abundant labour supply and easy transportation facilities are
essential for market gardening.
Market gardens are established within 15-20 km of city to supply fresh vegetables to
nearby local market. Cropping pattern in a market garden depends on demands of local
market. Mostly high value crops, early varieties and varieties or crops which do not stand
long distance transport (amaranth, yard long bean, bitter gourd etc.) are grown on an
extensive manner in market garden. High cost of land and labour is compensated by high
price of produce, low transport cost and availability of municipal compost.
The places where market garden is practiced, the land value is very high. So it
becomes necessary to secure large returns per acre to realize some profit on the investment.
For market gardening, crops like peas, cauliflower, cucumber, tomato, chillies, onion etc., are
grown.
Truck garden
It is the method of growing special vegetable crops in relatively larger quantities for
distant markets by the employing of extensive methods. In this method of gardening, in
general more extensive and less intensive method of cultivation than market gardening is
followed. In recent years the development of national highways and efficient motor truck
facilities have improved this gardening considerably. The main feature of truck garden is
given below.
a) Such farms are located far away from the centre of consumption preferably by the side of
rail route or metallic roads.
b) Price of land and labour is comparatively lower
c) Only few crops of semi perishable nature are grown on large area. Eg: Onion, Green
chillies.
d) Cost of transportation is high.
e) Mechanization is followed partly or wholly.
f) The cost of cultivation is less.
Relative cheap labour and land, mechanical cultivation and high yield result in low
production cost in a truck garden. However, involvement of middlemen in marketing and
cost of transportation reduce net income.

Vegetable for processing

The main objective of this type of gardening is to produce the vegetables for supply to
processing factories. These gardens are situated around the factories and grow the kind of
varieties required by the factories. This type of gardens in India are very limited due to lack
of processing factories. But, the prospects of future development are quite bright as the
processing industries are growing up fast.
The main features of this type of garden are as given below.
a) Cultivation is less intensive with low cost of production
b) Market is assured.
c) Vegetables are grown on contract basis.
d) Specific kinds of varieties of vegetables are cultivated.
Suitable crops for various methods of preservation
i) Canning: Tomatoes, Peas, Beans, Okra, Pointed gourd, Sweet corn, Asparagus
ii) Freezing: Peas, Sweet corn, Lima beans, Asparagus, Cauliflower, Spinach.
iii) Dehydration: Onion, Potato, Cauliflower, Peas, Cauliflower, etc.,
iv) Pickling and fermentation: Turnip, Cucumbers, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Carrot, Chilli, and
Radish.
Vegetables for seed production
The main objective of this type of gardening is to produce quality seeds on large scale
under the inspection of an organization. Climate, soil, diseases free conditions are factors
influencing the location of seed growing areas. The owner of garden should have thorough
knowledge of the crop, its growth habit, mode of pollination, isolation distance required and
time of rouging etc. the knowledge about curing, threshing, cleaning, grading, packing and
storage is also essential. Nucleus/ breeder’s seed is produced by the breeder. Foundation seed
is multiplied at research stations or seed corporation farms. The certified seeds are multiplied
by the farmers under the inspection of seed certification agency. This is an expanding
industry in India and also profitable to the growers.
Following are main characteristics of this type of gardening.
i) Vegetables are produced mainly for seeds under strict supervision of specialists.
ii) Vegetables are produced on contract basis in suitable climatic conditions.
iii) The practices such as isolation, frequent rouging of off types is essential to maintain the
purity of the seed.
iv) Highly skilled labour is employed.
v) High investment for control of pests and diseases.

Vegetable forcing
It is the method of growing the vegetables out of their normal season in net houses,
green houses, glass houses and under other artificial growing conditions. In Indian condition
vegetable forcing is not possible because the consumers cannot afford the prices of such
vegetables.
The following are the characteristics of this type of farming.
a) Cost of production is higher than other method of vegetable production.
b) Various structures viz., green house, cold frames etc are required for forcing vegetables.
c) The cultivation is most intensive.
d) It requires special technical knowledge.
e) Environment is controlled artificially.
f) It is a sort of specialized demand oriented programme. Few vegetable crops such as
tomatoes, cucumbers, peas, asparagus etc are grown in this type of farming.
Floating garden
In this type of gardening the vegetables are grown in water on a floating base like
boat. These floating gardens can be seen in Dal lake of Kashmir valley. In such areas where
land is submerged in water, this type of gardening can be followed. A floating base is made
from the roots of typha grass or any other similar type of material. The floating base is kept in
the water and seedlings are transplanted on leaf compost made out of the local vegetation
growing in the area. According to the need of the crop, inter cultural operations can be done
by sitting in boats. Most of the summer season vegetables are supplied from Dal Lake to
Srinagar.
Cultivation in protected structures
Glass house
In developed countries, vegetables are grown under protected structures like green
houses to tide over unfavourable weather conditions like extremely low temperature, snow
fall during winter and frequent rains during summer. Green houses are framed or inflated
structures covered with transparent or translucent materials, large enough to grow
crops under partial or fully controlled environmental conditions, to get optimum growth
and productivity. They allow solar radiation to pass through it but traps the long wave
thermal radiation emitted from inside and increases inside-temperature by 10-12oC. This
“green house effect” helps for vegetable forcing in cold climate. Evaporation from soil and
plants also raise humidity inside. Carbon dioxide released by plants inside increases rate of
photosynthesis during daytime. Optimum CO2 concentration in a green house atmosphere is
between 700-900 ppm. CO2 enrichment to 1200 ppm increases efficiency with which light is
converted to chemical energy in photosynthesis. Hence, CO2 is supplemented in green house
through natural CO2 generators kept in green house or directed through pipes or by use of
liquid CO2.
High value and highly productive crops like tomato, capsicum, cucumber, musk
melon, water melon and spinach are grown in high-tech glass houses in developed countries
like USA, UK, West Germany USSR, Japan, Spain, Italy, Rumania, Bulgaria etc. Plants are
fed with optimum amount of nutrients through drip irrigation and foliar spray. The high
initial outlay for erection of glass houses and for providing glass house environment is
compensated by long duration, prolonged harvesting periods, high yield and good quality.
Poly-house
Recent advancements in petrochemicals and plastics led to replacement of costly glass
houses to less costlier poly-houses for growing vegetables. In developed countries like Japan,
Spain, Italy, Holland, Israel and UK poly-houses are utilized for commercial production of
vegetables under adverse climatic conditions. At present, poly-houses are mainly utilized for
nursery raising of vegetable crops, hybrid seed production and off-season cultivation of high
value vegetable crops like tomato, capsicum and cucumber in metropolitan cities.
Poly-houses are large structures made of aluminium or galvanized iron or locally
available wooden materials using ultraviolet stabilized low density polythene or transparent
plastic film as cladding materials for growing plants under controlled or partially controlled
environment. Based on climate control devices and materials used, poly-houses are classified
into low cost, medium cost and high cost poly-houses.
Low cost poly-house
Low cost poly-houses are not provided with any climate control device. This is a
zero-energy chamber made of 700 gauge polythene sheet supported on bamboo or locally
available materials. During winter of mild sub-tropics poly-houses are completely closed at
night and as a result temperature inside would be 5-10oC more than outside. During daytime,
poly-houses are kept open to allow natural ventilation. During summer, temperature inside
poly-houses are reduced by providing shade nets, frequent watering and by opening the walls.
Approximate cost estimated for one square meter in low, cost structures was Rs.125-500.
Medium cost poly-house
In medium cost poly-houses, all four sides are completely covered and temperature
inside is controlled by providing. “Fan and pad cooling system”, shade nets and micro-
sprinklers. During winter, hot air blowers are necessary to maintain higher temperature. It
has a single layer covering of ultraviolet stabilized polythene of 800 gauge thickness on G1
pipes. Approximate cost estimated for one square meter medium cost structures was Rs.500-
1,000.
High cost poly-houses
It is provided with fibreglass covering with full climate control devices. Temperature,
humidity, light, day length and winds are automatically controlled using computers. Sensors
and data loggers are provided in glass house to detect variation and to record climatic factors.
High-tech structures are also provided with fully automatic fertigation system, sprinklers,
misting system and fumigation devices. Approximate cost estimated for one square meter in
high cost structures was Rs.1,000 and above.
Rain Shelters
This is naturally ventilated low cost green house to protect plants from direct rain.
Rain shelters are the most suited protection structures in high rainfall states like Assam and
Kerala. It is provided with roof claddings of UV stabilized low density poly-ethylene film
and sides are fully open. Mostly even span structure is used for construction of rain shelters.
Trench cultivation
Vegetable cultivation is impossible at sub-zero winter temperature of high altitude
places. Trench cultivation, otherwise called as underground green house technology, is a
simple and economically viable technology for growing vegetables during winter. This
technology is being utilized by farmers of Ladak and Leh regions of Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu and Kashmir for extending vegetable production from three to eight months.
 For making underground green house, a trench of 10 m length, 3.3 m width and 1.25
m depth is made. After digging, it should be filled by fertile surface soil up to a height of 30
cm. To avoid crumbling of walls, the trench can be constructed with help of stone masonry.
Wooden poles are used to hold polythene sheets over trench. Vegetables like beet leaf,
spinach, vegetable mustard, fenugreek, , Chinese cabbage, celery, parsley, coriander and mint
are the most suited crop for cultivation. Crops utilize subsoil temperature, which is higher
than prevailing atmospheric temperature.
Tunnels
Tunnel is used for initiating early germination of different summer crops like
cucurbits. During rainy season also, a plastic tunnel can be provided to protect mid-season
varieties of cucumber raised in nursery against rains. Plastic tunnels are extensively used in
cold desert of Ladakh for raising vegetable nursery and to obtain early crops. In tunnels,
environment is made congenial for growth of plants when atmosphere is unfavourable.
Plastic tunnels are made using UV stabilized corrugated or plain fibre reinforced plastic
sheets using metallic wire or frames to provide support to film in tunnel shape.
Hot beds and Cold frames
Structures like hot beds and cold frames are used for growing vegetables in winter.
These beds provide an early start for crops like tomato, cucumber, okra, pepper, cabbage,
muskmelon and watermelon. Hot frame can be made of wood, cement or brick stone and is
prepared above ground. The pit is filled with a mixture of well rotten farmyard manure, ash
and soil. Artificial heating is employed.
Cold frames are similar to hot beds except for absence of any form of artificial heat.
Cold frames are wooden or concrete structures with plastic on top, which trap heat from sun,
making temperature several degrees higher.
Hydroponics
Hydroponics is the technique of growing crops in soil-less media using nutrient
solutions. It provides a method of growing plants in areas where soil is lacking or soil is
present but contaminated with disease causing organisms or toxic substances. This
technology is suited for growing high value vegetables like tomato, capsicum, lettuce, water
melon, musk melon etc. Here roots of plants are floated in nutrient solution provided with
circulating air or bubbling air. The plants are kept in proper position with supports.
Seedlings are planted on trays covered with thermocol sheets which provide support
to young plants and keep roots of plants and nutrient solution in darkness. A uniform slope is
maintained in trays for free flow of nutrient solutions and to avoid water stagnation in trays.
For proper growth, plants must be supplied with all nutrients. To prepare nutrient solution,
various fertilizers are mixed in a particular proportion and dissolved in water as per the
following table .
 3. Types of vegetable farming – rice fallow cultivation, riverbed cultivation, rainfed
cultivation and contract farming

Cultivation of vegetables in river bed

Growing of cucurbits in river beds or river basins constitute a distinct type of farming.
These areas are called “diara lands” in UP and Bihar. In river beds of Jamuna, Ganga,
Goamti, Sarayu and other tributaries in Haryana, UP and Bihar and other rivers in the
remaining states, cucurbits like bottle gourd, ash gourd, parval, pumpkin and melon a
re commonly grown. It is a type of vegetable forcing during winter from November-
February in North India. In Kerala, fertile basins of rivers Pamba and Manimala are utilized
for growing crops like yard long bean, bitter gourd and snake gourd. Cucurbits like ash
gourd, pumpkin, bottle gourd and water melon are cultivated during summer season in
river beds of Bharathapuzha in Kerala.
River beds are formed by alluvian and diluvian action of rivers and due to inundation
caused by swollen river during South West monsoon. Fresh silt and clay deposited every
year during monsoon months make the land suitable, for growing vegetables literally on sand.
Even though upper layer of sand seems unsuitable for cultivation, subterranean moisture
seeped from adjacent river streams, makes it possible to grow early crops. Cucurbits are
adapted to this situation due to long tap root system.
The system consists of identification of areas where there is silt deposit and water
level is around 2.0 m below. After identifying the areas, trenches at 2.0-3.0 m spacing or pits
at 4.0 m distance are dug after cessation of South West monsoon, late in October. Making
pits in sand is a skilled work. Individual pits of 1.0 m diameter are taken to a depth of 1.0-1.5
m. After removing top layer of sand, lower silt is dug and raised almost ¾ height of the pit.
Finally it takes the shape of a pillar inside the pit surrounded by sand on all sides. A handful
of assorted seeds are sown on this silt. Most cucurbits are grown in November-December.
Before sowing, trenches are manured with farmyard manure / cakes or other decomposed
wastes. Since winter temperature in North India falls down to 1-2oC, protection is done by
planting grass stubbles (Saccharum spp.). It has the following uses :
 Checks sand drifting on the dug up trenches and covering the hills sown with seeds.
 Provides partial protection from chilling winds.
 The grass is available for spreading over the sand when the vines grow and cover the
sand.
  Prevent the sand being blown off with vines, especially when too hot summer winds
sweep the areas in May.
Due to prevalent low temperature, sprouted seeds are sown in trenches / pits during
November – December and mixed cropping of several cucurbits like musk melon, water
melon, pumpkin, bottle gourd, ridge and smooth gourds are practiced. Sometimes seedlings
get covered with drifting sand due to wind. This has to be exposed from sand in all days. In
Bihar pointed gourd (parval) is also grown wherein the rooted cuttings are planted. Plants are
pot watered initially until the roots touch the water regime down below.
Channel irrigation starts when plant start vining. Small ponds or wells are dug in river
and water is drawn using picota or by using kerosene or diesel engines. For preventing
seepage of water, mud is mixed with water in main channel. This mud plasters the channel
through which water flows to pits without much seepage loss. Irrigation is done once in 2 or
4 days. In some parts, young seedlings are also transplanted. Since the silt soil is rich in
humus, carried from the forests, fertilizer application was not essential during earlier periods.
Due to depletion of soil fertility, fertilizer application has become necessary in several sites
and the top dressing is done twice, 20-25 days after sowing and after. Fertilizers are applied
away from the plants in shallow side trenches. When it starts vining, trenches are leveled,
stubbles are spread in the inter-spaces for spreading plants on sand. In years of un-seasonal
rainfall or floods in river, the crops may get lost and re-sowing has to be done.
River bed system is developed through native ingenuity of farmers. The home saved
seeds are used for cultivation. Yield is variable, depending on location. Since only a single
crop is taken in a year, pest and disease incidence is comparatively less in river bed
system of cultivation.
4. Organic vegetable production, GAP in vegetable production and export standards of
vegetables
Organic vegetable production
Organic vegetable production is a production system, which depends upon the development
of biological cycles based on -
 Sound rotations and natural inputs
 The use of animal manures, composts and vegetable wastes.
Advantages of organic farming
• Organic manures produce optimal conditions in the soil for high yields & good quality
crops.
• Organic manure supply all the nutrients both macro & micro nutrients, required by the
plant.
• Improve soil chemical properties such as supply and retention of soil nutrients and
promote favourable chemcial reactions.
• Improves biological activity like enzymatic activity and BNF.
• Organically grown crops are believed to provide healthier and nutritionally superior
food for man and animals than those grown with commercial fertilizers.
• Organic farming helps to prevent environmental degradation and can be used to
regenerate degraded areas.
• The produce is residue free and thus fetches premium prices in the market.
Disadvantages
 Supply and availability of the organic inputs
 Bulkiness of the organic inputs, since they are low in nutrient values (manures tend to
be 1 to 4 percent nitrogen)
 High price of the organic inputs
Good agricultural practices (GAP)
Good agricultural practices (GAP) are Practices that address environmental, economic
and social sustainability for on-farm processes and result in safe and quality food and non-
food agricultural products. In simple language, GAP stands on four pillars (economic
viability, environmental sustainability, social acceptability and food safety and quality).
Potential benefits of GAP
• Appropriate promotion and adoption of GAP from farm to fork will help improve the
safety and quality of food and agricultural products. In addition, producers and consumers
will benefit from global markets and improve their livelihoods and the national economy as a
whole.
• Adoption of GAP will help promote sustainable agriculture and contribute to meeting
national and international environmental and social development objectives.
• Adherence to food quality and safety will protect people’s health – an important factor
in national development.
Hazards associated with production flow that could be harmful to the consumer
There are three main types of hazards associated with fresh produce:
• biological
• chemical
• physical
Biological hazards
Food-borne micro-organisms, such as bacteria, viruses and parasites, are often
referredto as biological hazards (FAO, 1998). Some fungi are able to produce toxins and also
areincluded in this group of hazards.Micro-organisms able to cause human disease may be
found on raw produce.Sometimes they are part of the fruit or vegetable microflora as
incidental contaminantsfrom the soil, dust and surroundings. In other instances they get
introduced onto theproduce through poor production and handling practices, such as the use
of untreated manure, the use of contaminated irrigation water or unsanitary handling
practices.
Pathogenic bacteria associated with fruits and vegetables include:
• Salmonella
• Shigella
• Escherichia coli (pathogenic)
• Campylobacter species
• Yersinia enterocolitica
• Listeria monocytogenes
• Staphylococcus aureus
• Clostridium species
• Bacillus cereus
• Vibrio species
Chemical hazards
Chemical contaminants in raw fruits and vegetables may be naturally occurring or
may be added during agricultural production, post-harvest handling and other unit operations
(FAO, 1998). Harmful chemicals at high levels have been associated with acute toxic
responses and with chronic illnesses.
Examples of chemical hazards:
• pesticides
• fertilizers
• antibiotics
• heavy metals
• oils and grease
Physical hazards: foreign bodies
Examples of physical hazards include:
• residual soil and stones found on fruits and vegetable;
• packaging remaining from harvesting (wood, metal, etc.);
• packing materials and storage facilities, e.g. packaging plastics and cardboard;
• foreign matter collected during harvesting;
• glass and sharp objects;
• personal effects: jewels, hair, pens.
Illness and serious injuries can result from foreign material in produce; these physical
hazards can result from poor practices during harvesting, washing, sorting and packaging
operations (FAO, 1998). Filth and foreign matter in fruits and vegetables are listed in many
instances among the main barriers to international trade.
Hazards
These may be introduced into fresh fruit and vegetable products at numerous points in
the production chain as a result of bad agricultural practices.
Microbiological Risks Reason for occurrence
hazards
Slurry spread Pathogens present Contamination from livestock and human
(or sewage during the growing season traceable
numbers too high) to irrigation, soil, pesticide applications,
flooding
Manure E. coli Contamination by workers at harvest because
of lack of personal hygiene or sickness
Water Salmonella Poor quality control at harvest
Staff Campylobacter Inadequate pre-harvest container and
equipment cleaning
Harmful and Listeria Inadequate temperature control during
domestic animals storage
Decaying matter Clostridium Poor stock management
Parasitism Pseudomonas Poor waste management
Chemical Risks Reason for occurrence
hazards
Pesticides MRL exceeded Inappropriate use of pesticides
Water Residues of non- • Wrong pesticide selection
approved • Incorrect dosage/concentration
pesticides • Harvest interval not observed
• Poor calibration of sprayer
• Sprayer drift
• Inadequate cleaning between uses
• Contamination of produce due to pesticide
storage conditions
• Spillage of pesticides on produce
• Use of contaminated water to mix spray
Oils, grease and Oils, grease and • Inappropriate use of produce containers to
fuel fuel contamination store pesticides, fertilizers or oil
• Fuel spillage onto ground or produce
• Lack of inspection and servicing equipment
Heavy metals Heavy metal Heavy metal residues in soil because of
residues previous use

Physical hazards Risk Reason for occurrence

Soil Presence in Harvested with the crop
finished products
Machinery Soil and stones Dirty packaging materials
Equipment and Metal Inadequate inspection of field equipment and
containers packing facilities
Wood Inadequate maintenance of containers and
machinery
Glass and plastic Discarded rubbish, e.g. bottles, cigarette butts
Knives Inadequate cleaning schedule
Workers End product • Staff untrained in personal hygiene
contains: • Inappropriate working clothes
jewellery and
pieces of
clothing

Food safety
1. Food safety is defined as the assurance that the food will not cause harm to the consumer
when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use. Implementation of GAP
and GMP are primary steps in reducing the risks associated with fresh fruits and
vegetables.
2. A hazard is something that could cause harm to the consumer. There are three main types
of hazards associated with fresh produce: Biological, Chemical and Physical.
3. Fresh fruits and vegetables may be vehicles for the transmission of parasites and viruses.
4. Micro-organisms able to cause human disease may be found on raw produce. In other
instances they are introduced into food through poor production and handling practices,
such as the use of untreated manure, the use of contaminated irrigation water or
unsanitary handling practices.
5. Chemical contaminants in raw fruits and vegetables may be naturally occurring or may be
added during agricultural production, post-harvest handling and other unit operations.
6. Foreign materials in produce can cause serious illness and be injurious. These physical
hazards can result from poor practices during harvesting, washing, sorting and packaging
operations.
7. Training of producers in GAP at every level of the production chain and education of
consumers is the key element in reducing hazards associated with fresh fruits and
vegetables.
Export standards of vegetable crops
Some specific requirements for the export of vegetables
Crops Specific requirement
Okra Green, tender and 6-9 cm long.
Chillies Green and 6-7cm long
Cluster bean Green tender and 7-10 cm long.
Butter gourd Green 20-25 cm long having short neck.
Bottle gourd Green 20-25 cm ling having short neck
Bottle gourd Light green straight cylindrical in shape and 25-30 cm long
Gherkin Green small sized having 160-300 fruits/kg in premium grade
Tomato Round, medium size reed colour in middle east, cherry tomatoes in
European
French bean Straight 10-12 cm long, round green pods in bush beans, flat beans, flat
beans having 12-13 cm length and pods are also in demand in European
markets.
Big onion 4-6 cm in diameter, light to dark red colour, round shape, strong pungency
in gulf markets and South East Asian markets
3-4 cm in diameter, light red and round shape in Bangladesh.
Yellow/brown colour, 7-8 cm in diameter, round or spindle shape in
European and Japanese markets.
Small onion Dark red, 2-3 cm in diameter and round shape
Multiple onion 2.5-3.5 cm in diameter and round shape
Garlic white, round, 5cm or above in diameter bigger cloves of 10-12 mm and
above with 10-15in number. For Bangladesh and srilanka 4-5 cm size bulbs
are also acceptable.
potato White, oval 4.5 to 60 cm in size. Bangladesh demands red types and that
Iran & Iraq demand patotoes with yellow flesh.
Lec. 5 and 6. Tomato – area and production, composition and uses, climate and soil
requirements, season, varieties and hybrids, seed rate, nursery practices, preparation of field,
spacing, planting systems and transplanting, manuring and nutrient management, water and
weed management, mulching, fertigation, nutrient deficiencies, staking, physiological
disorders, growth regulators, constraints in production, off season cultivation under protected
structures, maturity indices, harvest, yield, post harvest handling, storage and marketing
Origin
Tomato is originated in Peru of South America and name of crop came from the word
“Tomatl”. The crop is of recent origin and first report of tomato was from Italy in 1544.
Later spread was fast and the crop is grown throughout the length and breadth of world.
Area and production
It is amazing to note the quantum jump in the spread of tomato during the last four
decades. In India, crop was grown in an area of 8.79 Lakh ha (2013-14) with the production
of 182.26635 lakh tones respectively with a productivity of 20.7 t/ha. Leading producing
states are UP, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Haryana, Punjab and Bihar.
Nutritive value and medicinal use
Tomato occupies a prime position in list of protective foods since it is a rich source of
minerals like calcium (48 mg / 100g), sodium (12.9 mg), trace elements, copper (0.19 mg),
vitamins like vitamin A (900 IU), vitamin C (27 mg), vitamin B complex (thiamine), essential
amino acids and healthy organic acids like citric, formic and acetic acids. The attractive red
colour of fruit is due to lycopene and yellow colour is due to carotenes. Peculiar flavour of
tomato is due to presence of ethanol, acetaldehyde and a number of volatile flavour
components found in fruit. Different forms of tomatine, a steroidal glycoalkaloid, are
identified from various parts of plant. Tomato is a good appetizer and its soup is a good
remedy for preventing constipation.
Taxonomy
Botanical name of tomato was Solanum lycopersicon (lycos = wolf and persicon =
peach). Later in 1978 cultivated tomato is renamed as Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. and
wild form as L. pimpinellifolium. Now the botanical name is changed as Solanum
lycopersicum
Genus Lycopersicon is divided into two subgenera
a. Eulycopersicon (Red fruited and self compatible)
b. Eriopersicon (Green fruited and self incompatible)
Eulycopersicon includes two species, L. esculentum with large fruits and L. pimpinellifolium
with small fruits born in clusters.
Eriopersicon mainly consists of wild sp like L. hirsutum, L. peruvianum, L. pissisi, L.
glandulosum, L. cheesmanii etc.
Based on growth habit and fruit characters, five forms of L. esculentum are identified.
Communae - Common tomato
Cerasiformae - Small fruited cherry tomato
Pyriformae - Pear shaped tomato
Grandifolium - potato leaved tomato
Validum - Erect and upright tomato
Botany
Tomato is a true diploid with 2n=24. Plant is annual with herbaceous prostrate stem
having determinate or indeterminate growth habit. In the determinate growth, terminal
bud ends in a floral bud and further growth in arrested resulting in dwarf and bushy
stature. In indeterminate growth, terminal bud is a leafy bud and terminal and lateral
buds continue to grow and there are less production of flowers and fruits on main stem.
Flowers are borne in racemose cyme and flower cluster is known as ‘truss’ and its
position is extra axillary. Flowers are hermaphrodite, pendulous, pentamerous and
hypogenous. Stamens are six in number and inserted on throat of corolla tube and anthers are
convent around style.
Tomato is a self pollinated crop due to hermaphrodite flowers, introvert stigma,
internal and synchronized anther dehiscence, and stigma receptivity.
Varieties
Quiet a large number of varieties differing in their climatic requirements, growth
habit, fruit quality, resistance to pest and diseases are developed for specific purposes like
fresh market, processing, long distance transport etc. A brief description of important
varieties are given below :
Developing Variety Special features
institution
TamilNadu Marutham Developed by mutation breeding (EMS) from
Agricultural (CO.3) CO.1 determinate. Fruits round and
University, cluttered. Dwarf.
Coimbatore
CO.1 Semi determinate. Fruits round.
CO.2 Indeterminate. Fruits flat round and deep
orange red.
PKM 1 Flat round, 5 ridges, green shoulder,
Induced mutant suitable for long distance
transport.
 Paiyur 1 Suitable for rain fed cultivation. Less
incidence of fruit borer. Fruits round,
medium sized and slightly ribbing. Suitable
for long distance transportation.
IIHR, Bangalore Arka Saurabh Semi determinate. Fruits firm, round and
nipple tipped. Suitable for processing
Arka Alok Bacterial wilt resistant, determinate. Fruits
(BWR 5) square and oblong.
Arka Vikas Determinate Fruits medium large, oblate
(Sel 22) Tolerant to mosaic.
Arka Ahuti Semi-determinate.
Arka Ashish Tolerant to powdery mildew.
Arka Abha Resistant to bacterial wilt, semi-
(BWR 1) determinate.
Arka Meghali Suitable for rain fed cultivation.
IARI, New Delhi. SL 120 Resistant to nematode, determinate. Fruits
flat round.
Pusa Early Dwarf Determinate. Fruits flat oblate.
Pusa Uphar Determinate. Fruits round with thick
(DT 10) pericarp, suitable for processing.
Sioux Indeterminate. Fruits small and round.
Pusa Ruby Indeterminate. Fruits flat round and suitable
for processing.
Pusa Sadhabahar Suitable for high and low temperature
regimes.
Pusa Sheetal Cold set variety (8oC or below). Fruits flat
round.
Roma Suitable for long distance transport,
determinate growth.
Pusa Gaurav Suitable for processing.
Pusa Rohini Longer shelf life. Fruits round.
IIVR, Varanasi. H 24 Determinate, resistant to TLCV Fruits flat
round. Developed from cross between L.
esculentum and L. hirsutum L.glabratum.

DVRT 2 Determinate. Developed from cross between

Lesciulentum and L. hirsutum f. glabratum.
Fruits large and spherical.
Kashi Amrit Lesculentum (Sel.7) and L. hirsutum f.
(DVRT 1) glabratum through backcross pedigree
selection. Fruits spherical with 108 g weight.
Suitable for cultivation in TLCV infested
period.
NBPGR, New Delhi La Bonita Determinate. Fruits oblong with thick
pericarp, suitable for long distance transport.
Kerala Agricultural Mukthi Bacterial wilt resistant, semi determinate.
University, Thrissur (LE 79.5) Fruits round to flat round without green
shoulder.
Sakthi Bacterial wilt resistant, semi determinate.
 (LE 79) Fruits green shouldered and flat round.
Anagha Resistant to bacterial wilt and fruit cracking.
Semi determinate, round medium sized fruits.
GBPUA&T, Pant T 3 Determinate. Fruits round, suitable for
Pantnagar. processing.
Pant Bahar Resistant to Verticillium wilt and
Fusarium wilt. Indeterminate. Fruits flat
round and suitable for processing and
storage.
Haryana Agricultural Sel.32 Determinate. Fruits flat round and large.
University, Hisar.
HS 101 Determinate and dwarf. Fruits round.
Hisar Arun (Sel.7) Determinate and dwarf. Fruits round.

HS 110 Potato leaved variety.

Hissar Lalima Determinate. Fruits round and large.
Hisar Anmol Resistant of leaf curl, determinate. Fruits flat
round, medium size. Developed by crossing
Hisar Aruna nd L. hirsutum f. glabratum.
Hisar Lalit Resistant to root knot nematode.
Determinate. Fruits medium large and round.
Punjab Agricultural Punjab Chuhara Determinate. Fruits pear shaped and suitable
University, Ludhiana for long distance transport, susceptible to
TLCV.
Punjab Kesari Determinate. Fruits pear shaped and suitable
for long distance transport, susceptible to
TLCV.
Punjab Kesari Determinate, dwarf, fruits oval round.
Sel.1-6.1-4 Root knot nematode resistant, determinate,
fruits pear shaped.
CASU&T, Kanpur. Azad T2 (KS-2) Determinate, early, fruits small round,
moderately resistant to leaf curl virus.
QUA&T, Utkal Kumari Bacterial wilt resistant, fruits round and
Bhubaneswar medium sized.
Utkal Urbashi Bacterial wilt resistant, indeterminate, fruits
(BT12) pear shaped and clustered.
BT 18 Bacterial will resistant.
BT 21 Bacterial wilt resistant.
Narendra Dev. Narendra Indeterminate, fruits large.
Agricultural Tomato 1
University, Faizabad,
Uttar Pradesh.

Narendra Determinate, suitable for transport and

Tomato 2 processing. Resistant to nematode

Assam Agricultural VC 48-1 Bacterial wilt resistant, determinate fruits

University, Jorhat. pear shaped and clustered.
YS Parmer Univ. of Solan Gola Round fruits
Horticulture and
Forestry, Solan.

HARP, Ranchi Swarna Naveen Resistant to bacterial wilt. Fruits are of

medium size (60 g), oblong, dark red with
5.0%. TSS. Yield 60 t/ha in 120-140 days.
Resistant to bacterial wilt. Fruits are of
medium size (125 g), dark red with 4.0%
TSS. Yield 50.5 t/ha.

Hybrid Vigour
Tomato is a classical example for exploitation of hybrid vigour in vegetables.
Increasing consumer demand, better emasculation and pollination processes, more seeds per
fruit, diversified use and scope for combining large number of favourable genes in F 1 coupled
with easiness in cultivation makes the crop ideal for heterosis, breeding. F1 hybrids
developed and marketed by the private seed industry are now ruling in many states like
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Haryana, Punjab etc. Features of some public sector tomato hybrids
are given Table.
In addition, hybrids like Sun 496* (Sungrow seeds, Delhi), HOE 303*, Avinash 2*
(Syngeta), BSS 20*, Meenakshi, Tolstoi (Beejo Sheetal), NA 501*, NA 601* (Nath Seeds),
Sadabahar, Gulmohar, Sonali, MTH 6* (Mahyco, Jalna), ARTH 3*, ARTH 4* (Ankur
Seeds), Rashmi, Vaishali, Rupali, Naveen (IAHS, Bangalore), Swaraksha, Uttam (Namdhari
Seeds, Bangalore), Kt 4* (IARI, Katrain) etc. are a few hybrids popular among farmers.
Developing institution Variety Special features
Tamil Nadu Agrl. COTH.1 Determinate. Fruits round to oblong,
University slightly acidic, 96 t/ha in 115 days.
COTH 2 Semi determinate, fruits are borne in
clusters of 4-5, high yield (90.2 t/ha) and
resistance to leaf curl virus disease
 TNAU Tomato Hybrid  F1 hybrid developed by crossing
CO 3 HN2xCLN 2123A
 Plants semi determinate and
suitable for high density planting
 Fruits round, medium sized and
borne in clusters of 3-5
 Good fruit quality with TSS of
5.580
 Moderately resistant to leaf curl
virus disease and root knot
nematode, titrable acidity of
0.73% and ascorbic acid content
of 35.72 mg/100g
 Duration - 145-150 days
 Yield - 96.2 t/ha
IIHR, Bangalore. Arka Vardhan Indeterminate, resistant to root knot,
nematode, oblate fruits, 75 t/ha in 160
days.
Arka Vishal Indeterminate. Fruit weight 140 g.
round, green shouldered, resistant to
cracking, good shelf life. 75 t/ha in 160
days.
Arka Abhijit Determinate. Resistant to bacterial wilt,
63.7 t/ha.
Arka Ananya Resistant to ToLCV and Bacterial Wilt,
Semi determinate, fruits round, firm,
medium.
Arka Shresta Determinate. Resistant to bacterial
wilt, 68.5 t/ha.
Arka Samrat Triple resistant to ToLCV, Bacterial Wilt
and early blight. Fruits oblate to high
round, large (90-110 g), Deep red. Yield
80-85 t/ha in 140 days.
Arka Rakshak Triple resistant to ToLCV, Bacterial Wilt
and early blight. Fruits square round,
large (90-100 g), Deep red. Yield 75-
80t/ha in 140 days.
IARI, New Delhi. Pusa Hybrid 1 Determinate, tolerant to high
temperature (upto 23o night
temperature)
Pusa Hybrid 2 Semi-detrminate, tolerant to nematode,
55 t/ha.
HARP, Ranchi Swarna Bhaibhav Fruits round, deep red, suitable for long
distance transportation, average yield
70-80 t/ha.
 Most of commercial F1 hybrids were developed by hand emasculation and pollination
by planting female and male parents in the ratio of 12:1. Usually flowers are emasculated in
afternoon and pollinated during next day morning with freshly collected pollen. Pollen grains
can also be stored for 2-3 days under normal condition for pollination purpose.
Male sterile lines can be utilized for minimizing cost of production of hybrid seeds.
Male sterile plants in a population can be identified by their small sized flowers, poorly
developed anthers, no anthers, anthers with sterile pollen grains etc. Once a male sterile plant
is identified, it has to be stabilized for utilizing it as female parent in commercial production
of F1 seeds. Since male sterility is governed by recessive genes (msms), its maintenance is
done by crossing with a heterozygous (Msms) fertile parent. The progeny segregates as male
sterile (ms ms) and male fertile (Ms ms) plants in the ratio of 1:1. From this, male sterile
plants are detected and used in hybrid seed production programme.
Climate
Tomato is a day neutral warm season crop, which cannot tolerate frost. Cool and dry
weather is preferred by the crop and optimum temperature is 21-28oC during day and 15-20oC
during night. Night temperature is more critical than day temperature. High temperature
results in exerted stigma, dryness of stigma, burning of anther tip, poor pollen
dehiscence, low pollen viability and slow pollen tube growth leading to low pollination
and fruit set. Incidence of viral diseases also will be more at high temperature. Optimum
temperature for colour development of fruit is 21-24oC. Lycopene is high at 18-26 oC and
drops rapidly above 36 oC and nil above 40 oC. Development of colouring pigment,
lycopene will be hampered above 27oC. Seed germination and pollen germination are
adversely effected below 10oC.
Based on night temperature requirement for fruit set, tomato varieties are classified
into three.
a) Normal set varieties : Set fruits at 15-20oC.
b) Hot set varieties : Set fruits above 20oC – eg : Philipine, Punjab Tropic, Pusa
hybrid 1.
c) Cold set varieties : Set fruits below 15oC – eg : Pusa Sheetal, Avilanche.
Tomato cannot withstand water logging. Hence well drained fairly fertile soil rich in
organic matter is preferred. It is moderately tolerant to acid soil having pH 5.5 and ideal pH
requirement is 6-7oC.
Sowing time and seed rate
 Under mild climatic conditions, where there is no danger of frost, three crops can be
raised in a year. In the hills, seeds are usually sown in March-April. In plains it is grown
during June to November. Under Kerala condition, seeds are sown in September and
transplanted in October.
Seed rate
Open pollinated variety : 400-500 g / ha
Indeterminate F1 hybrid : 125-150 g / ha.
Seeds sown in an area of 4-5 cents (200-240 m2) will be sufficient to plant one
hectare. Four to five weeks old seedlings are used for transplanting. Hardening of seedling is
essential for their establishment in main field and is done by withholding irrigation for one
week before transplanting, adding NaC1 (400 ppm) to irrigation water or by spray of cycocel
(200 ppm) and Zinc Sulphate (0.25%) + 25 ppm proline at time of transplanting.
Main field preparation and transplanting
Seedlings are transplanted on raised beds or on sides of ridges. Field is ploughed 4-5
times and raised beds of 100-120 cm width or ridges and furrows are prepared. Spacing
depends on the growth habit (determinate, indeterminate or semi determinate) of variety and
various spacing followed are 60 x 30-45cm, 75 x 60cm and 75 x 75 cm. Usually closer
spacing results in early and higher yield, but it may effect size of fruits.
Manures and fertilizers
Manure and fertilizer recommendation for tomato depends on the growth habit and
productivity of variety and it varies from state to state. In most of states, in addition to 15-20
tonnes of FYM, 100-125 kg, N, 50-60 kg P2O5 and 50-60 kg K2O are recommended for one
hectare. Recommendation for F1 hybrid is 250:250:250 kg NPK/ha.
FYM should be incorporated in soil at the time of final ploughing. 1/3 N, Full P and
K may be applied as basal dose either just before transplanting or 5-10 days after
transplanting. Remaining 2/3 N is applied 20 and 45 days there after. In Tamil Nadu,
additional dose of 10 kg borax and 5 kg Zinc Sulphate, as basal dose, are also recommended
for correcting fruit cracking and to increase yield and fruit quality.
Application of fertilizer in Tamil Nadu:
Apply FYM 25 t/ha, N 75 kg, P 100 kg, K 50 kg, Borax 10 kg and Zinc sulphate 50 kg/ha as
basal dose and 75 kg N/ha on 30th day of planting during earthing up. Spray 1 ppm (1 mg in
one lit) Triacontanol, 15 days after transplanting and at full bloom stage to increase the yield.
Fertigation Techniques
 For tomato F1 hybrid, a dose of 200: 250: 250 Kg of NPK / ha is applied throughout the
cropping period through split application. The split dose is applied once in every three
days through fertigation
 The fertigation schedule for tomato is given below
Total Recommended Dose : 200-250-250 Kg of NPK /ha
Water Soluble Fertilizers : 200- 62.5-250 Kg of NPK / ha
75 % of the P as basal dose : 187.5 Kg of P / ha

S.No. Fertilizer grade Quantity (Kg/ha)

Super phosphate (75% P applied as basal
1 1172
dose)
2 19-19-19 + MN 132

3 13-00-45 500

4 12-61-00 62

5 Urea 223

Super Phosphate @ of 1172 Kg / ha is applied during last ploughing as a basal dose

Fertigation Schedule

Percentage requirement
Stage of Fertilizer No. of Quantity
Duration
the crop grade Splits (Kg / split)
N P K
1 – 10 DAP 19-19-19 3 splits 10 5 10 21.93
I Stage (3rd ,6th and 9th 13-00-45 3 splits 9.26
DAP) Urea 3 splits 2.82
12-61-00 10 Splits 40 10 40 3.07
II Stage 11th – 40th DAP 13-00-45 10 Splits 16.66
Urea 10 Splits 7.53
19-19-19 10 Splits 30 5 30 6.60
III Stage 41st – 70th DAP 13-00-45 10 Splits 13.90
Urea 10 Splits 6.40
12-61-00 27 Splits 20 5 20 1.14
IV Stage 71st – 150th DAP 13-00-45 27 Splits 6.17
Urea 27 Splits 2.80
Irrigation
Furrow irrigation is the most common method in tomato and the crop require adequate
moisture throughout growth period. Frequency of irrigation depends on the climatic and soil
conditions. During summer, crop should be irrigated at 3-4 days interval. Water stress at
flowering stage will adversely effect fruiting and productivity. A long spell of drought
followed by heavy irrigation leads to cracking of fruits. Similarly a dry spell after regular
irrigation causes blossom end rot. Drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation are becoming more
common in areas of water shortage.
Inter-cultivation
Field should be kept weed free by frequent weeding, hoeing and earthing up.
Application of pendimethalin (1.0 kg a.i. / ha) as pre emergence spray along with one hand
weeding at 30-45 Days after transplanting is ideal for tomato. Oxyfluorfen (0.25 kg a.i. / ha)
Goal (0.25 kg a.i./ha) and Basalin (1.0 kg a.i. / ha) were also ideal as pre emergence
application. Mulching with straw or plastic is also effective for weed control and for
regulating soil temperature.
Training and pruning
All indeterminate varieties are trained with wires, strings or stacks to prevent lodging
and loss of fruits by coming in contact with soil. It is done by providing individual stack or
by erecting 2-2.5 m long poles on either side of ridges for stretching G1 wire. Branches of
plants are supported on poles or strings with twine.
Pruning is also generally followed in indeterminate varieties to improve size, shape
and quality of fruits. It is removal of unwanted shoots to enhance vigor of plants.
Plant growth regulators
Plant growth regulators are beneficial for early yield, increased fruit set at extreme
temperatures and to impart resistance to viral diseases. However, their effect is not seen
consistent and varied with genotype, climate, location etc. Some of the growth regulators
found useful in tomato production are :
Purpose Growth regulator Mode and time of application
High yield GA1 (5-25 ppm) Seed treatment
GA (10 ppm) Foliar spray
Increased fruit set NAA (0.1 ppm) Seedling soaking for 24 hours
For increasing fruit set at PCPA 50-100 ppm Foliar spray at flower cluster
low temperature
Ripening of fruits Ethrel 1000 ppm Whole plant spray at the
 initiation of ripening.
Harvesting
Crop starts yielding by 70 days after planting. Usually fruits are harvested with hand
by a gentle twist so that the stalk is retained on plant. Intervals of harvests depend on season
and it is twice in a week during summer and weekly during winter and rainy days.
Harvesting maturity depends on the purpose whether for fresh market, processing, long
distance transport etc. Following maturity standards are recognized in tomato :
 Mature green : Fruits fully grown, fruit colour changes from green to yellowish and
cavity filled with seeds surrounded by gelly like substance. Harvested for long
distance market.
 Turning or breaker stage : Fruits firm, 1/4th portion of fruit changes to pink in colour,
but the shoulder still yellowish green. Harvested for long distance market.
 Pink stage: 3/4th of whole fruit surface turns pink colour. Harvested for local market.
 Light red : Entire fruit surface is red or pink but the flesh is firm. Harvested for local
market.
 Red ripe or hard ripe : Fully ripened and coloured. Flesh becomes soft. Harvested
for processing and for seed extraction.
Yield
Open pollinated varieties : 20-25 t/ha.
F1 hybrids : 50-75 t/ha.

Grading storage and marketing

Fruits after harvesting are graded and packed in bamboo baskets or wooden boxes.
Four grades specified by Bureau of Indian Standards are Super A, Super, Fancy and
Commercial. Since tomato is a climateric fruit, good care should be taken to remove bruised,
cracked and damaged fruits before packing in baskets. Though tomato can be stored at low
temperature, commercially it is not stored in cold storages in the country due to practical
reasons. Fruits can be stored for-two weeks and four weeks at 10-13oC when harvested at red
stage and green stage respectively. Pre-cooling of fruits before storage and transportation
enhances storage life.
Processing tomatoes
Use of tomato for processing is increasing day by day and a variety of products like
puree, paste, syrup, juice, ketchup etc are made. Varieties for processing should have
following qualities.
  Deep red colour which retains even after processing.
 Low pH – The acidity of fruits affect-heating time required for sterilization of
processed product. Longer time is required if pH is high and hence a pH below 4-5
is required for processing.
 High TSS – Fruits with high TSS yield more finished products / tonne of raw fruits
and hence minimum TSS should be 4.5oB
 High viscosity and consistency
 Firm and easy peeling
 Pericarp thickness-should be more than0.5 cm.
 Crack resistance
 Fruits size should be above 50 g and oblong in shape
Varieties like Pusa Gaurav, Roma, Punjab Chuhara, Pusa Uphar, Arka Saurabh are
specially suited for processing.
Physiological disorders in tomato
Physiological disorders or non-infectious disease may affect the plants at any stage of
their life. They may cause problems in field, storage or in the market.
Reasons for physiological disorders
 Unfavorable temperature – low or high temperature effects
 Effect of light
 Effect of soil moisture and soil pH
 Effect of soil or air pollution
i. Blossom end rot
Small water-soaked spots usually appear at the blossom end of the half-grown fruit,
which in turn becomes light to dark brown in colour, sunken and leathery. it is caused by
calcium deficiency, irregular moisture and high temperature. Balanced irrigation, cultural
practices to conserve soil moisture and spraying of 0.5% calcium chloride at fruit
development stage are recommended for control of blossom end rot.
ii. Blotchy ripening / Greenback
Orange or yellow discoloration on the surface intermixed with normal fruit colour. Greenish-
yellow to whitish patch on tomato, mostly on stem end portion of the fruits, is called blotchy
ripening. Caused mainly by potassium deficiency, it occurs due to imbalance of excess
nitrogen and potassium deficiency. To control blotchy ripening. Potassic fertilizer should be
applied adequately and temperature should be controlled. Short wave radiations could be
another cause, which causes reduction in carotenoid synthesis in blotchy fruits and ethylene
production in fruits affected by green back. Short photoperiod and relatively low day
temperature reduce its incidence.
iii. Cat-face
A disorder characterized by the distortion of the blossom end of fruit showing ridges,
furrows and blotches, may be due to abnormal growing condition during formation of the
blossom, which causes the death of the cells and black discolouration at the blossom end of
the ovary. Avoiding growing susceptible varieties and providing normal growing conditions
are the control measures.
iv. Flower drop and poor fruit setting
Flower drop and poor fruit-set in tomato is a common problem. It is due to imbalance in
supply of nutrition, incorrect method and time of its application and abnormal weather
conditions. The poor fruit setting is sometimes due to failure of pollination or fertilization and
can be overcome by the use of 2,4-D at 1-2 ppm along with urea at 1 percent in the form of
foliar spray at flowering stage.
v. Fruit cracking / Growth crack
It is characterized by the rupturing or cracking of the surface of the fruit. Two kinds of crack
are generally noticed.
1) Radial cracking: Radiates from the stem and mostly develops in the ripe fruit than mature
or breaker stage
2) Concentric cracking: It develops concentrically around the shoulder of the fruit.
The specific cause of cracking could be uncoordinated tissue expansion during
growth or simply a turgidity phenomenon. When abundant rain follows a long, dry spell, there
is cracking. High day temperature followed by low temperature with high relative humidity
also cause fruit cracking. Deficiency of boron causes cracking soil application of boron @ 15-
20 kg/ha or spraying of borax (0.24%), 2-3 times at fruiting to ripening stage reduces fruit
cracking. There should be proper control or moisture, especially at fruit maturity and ripening
stage.
Many crack resistant varieties like Crack Proof, Ohio 832, Sioux, Manulucie,
Anagha etc. were developed at various research organizations. Fruits of crack resistant
varieties have thick pericarp or cuticle and fruit skin with high elasticity and less acidity.
Pectin content in resistant varieties ranges from 0.8 to 1.6% compared to 0.54% in susceptible
ones. High pectin concentration makes fruit less rigid and more pliable.
vi. Puffiness or Pocket
A disorder caused due to poor pollination, resulting in poor development of seed bearing
tissues. The affected fruit is hollow and light in weight. High or low temperature and low
soil moisture in which the outer wall of the fruit continues ot develop normally but the
remaining internal tissue growth is retarded resulting in partially filled, less firm and light
weight tomato. To reduce its incidence, maintenance of normal temperature, frequent
irrigation, spraying of boric acid (10-15 ppm) and some growth regulators is required.
vii. Sun scald
Appearance of blistered water-soaked areas, followed by rapid desiccation and formation of
sunken spots, which are grey, or white in green fruits or yellowish in red fruits due to sudden
exposure to sunlight, which is more serious in hot weather. Dense foliage varieties with thick
pericarp developed in temperate countries are less prone to low temperature injury.
Lec. 7 and 8. Brinjal – area and production, composition and uses, climate and soil
requirements, season, varieties and hybrids, seed rate, nursery practices, preparation of field,
spacing, planting systems and transplanting, manuring and nutrient management, water and
weed management, mulching, fertigation, nutrient deficiencies, physiological disorders,
growth regulators, constraints in production, maturity indices, harvest, yield, post harvest
handling, storage and marketing

Brinjal is one of the most common tropical vegetables grown in India. It is known by
different names like aubergine (French) and Kathiri (Tamil), venkaya (Telugu) and
Peethabhala (Sanskrit). A large number of cultivars differing in size, shape and colour of
fruits are grown in India. Immature fruits are used in curries and a variety of dishes are
prepared out of brinjal. Fruits are moderate sources of vitamins and minerals like
phosphorous, calcium and iron and nutritive value varies from variety to variety.
Brinjal is also valued for its medicinal properties and has got decholestrolizing
property primarily due to presence of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic and lenolenic)
present in flesh and seeds of fruit in higher amount (65.1%). Presence of magnesium and
potassium salt in fruits also impart de-cholestrolizing action. In native medicines, role of
brinjal in treatment of liver diseases, cough due to allergy, rheumatism, leucorrhea and
intestinal worms has been mentioned.
Origin and distribution
Brinjal is originated in Indo- Burma region. Crop is distributed in south and south East
Asia, southern Europe, China and Japan. India is the second largest producer of brinjal in the
world next to China and produces 134.44 lakh tonnes from an area of 7.22 lakh ha with the
productivity of 18.6 t/ha (8.3 % of total vegetable production is from brinjal). Cultivation of
brinjal is maximum in West Bengal, Odisha, Andra Pradesh, Gujrath, Bihar and is also
distributed in almost all states. In Tamil Nadu brinjal was cultivated in 14,462 ha and
2,63,748 t were produced (productivity 18.24 t/ha).
Taxonomy Genus Solanum comprises approximately 2000 species which include both
tuber bearing and non tuber bearing forms. Important edible species under non tuber bearing
forms are S. melongena, S. torvum, S. nigrum, S. macrocarpon, S. ferox and S.aethiopicum
 S.torvum – in tamil known as ‘sundakkai’ – used for its small clustered fruits for
curry purpose and for drying. It is grown as a wild plant in backyards and roadsides.
Due to its resistance to Fusarium wilt and bacterial wilt, S. torvum can be a resistant
root stock for grafting cultivated S. melongena
 S. macrocarpon and S.aethiopicum – grown for edible fruits and leaves.
  Solanum nigrum – in tamil known as ‘Manathakkali’ – Small clustered acidic fruits
are also edible and are harvested at ripening stage when it turns purple in colour. In
Tamil Nadu this species is cultivated and for frying. Leaves and flowers of S.
nigrum have more resemblance to that of chilli
Based on growth habit and fruit shape, four botanical varieties are reported under
S.melongena.
 S.melongena var. Melongena includes cultivars with round and egg shaped fruits
 S.melongena var serpentinum Desf. Includes long and slender fruited cultivars
 S.melongena var. depressum includes early and dwarf cultivars
 S.melongena var. incanum includes wild and prickly plants with small fruits.
Botany
Brinjal is a diploid with 2n=2x=24. Plant is erect, semi erect or prostrate, herbaceous
and branched with around 1.0m height. Stem is spiny or non spiny with or without purple
pigmentation which is due to anthocyanin.
Flowers are bisexual, pentamerous and are solitary or in 2-7 flowered cyme. Calyx is
persistent and spiny or non spiny. Corolla is lobed with different shapes and purple, light pink
or white coloured.
Stamens are free and form a loose cone surroundings the style. Dehiscence is
poricidal. Ovary is bilocular with many ovules. Heterostyly is very common.
Fruit is a berry with wide variation in shape, colour and size. Fruit shape may be long,
oval, round, ovoid, cylindrical or elongated. Fruit colour may be nearly black, different
shapes of purple, white, green or variegated.
Flower biology and pollination
Though reported as a self pollinated crop, cross pollination to varying degree has been
reported in brinjal. Cross pollination is due to its heteromorphic flower structure and is
mainly by honey bees and bumble bees.
Depending on length of style in relation to position of anthers, four types of flowers –
heterostyly are available.
 Long styled with big ovary – stigma well above the anthers
 Medium styled with medium ovary– stigma and anthers at same level
 Short styled with small ovary– style short
 Pseudo short styled with rudimentary ovary
 Fruit set in long styled flowers ranges from 60 to 70% whereas in medium styled
flowers it is 12.5 to 55.6%. Short styled and pseudo short styled flowers act as male flowers
and there is no fruit.
Opening of flower and dehiscence of anthers are almost simultaneous and it takes
place at 6-7.30 am during summer and is delayed up to 11 am during winter. Flowering
depends on climatic factors and high temperature and humidity in the morning hasten flower
opening and dehiscence of anthers. In addition to climatic factors, fertility level of the soil
also influences flower initiation and development.
Climate
Brinjal is warm season day neutral plant and is susceptible to severe frost. A long and
warm growing season with a temperature range of 21-270C is ideal for its production. Crop is
adversely affected by chilling temperature of winter in North India. Generally late cultivars
can withstand low temperature than early ones. Plants grown luxuriantly and yield heavily
during rainy season under warm humid climatic condition of Kerala.
Soil
Brinjal is a hardy crop and is cultivated under a wide range of soils. Since a long
duration crop with high yield, well-drained and fertile soil is preferred for the crop. Crops
grown in sandy soils yield early and those grown in clayey soils yield more. Ideal pH for
cultivation of crop is 5.5-6.6
Varieties
A large number of cultivars and improved varieties differing in size, shape and colour
of fruits are grown in India. Since consumer preference varies from region to region and from
district to district, judicious selection of varieties plays an important role in success of brinjal
cultivation. Quite a large numbers of local cultivars like Banaras Giant, Wayanad Giant,
Mukthakeshi and Manjiri Gota are grown in specific areas.
Fruits of some local cultivars exhibit bitterness due to presence of glycolalkaloids like
solanin. Generally glycol-alkaloid content varies from 0.37 to 4.83 mg/ 100g in most of
cultivars. High glycol –alkaloids (20 mg/100g fresh weight) produces bitter taste and off
flavour. Varieties also vary for content of polyphenol oxidase which imparts brown
discoloration when the fruits are cut open.
Pest and disease resistant/ tolerant varieties with upright and sturdy growth habit, high
yield, fruits with soft flesh, low seediness, low solanin content and attractive glossy skin are
generally preferred for commercial cultivation.
 The important features of improved brinjal varieties developed in India are furnished
below:
Developing institution Variety Special features
Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore
CO 1 Oblong frees, medium sized, pale green shade under Oblong, pale green fruits
white background, soft seeded, preferred in southern
districts.
CO 2 Selection from varikkathiri, slightly oblong fruit, Oblong fruits having dark
purple streaks in pale green background, preferred in purple streaks under pale
Coimbtore and Erode districts. back ground

PKM-l This variety has been developed by TNAU, Small ovate fruits with
Coimbatore, through induced mutation from a local green stripes, developed
material “Puzhuthi Kathiri”. Fruit 6-8 cm long, girth 10- through mutation
14 cm, average weight 55g. The fruits are small with breeding
green stripes. It is drought tolerant and can withstand long
distance transportation; gives and average yield of34.
75t/ha in 150-155 days of crop duration. This is popular
among the farmers of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
MDU 1 Fruits are round, large sized, purple in colour, less Large, round and purple
seeds, preferred in Madurai and Trichy districts. fruits

PLR 1 Small, medium, purple in colour, egg shaped, 8-10 Small to medium sized egg
days, premium price, Cudalaure, Changalpattu, and shaped fruits with purple
Chennai. 25 t/ha colour
PLR 2
KKM 1 It is a pureline selection from kulathur local. Small, white coloured and
Fruits are born in clusters with 2-4, egg shaped milky egg shaped fruits borne in
white in colour. Yields about 37tonnes/ha in a crop clusters of 2-4
duration of 130 -135 days.
PPI (B) 1 :Single line selection from karungal local type. Fruits are lengthy pale
Yields about 50 tonnes/ha in a crop duration of 185 days green in colour, less seeded
and bitter less.
TNAU BRINJAL VRM 1:
 It is a pure line selection from Elavambadi village
of Vellore District.
 Fruits are oval in shape, glossy pink in colour with
green tinge in the distal end.
 Resistant to leaf spot,verticillium wilt and
epilachna beetle.
 It is a cluster bearing type and yields about 40-45
tonnes/ha in a crop duration of 140-150 days.

Annamalai University, Tamil nadu

Annamalai Aphid resistant variety, oblong deep purple Aphid resistant. Fruits
fruits, few thorns on the calyx, Vellore, Villupuram, oblong, purple, few thorns
Thruvanamalai, chengalpattu, Chennai. 20-22 t/ha on the calyx
IIHR, Bangalore Arka Kusumakar Small green fruits borne in
clusters of 5-7

Arka Sheel Medium long deep shining

purple fruits.
Arka Nidhi (BWR 12) Resistant to bacterial wilt,
medium long blue black
glossy fruits.

Arka Shirish Extra long fruits with green

colour

Arka Neelkanth Resistant to bacterial wilt,

short purple fruits borne in
clusters of two

Arka Keshav Resistant to bacterial wilt,

Fruits long red purple and
glossy.

IARI, New Delhi Pusa Kranti Oblong, 15-20 cm long dark

purple fruits

Pusa Purple Cluster 10-12 cm long deep purple

fruits borne in clusters
tolerant to bacterial wilt

Pusa Purple Long Long purple glossy fruits

Pusa Anupam (KT4) Cylindrical purple fruits

borne in clusters

DBR 8 Round dark purple fruits of

295g

Pusa Purple Round Fruits round and purple

Pusa Bairav Resistant to phomopsis

blight. Fruits long and
purple

Pusa Uttam Early variety with oval dark

purple fruits

Pusa Utkar Early variety with round

dark purple fruits

Pusa Bindu Early. Small oval-round

 violet-purple fruits

Pusa Ankur Fruits oval round, dark

purple and glossy
Kerala Agrl. University, Surya (SM 6-7) Resistant to bacterial wilt,
Thrissur small purple oval fruits
Swetha (SM 6-6) Resistant to bacterial wilt,
small white elongated fruits
Haritha Resistant to bacterial wilt,
long light green elongated
fruits, Long duration
GBPUA&T, Pantnagar Pant Rituraj Large purple round fruits
Pant Samrat Resistant to bacterial wilt
and phomopsis blight, less
infestation of shoot and
fruit borer and jassids.
Fruits long and purple.
Haryana Agrl. University, Hisar Pragati (H 7) Fruits dark bright purple,
Hisar tolerant to little leaf round,
dark and bright purple fruits
oblong dark purple fruits
Hisar Shyamal (H8) Round, dark and bright
purple fruits

Hisar Jamuni Oblong dark purple fruits

Punjab Agrl. University, Jamuni GOl (S 16) Long plumy and shining
Ludhiana purple fruits

Punjab Barsati Tolerant to fruit borer, fruits

medium long and shining
purple
Punjab Neelam Long purple fruits
Punjab Sadabahar Long black purple fruits
PH 4 Fruits medium to long, thin
and dark purple
CSAUA&T, Kanpur T-3 Round light purple frits
with white styler end
KS 331 Long purple fruits of 218 g
weight
Azad Kranti Medium thick and long
purple fruits tapering to
distal end
Azad B 2(KS 224) Solitary round purple fruits
of 135 g
Exploitation of Heterosis:
Brinjal continues to be a choice of breeders for exploitation of heterosis due to hardy
nature of crop, comparatively large size of flowers and large number of seeds in a single fruit
enabling production of a large number of F1 seeds with a single act of pollination. Highly
varied consumer acceptance from region to region also demands for development of a large
number of high yielding F1 hybrids. Hand emasculation and pollination are still followed in
the hybrid seed production of brinjal. Quite a large number of heterotic hybrids are developed
in ICAR institutes and State Agricultural universities and details are furnished below:
Developing institution Hybrid Parents Special features
Tamil Nadu COBH 1 Cross between Fruits are purple in colour.
Agricultural University, EP 45 x CO 2 High yield 56.40 t/ha
Coimbatore
Duration -120 to 130 days, April- December is ideal season , Fruits
are medium sized, Oblong in shape and dark violet in colour,
Average single fruit weight is 60-65g, Adaptable to Coimabtore.
Erode, Salem, Namakkal,Trichy, Karur, Dharmapuri and
Tiruvannamalai districts
COBH 2 Cross between Fruits are medim sized
EP65 x Pusa slightly oblong and glossy
Uttam violet in colour. High yield
58 t/ha
Moderately tolerant to shoot (7.26%) and fruit borer (16. 50
%). Fruits are medium sized, slightly oblong and glossy violet in
colour Fruits contain 16.5 mg / 100g ascorbic acid.
Recommended under irrigated conditions during July – December
and January – June. High yielding (58 t/ha) in a crop duration of
120-130 days.
IARI, New Delhi Pusa Anmol Pusa Purple Produce 80% more than
long x Pusa Purple Long, yield
Hyderpur 62t/ha

Pusa Hybrid 5 Long glossy dark purple

fruits. Yield 51.6t/ha

Pusa Hybrid 6 Early. Round glossy purple

fruits. Yield 45.0t/ha

Pusa hybrid 9 Early dark purple round

fruits. Yield 56.0t/ha

IIHR, Bangalore Arka Navneeth IIHR 221 x Large dark purple round to
Supreme slightly oval fruits. Yield
65-75 t/ha

Arka Anand IIHR -3 x SM Resistant to bacterial

6-6 wilt, fruits green long &
 medium sized (50-55g).
yield 65t/ha
Haryana Agrl. Hisar Shyamal Aushey x BR Resistant to bacterial
University, Hisar (H8) 112 wilt, tolerant to little leaf,
rufts round bright purple
Kerala Agrl. Neelima Surya x SM 116 Resistant to bacterial
University, Thrissur wilt, protracted fruiting.
Round to oval purple
fruits. Yield 62 t/ha
GAU, Anad ABH 1 M2 x M 35 Early variety with purple
oval fruits, yield 37.0t/ha
CSAUA&T, Kanpur Azad Kranti Pusa purple Long dark purple fruits
Loong x BGL
GBPUA &T, Pant Brinjal PB 121 x Tolerant to bacterial wilt.
Pantnagar Hybrid 1 PB225 Fruit long and borne in
clusters
In addition, a large number of F1 hybrids are marketed by private seed companies.
Supriya, Suphal (IAHS), Kalpatharu, Ravaiya (Mahyco), Kanhaiya, Novkiran, Pragati
(Sungro Seeds), Apsara, Nisha (Namdhari) etc are a few commercial hybrids popular among
farmers.
Season
In hills, brinjal is sown during March and transplanted during April. In, plains there are
three seasons for growing brinjal.
 Autumn-winter crop: Crop is sown in June and transplanted in July
 Spring -summer crop: Crop is sown in early November and transplanted in January-
February. Due to low temperature, seedlings take 6 to 8 weeks for attaining normal
size for transplanting and nursery beds are to be protected from frost.
 Rainy season crop: Seeds are sown in March-April and transplanted during April-
May. Being a low priced vegetable, rainy season crop is the most economical in many
parts.
Nursery bed preparation
Apply FYM 10 kg, neem cake 1 kg, VAM 50 g, enriched super phosphate 100 g and
furadon 10 g per square metre before sowing. Area required for raising seedling for planting
1.0 ha is 100 sq.m.
Sowing
Seeds are sown in nursery bed and transplanted to main field after four weeks during
summer and after 7 to 8 weeks during winter, when it is 8 - 10 cm tall. Depending on growth
of varieties and seasons of cultivation, 300 to 350g seeds are required for one hectare. Since
brinjal seedlings grow fast, sufficient care must be taken to sow seeds as thin or loose as
possible. Hardened seedlings withstand transplanting shock better and establish well in main
field.
Protected nursery
 Prepare the nursery area of 3 cents with slanting slope of 2 % for the seedling
production to cover 1 ha.
 Cover the nursery area with 50 % shade net and cover the sides using 40 / 50 mesh
insect proof nylon net.
 Form raised beds of 1 m width and convenient length and place HDPV pipes at 2m
interval for further protection with polythene sheets during rainy months.
 Mix sterilized cocopeat @ 300 kg with neem cake 5 kg along with Azospirillum and
phosphobacteria each @ 1 kg. Approximately 1.2 kg of cocopeat is required for filling
one protray. 200 protrays are required for the production of 18,700 seedlings, which is
required for one hectare adopting a spacing of 90 x 60 x 75 cm in paired row system.
 Sow the treated seeds in protrays @ 1 seed per cell.
 Cover the seed with cocopeat and keep the trays one above the other and cover with a
polythene sheet till germination starts.
 After 6 days, place the protrays with germinated seeds individually on the raised beds
inside the shade net.
 Water with rose-can everyday and drench with 19:19:19 @ 0.5% (5g/l) at 18 days
after sowing.
Main field preparation and transplanting
Proper drainage is essential for growth of brinjal. Soil should be prepared to a fine
tilth by 4 to 6 ploughings. FYM should be incorporated in soil at the time of final ploughing.
Seedlings .are transplanted in levelled land in plots of convenient size for irrigation. It may
be grown on raised beds/ ridges during rainy season. In undulating land, in order to avoid soil
erosion, small pits are dug at the point of planting and seedlings are planted.
Spacing depends on variety, season and fertility of soil. For long duration spreading
varieties, a spacing of 75-90cm x 60-75 cm and for bushy and non-spreading varieties a
distance of 45-60cm on either side are given. For early and less spreading varieties, paired
row planting is advantages due to, easiness in harvesting and other cultural operations.
 Thoroughly prepare the field with the addition of FYM @ 25 t / ha and form ridges
and furrows at a spacing of 60 cm.
  Apply 2 kg / ha of Azospirillum and 2 kg / ha of Phosphobacteria by mixing with 50
kg of FYM.
 Irrigate the furrows and transplant 30-35 days old seedlings at 60 cm apart on the
ridges.
Spacing
Varieties : 60 x 60 cm
Hybrids : 90 x 60 cm
Manures and fertilizers
Brinjal is a long duration crop with high yield potential. Flower and fruit production
will be adversely affected when crop is grown under low fertility conditions.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu :
Varieties : Apply FYM 25 t/ha. N 50 kg, P 50 kg and K 30 kg/ha as basal dose, N 50 kg/ha
30 days after transplanting during earthing up. Apply 2 kg of Azospirillum and
Phosphobacteria in the mainfield at planting.
Spray 2 ppm (1 ml in 500 lit.) Triacontanol plus Sodium borate or Borax 35 mg/lit. of water
15 days after transplanting and at the time of full bloom to increase the yield.
Hybrids
 Basal dose : FYM 25 t/ha, NPK 100:150:100 kg/ha.
 Top dressing : 100 kg N/ha on 30th day of planting or during earthing up.
Layout and planting for drip irrigation and fertigation
 Apply FYM @ 25 t / ha as basal dose before last ploughing.
 Apply 2 kg/ha of Azospirillum and 2 kg/ha Phosphobacteria by mixing with 50 kg of
FYM.
 Apply 75 % total recommended dose of superphosphate i.e. 703 kg / ha as basal.
 Install the drip irrigation with main and sub main pipes and place lateral tubes at an
interval of 1.5 m.
 Place the drippers in lateral tubes at an interval of 60 cm and 50 cm spacing with 4
LPH and 3.5 LPH capacities respectively.
 Form raised beds of 120 cm width at an interval of 30 cm and place the laterals at the
centre of the each bed.
 Before planting, wet the beds using drip system for 8-12 hrs.
 Planting to be done at a spacing of 90x60x75 cm in the paired row system, using ropes
marked at 75 cm spacing.
 Spray Pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i./ha or Fluchloralin 1.0 kg a.i/ha as pre-emergence
 herbicide at 3rd day after planting. Gap filling to be done at 7th day after transplanting
Fertigation schedule for hybrids
Recommended dose: 200:150: 100 kg / ha
Stage Crop stage Duration in Fertilizer Per cent Total
days grade requirement Fertilizer
(kg/ha)
1. Transplanting 10 19:19:19 39.47
to plant +MN
establishment 13:0:45 5.50
stage Urea 25.65
2. Vegetative stage 30 12:61:0 24.50
13:0:45 88.89
Urea 142.4

3. Flower initiation 30 19:19:19 39.47

to first picking +MN
13.0:45 50.00
Urea 100.00
4. Harvesting 80 12:61:0 12.30
13:0:45 44.40
Urea 71.13
75% RD of Phosphorus applied as superphosphate = 703 kg / ha.
1. 19:19:19 = 79 kg / ha
2. 13:0:45 = 189 kg/ ha
3. 12:61:0 = 37 kg / ha
4. Urea = 340 kg / ha
Irrigation
Though brinjal cannot tolerate water logging, timely irrigation is essential
especially for fruit set and development. In plains, irrigation is required at every third or
4th day during summer while in winter it should be at 10-15 days interval. During winter,
care should be taken to keep soil moist to avoid crop loss due to frost injury. Being a row
planted crop, drip irrigation is advantageous and water used in drip irrigation is less when
compared furrow method.
Brinjal is mainly grown as a rainfed crop in high rainfall states like Kerala by
transplanting seedlings just before onset of South West monsoon. Here also transplanted
seedlings should be given one or two life irrigations for initial establishment.
Inter cultivation
It is essential to keep the field free of weeds especially at initial stages of crop
growth and is usually done by 2-3 light hoeing or earthing up. This facilitates better
aeration to root system and gives support to plants.
 Application of pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha as a pre-emergent weedicide,
applied one week after transplanting seedlings, followed by one hand weeding at 30 days
after planting controls a broad spectrum of weeds. Use of black polythene mulches is
also efficient for suppression of weeds and for better growth of plants.
Application of growth regulators
Whole plant spray of 2-4, D (2 ppm) at an interval of one week from 60 -70 days
after planting from commencement of flowering increase fruit set, early yield and total
yield in brinjal.
Harvesting
Brinjal fruits are harvested at immature stage after attaining full size, but before
loosing its glossy appearance. Dullness of fruit indicates over maturity. Usually fruits are
harvested along with its stalk with a slight twist by hand. In some varieties, a sharp knife is
also used for harvesting fruits along with fleshy fresh calyx and a portion of fruit stalk. The
harvested fruits are graded and packed in baskets or in loose gunny bags. Care should be
taken to remove the fruits affected by Phomopsis blight.
Yield
Early short duration varieties : 20-30 t/ha
Long duration varieties : 35-40 t/ha
FI hybrids : 55-80 t/ha
Storage
Fruits can be stored for 7-10 days in a fairly good condition at 7.2-10°C with 85-90%
RH. Keeping quality of fruits varies with variety. It is better to store at 20°C than at 6°C and
in perforated polythene bags than under open condition.
 CHILLI
(Capsicum spp.) (2n = 24)
(Hindi : Mirch)
Chilli is a quintessential spice in every Indian cuisine and is grown throughout length
and breadth of country. Green chilli, Chile pepper, Cayenne pepper, Tabasco, Paprika Sweet
/ Bell pepper, Pimentos, Serrano pepper are all derived from fruits of different species of
Capsicum. Pungent forms are used as green chilli, whole dry chilli, chilli powder, chilli
paste, chilli sauce, chilli oleoresin or as mixed curry powder. Dried fruits are extensively
used as spice.
Origin and distribution
Historians agree on new world origin of Capsicum. Originated in South America, the
crop was taken to old world by early explorers. Portuguese, prior to 1585, carried hot chilli
from Brazil to India.
Inspite of its late introduction, one or other forms of crop spread throughout the
country and India became leading producer of hot chilli in the world. Area and production of
hot chilli in the country are 7,75,000 hectare and 14,92,000 metric tones respectively, with an
average productivity of 1900 kg/ha. Steady demand, reasonably high price, adaptability to
varying climatic conditions, tolerance to drought, suitability for growing under rainfed
condition etc. were primarily responsible for quick spread of the crop in India. Other chilli
growing countries in Asia are China, Indonesia, Korea, Pakistan etc. Green chilli – 140,000
ha ; Production 16,87,330 t
The major chilli producing states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharastra, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu etc. Andhra Pradesh is leading both in area and production contributing
25% of area (1,31,320 ha) and 40-50% of production (8,01,990 t).
Nutritive value and medicinal use
Chilli is one of the richest sources of vitamin C and its content is more than, that
of tomato. Fruits accumulate maximum ascorbic acid when it turns to maturity and it ranges
from 100 to 320 mg per 100 g of fruits. Active principle for pungency is capsaicin (in-
Vanilly 1-8-Methyl-6(c) noeamide,) and its content in Indian varieties ranges from 0.002 to
1.86%. Capsaicin is a counter irritant. The principal colouring pigment of dried chilli is a
carotenoid pigment, capsanthin.
Ground powder and oleoresin are primarily used as a spice. It is utilized in food,
pharmaceutical and cattle feed industries.
Cultivated species, taxonomy and inter specific hybridization
Capsicum five species are there, viz., C. annuum, C. frutescens, C.chinense,
C.baccatum and C. pubescens . Thick fleshed, less pungent and large fruited capsicums
(C.annuum var. grossum) are included under Bell group.
Botany and flower biology
Diploid chromosome number in most of cultivated Capsicum species is 2n = 24.
Though chilli is mentioned as a self-pollinated crop in some of texts, cross pollination to the
extent of 62% is reported and insects were primarily responsible for natural crossing. So this
can be very well treated as a cross pollinated or often cross pollinated crop. Flowers are
bisexual and protogynous. Flower opening is between 5 and 6 am with dehiscence of
anthers between 8 and 11 am. Dehiscence of anthers, fertility and stigma receptivity is
maximum on the day of anthesis. Peak period of anthesis and anther dehiscence is between 9
and 10 am. Stigma is receptive 24 hours before and after anthesis. Fruit is a berry and
exhibits considerable variation for colour, shape, size and pungency.
Climate
Chilli is a crop of warm humid tropics or subtropics and is grown from sea level to
600 m above MSL. The crop cannot tolerate frost. Compared to tomato and brinjal, chilli
can tolerate shade to some extent. Medium pungent chilli, cultivated for green chilli and dry
chilli purpose, prefers a temperature of 20-30oC for growth. Low pungent Capsicum prefers a
lower temperature of 17-23oC. Highly pungent Capsicum frutescens and C. chinense come
up well in high rainfall regions of southern and north-eastern region of India. Though the
crop prefers high humidity for this growth, fruit set and yield, incidence of fungal diseases
particularly mildews and anthracnose is more under high humid conditions.
Soil
Chilli withstands drought better than water logging and excess soil moisture. As an
irrigated crop, chilli is best grown in sandy loam soil and as rainfed crop in black cotton soil.
Ideal soil pH for cultivation is around 6.5 and growth is affected in saline soil. Chilli is
extensively cultivated in black cotton soils of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Even though productivity is higher in heavy soils, quality of chilli is better in lighter soils.
Varieties
Salient features of chilli varieties developed from each institute are given below :
Developing
Varieties Special features
Institution
Tamil Nadu K-1 Yield 1.7 t/ha. Plants tall and spreading.
Agricultural Fruits 6.6 cm long, smooth, shining
University, scarlet coloured with pointed tip.
Coimabtore.
K-2 Yield 1.8 t/ha. Plants tall and semi
spreading. Fruits long (7.3 cm) with
blunt tip. Tolerant to thrips.
CO-1 Yield 2.1 t/ha. Fruits 7.3-8.0 cm long,
highly pungent, bulged shoulder with
pointed tip.
CO-2 Yield 2.2 t/ha. Fruits erect, small and
gundu type, 2.4 cm long. High seed
content (60%). Suitable for green
chilli purpose.

CO-3 Yield 3.5 t/ha. Dual purpose variety

suitable for closing planting.

CO-4 A gundu type high yielding variety.

PKM-1 Yield 3.1 t/ha. Plants dwarf. Fruits

bold. Suitable for irrigated condition.

PMK-1 Yield 2.3 t/ha. Fruits short and gundu

type. Suitable for direct sowing under
rainfed condition.

PLR-1 Yield 1.8 t/ha. Fruits short and gundu

type.

MDU-1 Yield 1.8 t/ha. Fruits short and gundu

type. An induced mutant from K-1
through gamma radiation. Yield 1.9
t/ha. Dwarf and compact plants suitable
for close planting at 30 x 30 cm spacing.
Fruits 8.0 cm long, clustered and erect
with high capsaicin (0.70 mg/g).

KKM (Ch) 1 High yielding (3.03 t/ha), high capsaicin

(0.54 %), early maturity – 92 days for
first harvest after transplanting
IIHR, Bangalore Arka Lohit (Sel-1) Pods dark green, straight and highly
pungent. Tolerant to powdery mildew
Arka Abhir Paprika variety suitable for oleoresin
extraction and for growing in cooler
region. Plants tall. Fruits light green,
wrinkled highly coloured (1.65,54,cu)
and low pungent (0.05% capsaicin)
PMR 57-88-K Fruits green, medium long (6-7cm)
 tolerant to powdery mildew, yield
3 t / ha of dry Chilli.
IARI, New Delhi NP-46-A Yield 7.5 t/ha of green chilli. Plants
bushy and dwarf. Fruits 8-9 cm long,
thin and wrinkled with less seed.
Initially tolerant to mosaic and later
became susceptible.
Pusa Jwala Yield 7.5 t/ha of green chilli. Plants
dwarf and bushy. Fruits 9-10 cm long,
curved, thin, light green coloured and
medium pungent. Tolerant to mosaic.

Pusa Sadabahar Reported as a hybrid derivative of Pusa

Jwals (C.annuum) x 1.C – 81339
(C.frutescens). Clustered, erect, 6.8 cm
long, bright red fruits. Resistant to
CMV, TMV and leaf curl.

Kerala Agricultural Jwalamukhi Yield 22.5 t of green chilli/ha. Fruits

University dark green with low pungency.
Suitable for green chilli purpose.

Jwalasakhi Light green to cream coloured fruits

with thick pericarp and low
pungency. Suitable for green chilli
and vegetable purpose. Yield 20 t of
green chilli/ha.
Ujwala Yield 22 t of green chilli/ha. Plants
determinate, bushy and low branching.
Medium long (5-6 cm), highly pungent
fruits borne in erect clusters. Resistant
to bacterial wilt. Tolerant to mosaic
and leaf curl virus.

Amuarha Hybrid derivative of Jwala x Ujwala.

Yield 27 t of green chilli/ha. Resistant
to bacterial wilt. Pods light green, long,
wrinkled and medium pungent.
RARS, APAU, G-3 Yield 3.0 t/ha. Fruits -7 cm long and
Lam, Guntur smooth.

Bhagyalakshmi (G- Yield 3.05 t/ha. Tall plants with 7-8 cm

4) long dark red pods having medium
pungency.

Andhra Jyothi (G- Yield 4.0 t/ha. Tall plants with short of
5) stout gundu type pods having 3-4 cm
length, conical shape and thick pericarp.
 Tolerant to thrips.

Sindhur (CA-960) Yield 5.0 t/ha. 7-8 cm long, conical,

light green fruits with thick pericarp and
blunt tip.

Aparna (CA-1068) Yield 3.5 t/ha. Pods 8.3 cm long, light

green fruits turning yellow on
ripening. High pungency (0.7%).
Bhaskar Yield 5.5 t/ha. Early variety with thin,
5-6 cm long, highly pungent fruits with
pointed tip. Tolerant to thrips and
mites.
Prakash (LCA-206) Yield 4.75 t/ha. Thin, long glossy red
pods with medium pungency.

LCA-305 Yield 5.5 t/ha. Bushy plants. Light

green pungent fruits turning bright red
on ripening.

LCA 334 Tolerant to virus.

X 197 Tolerant to thrips, fruits 7 cm long.
MPK V, Rahuri Musalwadi Yield 2.0 t/ha. Tall plants with 6.8 cm
Maharashtra long dark green pods having black
patches. Tolerant to die back and
powdery mildew.
Phule Jyothi Yield 3.0 t/ha. Dark green, medium
long pods, suitable fro green and red
chilli. Tolerant to leaf curl and
powdery mildew. Resistant to
lodging.

Phule Suryamukhi Yield 2.8 t/ha. Medium long, erect and

clustered fruits. Tolerant to leaf curl
and powdery mildew.

Shankeshwar-32 Plants tall, grown for dry chilli purpose.

Fruits 20-30 cm long, thin, wiry and
highly wrinkled.
Agnirekha Long, bold, light green and medium
pungent fruits.

Phule Sai Moderately tolerant to thrips and

anthracnose. Fruits retain colour in
storage for 6-7 months.

GBPUA&T, Pant C-1 Hybrid derivative of NP-46-A x

Pantnagar. Kanthari (C.frutescen). Yield 1.2 t/ha.
Highly pungent solitary, erect, 5.5 cm
 long fruits with blunt tip. Tolerant to
mosaic and leaf curl virus.
Pant C-2 Yield 1.4 t/ha. Fruits pendulous.
Tolerant to mosaic and leaf curl virus.
Haryana Hisar Vijaya (H- Medium long (8-9 cm), erect and highly
Agricultural 28) pungent fruits borne in clusters.
University, Hisar Resistant to mosaic and leaf curl
virus.

Hisar Shakthi (H- Plants medium tall, perennial and

44) widely branched. Fruits medium long,
clustered and highly pungent. Resistant
to mosaic and leaf curl virus.

Punjab Agricultural Punjab Lal Plants dwarf. Fruits erect, medium long
University, (4.25 cm), dark green and highly
Ludhiana. pungent. Resistant to TMV, CMV and
leaf curl virus.
Moderately tolerant to fruit rot and
dieback
PDKV, Akola Surakta (AKC-86- Pure line selection. Yield 6.8 t/ha of red
89) fruits.
UAS, Dharwad, KDC-1 Hybrid derivative of Byadagi
Karnataka (C.annuum) x C. frutescens. Deep red,
semi wrinkled fruits with low
pungency. Resistant to leaf curl.

JNKV, Jabalpur Jawahar-218 Fruits light green, 8.5 cm long, erect and
M.P. wrinkled. Tolerant to leaf curl and
fruit rot.

Jawahar-283 Bushy variety with dense foliage and

medium long thin fruits.

RAU, Sabur, Bihar. Sabur Arun Selection from a local genotype fruits
long (9.5 cm).

OUAT, Utkal Ava High driage (39-40%). Resistant to

Bhubaneswar bacterial wilt. Plants highly branched.
Fruits erect and medium size. Dry yield
3.2 t/ha.
Heterosis breeding and Development of F1 hybrids
Chilli cultivation in Punjab was revolutionized by evolution of chilli hybrids. Details
of popular chilli hybrids developed in State Agricultural Universities / National institutes are
given below :
Name of Hybrid Special features
CH-1 Developed at PAU, Ludhiana by crossing MS-12 (female) and
LLS (male). Yield 25 t of red chilli / ha. Plants medium tall
with medium sized fruits, light green fruits turning deep red on
ripening. Fruits are highly pungent (0.83%). Colour value
88.75 ASTA units. Tolerant to fruit rot and wet rot.

CH-3 Developed at PAU, Ludhiyana by crossing MS-12 (female)

and S-2530 (Male). Fruit length more than CH-1 (8.2 cm).
Capsaicum content, (0.52%), Colour value-145 ASTA
units.

HCH-9646 Developed at ARS (chilli) Devihosur Haveri, UAS, Dharwad,

Karnataka. Yield 2.5 t/ha. Fruits medium long (10.11 cm),
thick walled, pendulous and medium pungent.

Arka Harita High yielding F1 hybrid developed by using MS line. Fruits

(MSH-96) medium long (10 cm) with width 1 cm. Fresh yield 31 t/ha
and dry yield 6 t/ha in 150-160 days. Fruits dark green.
Resistant to powdery mildew and viruses.

Arka Sweta High yielding F1 hybrid developed by using MS line. Fruits

(MSH-149) long (13.2 cm) with 1.3 cm width. Fresh yield 38.4 t/ha and
dry yield of 6 t/ha in 140-150 days. Fruits are light green and
turn red.

Arka Meghana High yielding F1 hybrid developed by using MS line. Fruit

(MSH-172) long (10.6 cm) with width 1.2 cm. Very early variety taking
24 days for 50% flowering.

Private sector companies including Multi National Companies and Indian firms have
played significant role in development and popularization of hybrids in India. Based on
superior performance at various centres of AICRP (Vegetables), following chilli hybrids were
identified for release.
Name of hybrid Developing Centre Year of identification
HOE 888 Sanoz 1997
ARCH-236 Angur Seeds 1997
Sungrow – 86-235 Sungrwo Seeds 2002
ARCH 228 Angur Seeds 2003
Capsicum or Bell pepper
In addition to pungent chilli varieties, a number of less pungent capsicum / bell pepper
varieties / hybrids were also popular in the country. Bharath F1 hybrid, Nishanth 1 (Sel 2),
California Wonder, Pusa Deepthi, Arka Mohini, Arka Gaurav, Arka Basanth, Green Gold,
Sweet Banana, Hungarian Wax are a few of them. A brief description of the varieties are
given below :
Variety Characters
California Wonder Popular among farmers. Fruits 3-4 lobed, blocky, smooth,
green and turn red on ripening, sweet flesh. Yield 7-8 t/ha.

Yolo Wonder Popular among farmers. Fruits large, 3-4 lobed, blocky,
smooth, green and turn red on ripening sweet flesh.
Yield 6-7 t/ha.
Arka Mohini Fruits large, 3-4 lobed, smooth, pendulous, dark green
blocky and turns red on ripening sweet flesh. Individual
fruit weight 180200 g. Seed yield 150 kg/ha. Duration
160 days.
Arka Gaurav Fruits large, 3-4 lobed, erect, smooth, green blocky and
turn orange on ripening sweet flesh. Individual fruit
weight 130-150 g. Duration 150 days.
Arka Basant Fruits thick fleshed, 2-3 lobed, conical shape, erect, cream
coloured, turn orange on ripening. Seed yield 140 kg / ha.
Duration 150 days.

Nishant 1 Developed at Shalimar campus, J&K. Fruits large, 3-4

lobed, smooth, pendulous, dark green blocky and turn
yellow on ripening sweet flesh. Harvesting starts 45-50
days after transplanting.

Pusa Deepti (F1 hybrid) Fruits thick fleshed, 2-3 lobed, conical shape, erect, cream
coloured.

Bharat (F1 hybrid) Developed by IAHS, Bangalore. Fruits large, 4 lobed,

blocky, smooth, green and turn red on ripening. Sweet
flesh. Individual fruit weight 100-200 g. Potential
productivity 50 t/ha.

Green Gold (F1 hybrid) Developed by Mahyco, Jalna. Fruits large, 3-4 lobed,
blocky, smooth, green and turn red on ripening sweet flesh.
Individual fruit weight 100-120 g. Potential productivity
60-75 t/ha.
Paprika
Chilli fruits having deep red colour, without pungency are used as paprika.
Colour is the principal criterion for assessing its quality. The pigment content of
paprika powder ranges from 0.1 to 0.8%. Percentage of pungent principle varies from
0-1.86. The best paprika contains pungent matter ranging from 0 to 0.0003 % only.
Four improved paprika lines namely Kt-P1-8, Kt-P1-9, Kt-P1-18 and Kt-P1-19 were
identified at IARI Regional Station, Katrain. Their yield varies from 488 to 864 quintals / ha
with colour value ranging from 178 to 233 ASTA units. Arka Abhir, an improved variety
developed by IIHR, Bangalore has high colour value and is specifically suitable for oleoresin
extraction.
Sources of resistance to pests and diseases
Screening improved varieties / cultivars / local genotypes reveals presence of
resistance to certain pests and diseases. A few varieties were also bred specifically for
resistance to diseases. List of varieties reported resistant / tolerant to pests and diseases is
given below :
Disease / Pest Resistant variety / culture / species
Virus leaf curl / Mosaic Phule Jyothi, Phule, Suryamukhi, Pusa Sadabahar,
Pant C-1, Pant-C-2, Punjab Lal, Jawahar-218, RHRC
Clustering Erect, NP 46 A, Pusa Jwala.
Bacterial wilt Ujwala, Manjari
Die back / Antracnose Musalwadi, Pusa Sadabahar,
Powdery mildew Musalwadi, Phule jyothi, Phule Suryamukhi, Arka
Lohit
Fruit rot Jawahar-218.
Leaf curl complex KDC-1, GPC-82, GPC 69, GPC 80, Jwala.
Thrips / mites Andhra Jyothi, Bhaskar
Thrips K-2, Chamatkar,
Root knot nematode K2
Mites LCA 235, LCA 230, LIC 45, Yellow anther mutant
Multiple resistance Punjab Lal, Tiwari, Laichi 2, CH 1.

Sowing time
Chilli is grown mainly as a rainfed crop during June – October (kharif season). As an
irrigated crop, it is grown during rabi and summer seasons. In the hills, sowing is done in
March-April for raising a summer crop. Rainfed crop is mainly used for dry chilli and
irrigated crop is for green chilli purpose. Since monsoon starts early by first week of June,
seeds are usually sown and transplanted by middle of May in Kerala. Ideal time for growing
capsicum is September – February in plains.
Seeds and sowing
1.0 – 1.5 kg seeds sown in an area of three cents is required to raise seedlings to
plant in one hectare. Care should be taken to avoid eating away of seeds by ants. Generally
40-45 days old seedlings are transplanted. Clipping of capsicum and chilli seedlings about 10
days prior to transplanting helps to accelerate growth of axillary buds and results in better
branching. Hardening of seedlings by regulating watering a week prior to transplanting is
necessary for better establishment and survival for seedlings in main field.
Season of sowing : January – February, June – July and September - October

Seed rate
Varieties : 1.0 kg / ha.
Hybrids : 200 - 250 g / ha.
Nursery area : 100 sq.m / ha.

Seed treatment
Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g / kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens
@ 10 g/ kg and sow in lines spaced at 10 cm in raised nursery beds and cover with sand.
Watering with rose can has to be done daily. Drench the nursery with Copper oxychloride @
2.5 g/l of water at 15 days interval against damping off disease. Apply Carbofuran 3 G at
10 g/sq.m. at sowing.
Protected nursery
 Prepare the nursery area of 3 cents with slanting slope of 2 % for the seedling
production to cover 1 ha.
 Cover the nursery area with 50 % shade net and cover the sides using 40 / 50 mesh
insect proof nylon net.
 Form raised beds of 1 m width and convenient length and place HDPV pipes at 2m
interval for further protection with polythene sheets during rainy months.
 Mix sterilized cocopeat @ 300 kg with 5 kg neem cake along with Azospirillum and
phosphobacteria each @ 1 kg. Approximately 1.2 kg of cocopeat is required for filling
one protay. 300 protrays (98 cells) are required for the production of 29,000 seedlings,
which are required for one hectare adopting a spacing of 90 x 60 x 45 cm in a paired
row system.
 Sow the treated seed in protrays @ 1 seed per cell.
  Cover the seed with cocopeat and keep the trays one above the other and cover with a
polythene sheet till germination starts.
 After 6 days place the protrays with germinated seedlings individually on the raised
beds inside the shade net .
 Water with rose can everyday upto seed germination. Drench with 19:19:19 @ 0.5%
(5g/l) at 18 days after sowing.
Main field preparation
Field is brought to fine tilth by 4-5 ploughings and harrowing. Ridges and furrows are
prepared at 45-60 cm distance. 40-45 days old seedlings are transplanted in furrows or on
sides of ridges at 30-45 cm spacing depending on variety, season and soil. Wider spacing
between rows ensures easiness in intercultural operations and close spacing within a row
gives higher yield.
Thoroughly prepared the field with the addition of FYM @ 25 t/ ha and form ridges
and furrows at a spacing of 60 cm. Apply 2 kg/ha of Azospirillum and 2 kg / ha of
Phosphobacteria by mixing with 20 kg of FYM. Irrigate the furrows and transplant 40-45
days old seedlings, with the ball of earth on the ridges.
Spacing
Varieties : 60 x 45 cm
Hybrids : 60 x 60 cm
Manures and fertilizers
Application of 20-25 tonnes of farmyard manure and 120 kg N, 40-60 kg P2O5 and
20-40 kg K2O are recommended in majority of states. Farmyard manure is applied by
broadcasting at the time of final ploughing. Spot application of farmyard manure in furrows
or at the point of planting is also followed by farmers. Full dose of P and K and half dose of
N is applied 10-15 days after transplanting, i.e., after initial establishment of seedlings.
Remaining N is applied one month after first application. Under irrigated condition N is
applied in four equal splits i.e, 10, 30, 60 and 90 days after transplanting. Application of 50
kg N as basal dose and foliar application of 50 kg N as 1.0% urea after 30 days is
recommended under Coimbatore conditions. Application of Azospirullum @ 2 kg / ha saves
25.0% of nitrogen requirement of chilli. Nitrate form of nitrogen is preferred than
ammoniacal form.
Application of fertilizers in Tamilnadu : Apply FYM 25 t/ha. N 30 kg, P 60 kg and K 30
kg/ha as basal and 30 kg N/ha each on 30, 60 and 90 days of planting.
Layout and planting for drip irrigation and fertigation
 Apply FYM @ 25 t / ha as basal before last ploughing.
 Apply 2 kg / ha of Azospirillum and 2 kg/ha Phosphobacteria by mixing with 20 kg of
FYM.
 Apply 75 % total recommended dose of superphosphate i.e. 375 kg / ha as basal.
 Install the drip irrigation with main and sub main pipes and place lateral tubes at an
interval of 1.5 m.
 Place the drippers in lateral tubes at an interval of 60 cm and 50 cm spacing with 4
LPH and 3.5 LPH capacities respectively.
 Form raised beds of 120 cm width at an interval of 30 cm and place the laterals at the
centre of the each bed.
 Before planting wet the beds using drip system for 8-12 hrs.
 Planting to be done at a spacing of 90 x 60 x 60 cm in the paired row system, using
ropes marked at 60 cm spacing.
 Spray Pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i. / ha or Fluchloralin 1.0 kg a.i / ha as pre-emergence
herbicide at 3rd day after planting.
 Gap filling to be done at 7th day after transplanting.

Manuring
Varieties
Basal dose : FYM 25 t/ha, NPK 30:60:30 kg/ ha.
Potassium as K2SO4 for quality improvement. Application of
potassium in the form of potassium sulphate will increase quality of
chilli.
Top dressing : 30 kg N/ha in equal splits on 30, 60 and 90 days after planting.
Hybrids
Basal dose : FYM 30 t / ha, NPK 30:80:80 kg / ha.
Top dressing : 30 kg N / ha in equal splits on 30, 60 and 90 days after planting .

Fertigation schedule
CHILLI F1 HYBRID
Recommended Dose: 120:80:80 kg / ha
Stage Crop stage Duration Fertilizer Total Nutrient supplied (kg)
in days grade Fertilizer
N P K
(kg/ha)
1. Transplanting 10 19:19:19 21.05 4.00 4.00 4.00
to plant MN
establishment 13:0:45 8.88 1.15 - 3.98
stage Urea 14.86 6.83 - -
Subtotal 11.98 4.00 7.98
2. Flower 30 12:61:0 13.11 1.57 8.00 -
initiation to 13:0:45 71.04 9.24 - 31.97
flowering Urea 80.72 37.13 - -
Subtotal 47.94 8.00 31.97
3. Fruit set to 30 19:19:19 21.05 4.00 4.00 4.00
first picking 13.0:45 44.40 5.77 - 19.98
Urea 56.91 26.18 -
 Subtotal 35.95 4.00 23.98
4. Alternate day 80 12:61:0 6.52 0.75 3.81 -
from picking 13:0:45 35.52 4.62 - 15.98
Urea 40.38 18.57 - -
Subtotal 23.94 3.81 15.98
119.81 19.81 79.91
(or) (or) (or)
120.00 20.00 80.00
75% RD of Phosporous applied as superphosphate = 375 kg / ha
1. 19:19:19 = 42 kg/ha
2. 13:0:45 = 160 kg/ha
3. 12:61:0 = 20 kg/ha
4. Urea = 193 kg/ha

Inter-cultivation
In chilli, all intercultural operations are aimed at conserving soil moisture, to remove
weeds and to provide aeration to soil. Inter-cultivation, by way of hoeing, begins as soon as
seedlings are established. In initial stages, shallow inter-cultivation is done to remove weeds
and for conservation of soil moisture. Use of herbicides along with and weeding is practiced
for weed control in chilli.
Pre emergence weed control
Apply Pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i. / ha or Fluchloralin 1.0 kg a.i. / ha as pre-emergece
herbicide followed by hand weeding once 30 days after planting.
Irrigation
For dry chilli purpose, crop is grown under rainfed conditions in traditional chilli
growing tracts. Providing supplementary irrigation, when dry spell exceeds 8-10 days, will
almost double the yield of rainfed crop in red loam soils. During rabi and summer, crop is
mainly raised for green chilli purpose as irrigated crop. Compared to hot chilli, capsicum is
more sensitive to waster stress and requires regular irrigation. Any stress during flowering
and fruiting stage will adversely affects productivity of capsicum.
Chilli and capsicum are highly sensitive to water stagnation and both can not
withstand water logging even for one day.
Plant Growth Regulators
Chilli and capsicum respond well to an array of plant growth regulators.
 Spray Triacontanol @ 1.25 ml/l on 20, 40, 60 and 80th day of planting. Spray NAA
10 ppm (10 mg/l of water) on 60 and 90 days after planting to increase fruit set.
Micronutrient spray
 Foliar spray of Zn SO4 @ 0.5 per cent thrice at 10 days interval from 40 days after
planting.
 Spray 19:19:19 + Mn @ 1 % at 60 days after planting.
Weed control and inter cultivation
Spray Fluchloralin @ 1 lit a.i/ha or Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i/ ha. or Oxyflourfen @
0.15 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence herbicide and may be combined with hand weeding once and
earthing up 45 days after planting.
Raise intercrop of onion in paired row system to get additional income.
Harvesting and yield
Chilli is harvested by hand picking and harvesting extends up to two months. Farmers
usually take one or two harvests for green chilli purpose even if crop is raised for dry chilli
purpose. Yield of fresh green chilli is 3-4 times more than that of fresh red ripe chilli and 6-
10 times than that of dry chilli. Yield under rainfed and irrigated conditions varies
considerably and is furnished below :
Yield
Varieties : 2 - 3 t/ha of dry pods or 10 - 15 t/ha of green chillies.
Hybrids : 25 t / ha of green chillies.
Yield under rainfed crop: 7.5 t/ha of green chilli
Quality and pungency are determined by oleoresin and capsicum contents. Inner
pericarp contains 90% pungency. Yield of oleoresin in chilli varieties ranges from 8.0 to
17.5%.
Varieties with good pungency, bright red colour, good flavour, medium sized
fruits with thin pericarp, smooth and glossy surface, a few seeds in fruit and tight
pedicel are ideal for dry chilli purpose. Indian chilli is valued for its medium pungency.
Pungency and colour retention will be better when fruits are harvested after ripening
and partial withering of fruits in plant itself. Fruits after harvesting are heaped in shade
for 2-3 days and dried to less than 10% moisture level under direct sunlight for 5-15 days,
depending on temperature and humidity.
 Okra
(Syn : Lady’s finger, Bhindi)
(Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench.) (2n = 130)
(Hindi : Bhendi)
Okra is predominantly a crop of tropics and subtropics. It occupies fifth position, next
to tomato, in area under vegetables in the country with a production of 33.24 lakh metric
tones from an area of 3.47 lakh hectares. The crop is cultivated for its young tender fruits,
used in curry and soups after cooking. It is a good source of vitamins A and B, protein and
minerals. It is also an excellent source of iodine and is useful for the treatment of goiter.
Fruit is useful against genitor-urinary disorders, spermetorrhoea and chronic dysentery.
Fruits are also dried or frozen for use during off-season. Dried fruit contain 13-22% edible
oil and 20-24% protein and is used for refined edible oil. Dry fruit skin and fibres are used in
manufacture of paper, card board and fibres. Root and stem are used for clearing cane juice
for preparation of jaggary.
Origin and distribution
Okra originated in tropical and subtropical Africa. Existence of a large number of
related species with wide variability and dominant characters suggest possible role of India
as a secondary centre of origin.
India is the largest producer of okra in the world. It is also used as a vegetable in
Brazil, West Africa and many other countries. In India, major okra growing states are Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
Taxonomy and botany
Cultivated bhindi belonging to Malvaceae was earlier placed under Hibiscus
esculentus L. Since its calyx, corolla and staminal column are fused together and fall down at
anthesis , it was renamed as Abelmoschus esculentus L. Cultivated bhindi is an annual herb
with duration of 90-100 days. Flowers are bisexual and often cross-pollinated. Time of
anthesis is 8.00-10.00 a.m. Dehiscence of anthers occurs 15-20 minutes after anthesis and is
completed in 5-10 minutes. Pollen fertility is maximum in the period between one hour
before and after opening of flower. It takes 2 to 6 hours for fertilization after pollination.
Stigma is receptive at opening of flower and hence, bud pollination is not effective in okra.
Fruit is a capsule. Usually fibre development starts from fifth to sixth day.
Most of cultivated varieties are amphidiploids with 2n=130. A esculentus is
noted for its chromosome polymorphism and 2n ranges from 72 to 144. It tolerates
addition or deletion of one or a few chromosomes. The chromosome number of
A.esculentus is 2n=130 which is evolved by crossing. A. tuberculatus (2n=58) with A.
ficulneus (2n=72). The F1 developed was subjected to colchicines treatment to make it
an amphidiploid. A. esculentus (2n=130).
Four species viz., A. esculentus, A. manihot, A. caillei and A. moschatus include
both cultivated and wild forms.
Crop improvement
Various methods like plant introduction (Perkin’s Long Green), single plant
selection and pure line selection from local collections (Pusa Makhmali Salkeerthi), selection
from bi-parental crosses (Pusa Sawani from IC 1542 x Pusa Makhmali) and selection from
complex crosses (Sel 2 from (Pusa Sawani x Best 1) x (Pusa Sawani x IC 7194) were used.
Pedigree selection in the segregating populations of resistant YVMV varieties resulted in
Hisar Unnet (Sel 2-2 x Parbhani Kranthi) and Varsha Uphar (Lam selection 1 x Parbhani
Kranthi). Related wild species were also utilized in development of YVMV varieties like
Parbhani Kranthi (A. esculentus cv. Pusa Sawani x A. manihot ssp. Manihot), Punjab 7 (A.
esculentus cv. Pusa Sawani x A. manihot ssp. Manihot cv. Ghana) and Arka Abhay (A.
esculentus x A. manihot ssp. tetraphyllus). MDU 1 and Punjab 8 (EMS 8) were
developed through mutation breeding using gamma rays and EMS respectively.
Varieties
Bhindi varieties and cultivars differ in growth habit, height of plants, presence of
purple pigmentation on plant parts, length, colour and number of ridges of fruit etc. A brief
description of improved varieties developed in the country is given below :
Developing Variety Special features
institution
Tamil Nadu MDU 1 Developed through gamma irradiation of seeds of
Agricultural Pusa Sawani. Plants compact with close
University arrangement of nodes. Fruits 5-ridged, light
green, medium long. Productivity 10-11 t/ha.
Susceptible to YVMV.

CO.1 Fruits pinkish red in colour. Productivity 12.0

t/ha. Susceptible to YVMV.
IIHR, Bangalore Arka Abhay Developed through hybridization, back crossing
and selection from

A. esculentus x A. tetraphyllus ssp.

Tetraphyllus. Resistant to YVMV. Tolerant
to fruit borer. Fruits 5-ridged, dark green,
medium long. Productivity 10.5 t/ha.
 Arka Developed through hybridization back crossing
Anamika and selection from A. esculentus x A. tetraphyllus
ssp. tetraphyllus Fruits 5-ridged, green medium
long. Productivity 11.5 t/ha.

IARI, New Delhi Pusa Fruits medium long. Productivity 8-10 t/ha.
Susceptible to YVMV.
Makhmali
Pusa Sawani Fruits 5-ridged, green medium long. Productivity
8-10 t/ha. Initially resistant and later became
susceptible to YVMV.

Pusa A 4 Plants with short internodes. Fruits 5-ridged,

dark green and medium long with excellent shelf
life. Productivity 10-12 t/ha. Resistant to
YVMV, Jassids and fruit borer.

Selection 2-2 Fruits green, tender and long (16-20 cm) and 5
ridged.

IIVR, Varanasi VRO 3* Resistant to ELCV. Fruits 5-ridged, green,

medium long. Productivity 11.2-16.5 t/ha.

VRO 4* Resistant to YVMV and ELCV. Fruits 5

ridged, green, medium long. Productivity 16.0
t/ha.

Kerala Kiran Shy branching plant with light green and long
Agricultural fruits; Fruit length 2-30 cm; Fruit weight 25-30 g;
University. Productivity 11.21 t/ha.
Salkerthi Attractive and long light green fruits; Fruit length
24-30 cm; No of ridges on fruit 5; Days to first
harvest 44; Productivity 16.2 t/ha.
Aruna Attractive red coloured long fruits; Fruit length;
25-30 cm; No. of ridges on fruit 7; Productivity
15.8 t/ha.
Susthira Mosaic tolerant, late and long duration variety
(A.caillei). suitable for homesteads during kharif season.
Fruits green coloured; Fruit length: 22 cm; No. of
ridges on fruit 5; Productivity 18 t/ha.

Haryana Varsha Uphar Derived from Lam selection x Parbhani Kranthi.

Agricultural Resistant to YVMV. Fruits 5-ridged, dark
(HRB-9-2)
University, Hisar green, medium long; Productivity 9.8 t/ha.

Hisar Unnath Plants 3-4 branched, early and high yielding (12-
(HRB 55) 13t/ha).
 Punjab Punjab 7 Developed through back cross method form A.
Agricultural esculentus cv. Pusa Sawani x A. manihot ssp.
(P 7)
University, Manihot cv. Ghana. Resistant to YVMV. Jassids
Ludhiana. and cotton boll worm. Fruits 5-ridged, dark green,
medium long. Petiole base is deeply pigmented.
Productivity 9.5 t/ha.

Punjab Selection made at F8 generation of cross between

Padmini F1 of A. esculentus cv. Rashmi x A. manihot ssp.
Manihot with F2 of A. esculentus cv. Pusa
Sawani x A. manihot ssp. Manihot. Fruits dark
green, 15-20 cm long and five ridged.
Pigmentation on stem, petiole and lower basal
veins of leaves. Resistant to YVMV, Jassids
and cotton boll worm. Yield 10-12 t/ha.

Punjab 8 Induced mutant from Pusa Sawani using EMS

(EMS 8) (1%). Fruits 5-ridged, dark green, medium long.
Field tolerance to YVMV and resistance to fruit
borer. Fruits 5-ridged, green and 15-16 cm long.

MAU, Parbhani Parbhani Developed through back cross method form A.

Kranti esculentus cv. Pusa Sawani x A. manihot ssp.
Manihot. Fruits 5-ridged, dark green, medium
long. Productivity 9.0 – 11.5 t/ha.

CSAUA&T, Azad Kranthi Fruits 5-ridged, shining green with long beak.
Kanpur Productivity 12.5 t/ha.

YSPUH&F, Harbhajan Perkins Long Green was released as Harbhajan

Solan, H.P. Bhindi Bhindi. Fruits long tapered green and 8 ridged.

Exploitation of hybrid vigour :

A large number of seeds in a fruit and large size of flowers are favourable factors for
exploitation of heterosis in bhindi. A number of hybrids resistant / tolerant to YVMV were
developed in public and private sectors. Most of the hybrids were developed by hand
emasculation and hand pollination. The following are the hybrids developed by TNAU.
CO.2 : AE 180 x Pusa Sawani. Fruits very long (22-25 cm), thick, 7-8 ridged and light
green in colour. Productivity 15-16 t/ha. Susceptible to YVMV.
CO.3 : Parbhani Kranthi x MDU.1. Fruits very long (22-25 cm), thick, 7-8 ridged light
green in colour. Productivity 16-18 t/ha. Moderately resistant to YVMV.
COBhH 1 : Varsha Uphar x Pusa A4(T). Fruits are dark green, long, slender with
five ridges. High yield – 22.1 t/ha. Resistance to yellow vein mosaic
virus
Bhendi Hybrid CO 4 :
BHD 9 x Karamadai local, 110 days duration, yield 32.40 t/ha, 19.6 and 23.1%
increase over COBhH1 and Sakthi respectively; Suitable for all the districts of Tamil Nadu
except hilly regions; 22 harvests in 110 days starting from 39 days after sowing; resistant to
bhendi Yellow Mosaic Virus disease.
Climate
Bhendi is a typical tropical or sub-tropical crop and cannot tolerate frost.
Performance is also adversely affected by drought, low night temperature and shade. Even
though fertilization and seed set are affected during high rainfall, growth of plant and
subsequent productivity is exceptionally good in rainfall areas. Under high temperature and
low humidity, plant growth is stunted and will be shorter in stature. Similarly flowers drop
when day temperature exceeds 42oC.

Season
In areas where winter is mild, bhendi is grown throughout the year. Since it cannot
tolerate frost and low temperature, only two crops are taken in plains of North India. As
kharif crop, seeds are sown from May to July and as a spring summer crop, sowing is done
during February-March. In hills of North India bhendi is sown during March-April.
Season of sowing in Tamil Nadu
June - August and February
Seed rate and spacing
During summer, vegetative growth is relatively less and seeds are sown at a closer
spacing of 45 x 20 cm or even less. During kharif, plant grows vigorously with more
branching and seeds are sown at wider spacing of 60 x 30 cm for branching types and 45
x 30 cm for non-branching types. Seed rate recommended for kharif crop is 8-10 kg/ha.
For harvesting smaller fruits for export, three row planting with a spacing of 20-30 cm
between rows and 20 cm within a row(plant to plant) is advantageous. Distance between two
sets is kept as 60 cm. This system has the unique advantage of easiness in inter cultural
operations, harvesting, application of plant protection chemicals etc.
Seed rate
Varieties : 8.0 kg / ha
Hybrids : 2.5 kg / ha

Seed treatment
Seed treatment with Tricoderma viride @ 4 g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 g/
kg of seeds and again with 400 g of Azospirillum using starch as adhesive and dried in shade
for 20 minutes. Sow three seeds per hill at 30 cm apart and then thin to 2 plants per hill after
10 days.
Land preparation and sowing
Okra prefers loose, well drained and rich soil. The ideal pH for growth of plants is 6-
8. Field is ploughed thoroughly for 2-3 times for making soil to a fine tilth. Ridges and
furrows or raised beds are prepared and dibbling on sides of ridges or on raised beds sows
seeds. Soak seeds for 6-12 hours before sowing to enhance germination during summer.
Manuring and fertilizer application
Apply 20-25 tonnes of farmyard manure as basal dose at the time of final ploughing.
One third dose of N, full P and K are to be applied as basal dose. Remaining N has to be
applied in two split doses, 4 weeks after sowing and at flowering and fruiting stages. Split
application of N in soil at every 3rd picking is advantageous for getting high yield, for
increasing number of harvests and to maintain size of fruits towards last harvests.
Application of Fertilizers in Tamil Nadu :
Apply FYM 25 t/ha, N 20 kg, P 50 kg and K 30 kg/ha as basal and 20 kg N/ha 30 days
after sowing. Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria each at 2 kg/ha mixed in 100 kg of
FYM before sowing.
Irrigation
Water stress at flowering and fruiting stages will drastically influence growth of
plants, size of fruits and yield. Immediately after sowing, field is irrigated. Subsequent
irrigation is given at fixed intervals depending on texture of soil and climate. In black soils,
irrigation is done at 5-6 days interval.
Inter-culture
Weed growth should be under control till crop canopy covers fully. This is achieved
by frequent hoeing, weeding and earthing up. Used of weedicides like Lasso (2 kg a.i../ha) or
fluchloralin (1.5 kg/ha) or Metolachlor (1.0 kg a.i./ha) and one hand weeding at 45 days after
sowing was very effective and financially viable.
Harvesting and yield
Harvest fruits when they attain maximum size but still tender. Fruits of 6-8 cm long
are preferred for export purposes. This is usually attained by 5-6 days after opening of
flower. Harvesting is done in alternate days with a knife or by bending pedicel with a
jerk. For harvesting, cotton cloth hand gloves should be used to protect fingers from stinging
effect. It is advisable to harvest in morning hours since fruit hairs will be soft. Sprinkling
water on pods during night will keep them cool and fresh for market.
Post-harvest management
Fruits after harvesting are graded and filled in jute bags or baskets or perforated paper
cartons and sprinkled with water. Pre-cooling of fruits before packing maintains turgidity of
fruits and will save it from bruises, blemishes and blackening. This is usually done before
packing fruits in perforated cartons of 5-8 kg before transporting to refrigerated van for
export.
Yield : 6.0 – 8.0 t / ha for spring-summer crop
10 – 12.5 t / ha for kharif crop.

CROP MANAGEMENT UNDER DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM FOR HYBRIDS /

IMPROVED VARIETIES

i. Field preparation and drip installation

 The land is leveled and the stones are removed for the drip installation.

 Installation of drip system is done with main, sub-main pipes and the inline
lateral tubes are placed at an interval of 1.5 meter. (5feet)

 The drippers in lateral tubes are placed at an interval of 60 cm and 50cm

spacing with 4LPH and 3.5 LPH capacities respectively.

ii. Planting system and population maintenance

 The main field is ploughed three times with Chisel, disc and cultivator plough
each one time.

 Well decomposed FYM @ 25t /ha is applied before the last ploughing.

 75 % of the total recommended dose of super phosphate i.e. 468.75 Kg/ha is

applied as basal dose.

 Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria each @ 2 Kg / ha along with FYM 5O Kg and

Neem cake @100 Kg is applied before last ploughing.

 Raised beds of 120 cm width (4 feet) are formed at an interval of 30cm (1 feet)
and the laterals are placed at the centre of each bed.

 The beds are leveled and the laterals are placed at the centre of the bed.

iii. Seed treatment

 About 6 Kg of bhendi F1 hybrid seeds are required to cover 1 ha area.

  The seeds are mixed with 1 Kg of Azospirillum culture and are shade dried for half
an hour.
iv. Sowing

 Sowing is carried out at the rate of one seed / hill. Ropes are marked at the interval
of 45 cm and planting is done at three rows within the bed in the spacing of 60 × 45
× 45 cm in the paired row system.

 The beds are watered using drip system for 8 to 12 hours till field capacity.

 Pre-emergence weedicide spray of 1 Kg a.i. of Fluchloralin or 0.75 Kg a.i. of

metalachlor /ha on third day of sowing.
 Gap filling is done at 7th day of sowing.

iv. Fertigation Techniques

 For bhendi F1 hybrid, a dose of 200: 100: 100 Kg of NPK / ha is applied

throughout the cropping period through split application. The split dose is
applied once in every three days through fertigation. (75 % of the phosphorous
is given as a basal dose at the time of last ploughing).

 The fertigation schedule for bhendi is given below

Total Recommended Dose : 200-100-100 Kg of NPK/ha.

Water Soluble Fertilizers : 200 -25 -100 Kg of NPK/ha.
75 % of the P as basal dose : 75 Kg of P /ha.

S.No. Fertilizer grade Quantity (Kg/ha)

1 Super phosphate (75% P applied as basal dose) 469
2 19-19-19 + MN 53
3 13-00-45 200
4 12-61-00 25
5 Urea 350
Super Phosphate @ of 469 Kg / ha is applied during last ploughing as a basal dose
Fertigation Schedule

Stage of Fertilizer No. of Quantity

Duration
the crop grade Splits (Kg / split)
19-19-19 3 splits 8.8
1 – 10 DAS
I Stage 13-00-45 3 splits 3.7
(3rd ,6th and 9th DAS)
Urea 3 splits 9.8
12-61-00 10 Splits 1.2
II Stage 11th – 40th DAS 13-00-45 10 Splits 6.7
Urea 10 Splits 10.8
 19-19-19 10 Splits 2.6
III Stage 41st – 70th DAS 13-00-45 10 Splits 5.6
Urea 10 Splits 10.4
12-61-00 10 Splits 1.2
IV Stage 71st – 100 DAS 13-00-45 10 Splits 6.7
Urea 10 Splits 10.8

v. Intercultivation

 Drip irrigation is given @ 1 hour per day depending upon the soil type and climate.

 Foliar spray of Pseudomonas fluorescens is applied @ 0.5 % at 15 days interval for 6

times.

 Weeding is done on 30 and 60th days after planting depending upon the weed growth.

 Micronutrient mixture @ 1g / lit (0.1%) is sprayed for 2 times at 40 th and 60th days
after planting.

 19:19:19: + MN @ 1% (10 g/lit)is sprayed at 60 days after planting.

vi. Harvesting and Post harvest management

 Harvesting of bhendi fruits is carried out from 45 days after sowing. Fully
matured tender fruits are harvested.

 Grading is done by separating the pest affected fruits and misshapen fruits.

 The fruits are packed in the crates and transported to the market.

Seed production
For seed production, adjust sowing in such a way that dry weather coincides with
maturation and drying of pods and incidence of yellow vein mosaic disease is minimum.
Being an often cross-pollinated crop, provide an isolation distance of 400 m from other
varieties. Field inspection and rouging should be conducted at pre-flowering, flowering and
fruiting phases. Harvesting of initial two fruits will be helpful in promoting growth of plants.
Average seed yield is 1.0-1.5 t/ha.

CUCURBITS
Crops belonging to family Cucurbitaceae are generally known as ‘Cucurbits’. It
consists of a wide range of vegetables either used for salad purpose (cucumber) or for
cooking (all gourds), pickling (West Indian gherkin) or as dessert fruit (muskmelon, water
melon) or candied or preserved (ash gourd). As a group, cucurbits occupy the largest area in
India and in other tropical countries. Its use is not primarily because of calories, minerals or
vitamins since they are generally low to moderate in nutrients with a few exceptions like
bitter gourd (rich in vitamin C-96 mg/100g), parwal and chow chow (calcium – 531 mg and
140 mg / 100 g respectively). From the nutritional point of view, cucurbit seeds are valued
for their high oil and protein contents. Seed proteins of cucurbits are comparable to that of
legumes and are richer in methionine.
Taxonomic classification of the family is differently by botanists. The family
Cucurbitaceae comprises about 117 genera and 825 species in warmer parts. Chakravarthy
(1982) estimated 36 genera and 100 species in India.
General features
Cucurbit vegetables have the following common features :
1. Long tap root system – Tap root may grow up to 175-180 cm and laterals are confined
to top 60 cm. Hence crops like bottle gourd, ash gourd and parwal are largely utilized
in river bed cultivation.
2. Branched stem-Stem is 3-8 branched and prostrate / climbing and spread up to 9-10
m in Cucurbita and Lagenaria. Crops like Cucurbita pepo have short internodes and
are bushy. Nodes usually produce roots by touching on soil
3. Leaves are simple, mostly 3-5 lobed, palmate and rarely pinnately lobed (Citrullus
sp.).
4. Tendrils on axils of leaves are simple in Cucumis, simple or bifid in others and absent
in bush types.
5. Cucurbits are highly cross pollinated and pollination is done by honey bees and
bumble bees. Flowers are born in axils of leaves and are solitary or in racemose
clusters. Individual flowers are unisexual, large and showy.
6. Fruit is essentially an inferior berry and is called as “pepo” due to hard rind when
mature. Fruits can be stored for long period in ash gourd, pumpkin, oriental pickling
melon etc. while keeping quality is less in cucumber, snake gourd, bitter gourd etc.
The fruits of all cucurbits except chow chow are many seeded.
7. Seeds are borne in parietal placentation-Placenta is the edible portion in water melon
while in ash gourd, ridge gourd and smooth gourd it is endocarp. In muskmelon,
edible portion is mostly pericarp with a little mesocarp,
8. Cucurbits are mostly seed propagated. A few are vegetative propagated like parwal
and coccinia.
9. Most cucurbits are annuals except chow chow and coccinia, both having perennial
habit.
10. Cucurbitacins – Majority of cucurbits are characterized by presence of bitter
principles, cucurbitacins at some portions of plant and at some stages of development.
Cucurbitacins are tetracyclic triterpenes having extensive oxidation levels. Its highest
concentration is in fruits and roots and is less in leaves. Pollen grain also carries fairly
good amount of bitter principles. This is a common problem in oriental pickling
melon, cucumber and bottle gourd and is rarely noticed in ridge gourd and snake
gourd. The consumers usually remove fruit tips during conception to avoid possible
chance of bitterness in fruits.
11. Sex forms – A wide range of sex forms like monoecious, andromonoecious, gynandro
monoecious and dioecious forms are noticed in the family.
 Hermaphrodite form - This is the most primitive form and bisexual flowers only are
produced in a plant. This is noticed in Satputia variety of ridge gourd and in a few
lines of cucumber and mush melon.
 Monoecious form - This is the advanced form and plants produce both male and
female flowers in a plant. Majority of the cucurbits exhibit monoecious condition.
 Andro-monoecious form – Muskmelon and some cultivars of water melon produce
both male and bisexual flowers in a plant. However, non dessert forms like oriental
pickling melon, photo under Cucumis melo are monoecious.
 Gyno monoecious - This is noticed in cucumber and the plants produce female and
bisexual flowers.
 Gynoecious form - Lines producing female flowers alone are rarely noticed in
cucumber and have got great potential for commercial F1 production.
 Trimonoecious form- This is a condition wherein, the male, female and bisexual
flowers are produced in a single plant
 Dioecious form – Male and female flowers are produced on separate plants in parwal,
coccinia and kakrol.
 Flowering – Majority of cucurbits starts flowering 30-45 days after sowing and
follows a definite sequence.
 Cultural requirements – The cultivation practices of different cucurbits are similar.
Flowering
Majority of cucurbits start flowering 30-45 days after sowing and it follows a definite
sequence. An alternate sequence of male and female flowers follows upto fruit set. The first
4-6 flowering nodes bear male flowers and after female flowers. Developing fruits in a vine-
determine production of further female flowers further down in the vine. In crops where
immature fruits are harvested at tender stage, this kind of inhibiting mechanism will not be
perceptible. But in melon, pumpkin, ash gourd etc. even if perfect or female flowers are
produced in the vine, fruits may not set or develop fully or shed in immature condition. That
is why number of fruits / vine in a seed crop will be less (4-5) than in a vegetable crop (12-
15) in bottle gourd, ash gourd and cucumber.
Pollination
Pollination takes place early in morning between 6-8 a.m. in cucumber, pumpkin,
muskmelon and watermelon. Pollination is altered in the day when temperature is high in
bottle gourd and ridge gourd. In snake gourd and pointed gourd, anthesis takes place during
night and pollination early in the morning.
In pumpkin, pollen production is more while in muskmelon, pollen production is
scanty and pollen grains are sticky due to oily film surrounding them.
Extent of cross pollination in cucurbits is 60-80%. They are entomophilous and bees,
beetles and moths cause pollination.
Sex modification
Majority of cucurbits are monoecious and sex ratio (male:female) ranges from 25-
30:1 to 15:1. Sex ratio is influenced by environmental factors. High N content in the soil,
long days and high temperature favour maleness. Besides environmental factors, endogenous
levels of auxins, gibberellins, ethylene and abscisic acid also determine sex ratio and
sequence of flowering. A primordium can form either a female or a male flower and it can be
manipulated by addition or deletion of auxins. Endogenous application of plant growth
regulators can alter sex form, if applied at 2-4 leaf stage. High ethylene level induces female
sex and is suggested to increase female flowers in cucumber, musk melon, summer squash
and pumpkin. In cucumber, maleic hydrazide (50-100 ppm) GA 3 (5-10 ppm), Ethrel (150-
200 ppm), TIBA (25-50 ppm), boron (3 ppm) also induce female flowers.
Gibberellins promotes maleness and is antagonistic to the action of ethylene and
abscisic acid. In fact, gynoecious line of cucumber is maintained by inducing male flowers
through spray of GA 3 (1500-2000 ppm). Silver nitrate (300-400 ppm) also induces maleness.
 Production Technology of Bitter Gourd
(Syn : Bitter cucumber, Balsam pear)
(Momordica charantia L.) (2n = 22)
(Hindi : Karela)
Bitter gourd is an important vegetable in South Indian States, particularly in Kerala
and is grown for its immature tuberculate fruits which have a unique bitter taste. Fruits are
considered as a rich source of vitamins and minerals and 88 mg vitamin-C per 100 g. Fruits
are used after cooking and delicious preparations are made after stuffing and frying. During
periods of glut in market, fruits are sliced, partially boiled with salt and dried under direct
sunlight and stored for months. This is used after frying. Bitter gourd fruits have medicinal
value and are used for curing diabetes, asthma, blood diseases and rheumatism. Drinking
fresh bitter gourd juice is recommended by naturopaths. Roots and stem of wild bitter gourd
are used in many ayurvedic medicines.
Origin and distribution
Bitter gourd is of old world origin and is a native of tropical Asia, particularly in the
Indo Burma region. It is widely grown in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China and tropical
Africa.
Botany
Genus Momordica, to which bitter gourd belongs, has the following four species in
India.
M. charantia (cultivated bitter gourd)
M. charantia var. muricata (Highly bitter and small fruited wild bitter gourd)
M. dioica (kakrol, spine gourd)
M. cochinchinensis (sweet gourd of Assam)
M. balsamina – Immature fruits are used as vegetable or pickled.
All the species have 2n=2x=28.
M. charantia is propagated through seeds and is monoecious. M. dioica and
M.cochinchinensis are propagated through underground tubers and are dioecious in nature.
Both species have small fruits covered with spines.

Bitter gourd is a monoecious annual climber with duration of 100-120 days. Leaves
are palmately 5-9 lobed. Flowers are axillary with long pedicel and are yellow in colour.
Stamens are 5 in number with free filaments and united anthers. Stigma is divided. Fruit is
pendulous, fusiform, ribbed with numerous tubercles. Bitterness of fruit is due to the
presence of an alkaloid, Momordicin. Anthesis is from 4.00 a.m. to 7.00 a.m. Anther
dehiscence takes place in between 5.00 a.m. and 7.30 a.m. Stigma is receptive 24 hours
before and after anthesis.
Varieties
Consumer preferences in bitter gourd vary from region to region depending on size,
colour, presence or absence of tubercles / ridges and bitterness of fruits. Accordingly a
number of varieties are developed in India and details are furnished below:
Developing Variety Special features
institution
Tamil Nadu CO.1 It is a selection from a local type collected
Agricultural from Thudiyalur (Long Green). Fruits dark
University green with medium length (20-25 cm) and
weight (100-120 g). Yield 14 t/ha.
MDU.1 It is an induced mutant developed by gamma
irradiation to local cultivar (MC 103). Fruit
weight 300-450 g. yield 15-18 t/ha. Induced
mutant with long (30-40 cm) greenish white
fruits, fruit length 30-40 cm, yield 30-35 t/ha.
COBgoH 1 F1 hybrid developed by crossing MC 84 x
MDU1. Fruits are light green in colour,
plumpy with more warts, each weighs 200g.-
300g. Yields 44.40 t/ha in 115-120 days. It is
rich in momordicin (2.99 mg per 100g).

IIHR, Bangalore Arka Harit Fruits short, spindle shaped, green coloured
with smooth regular ribs and moderate
bitterness. Yield 9-12 t/ha.
IARI, New Delhi Pusa Vishesh Selection from a local collection and suitable
for growing during summer. Fruits glossy
green medium long and thick.
Pusa Do Fruits dark green, club like with 7-8
Mausami continuous ribs. Fruit weight 100-120 g.
Yield 12-15 t/ha.

Pusa Hybrid 1 Fruits medium thick, long and gloss green,

yield 20 t/ha in 120 days
Kerala Agricultural Priya (VK1) Extra long green spiny fruits with white tinge
University at stylar end, av. Fruit length 39 cm. av. Fruit
weight 235 g. productivity 24.5 t ha -1
Preethi (MC Medium sized white fruits with spines, av.
84) Fruit length 30 cm, av. Fruit girth 24 cm, av.
Fruit weight 0.31 kg. productivity 15.0 t/ha-1
Priyanka Large white spindle shaped fruits with smooth
spines, thick flesh and less seeds. Av. Fruit
 length 25 cm. av. Fruit girth 20 cm. av. Fruit
weight 0.30 kg. Productivity 28.0 t/ha-1
Coimbatore Extra long fruits (60-65 cm) with white colour,
Long White yield 15 t/ha.

Konkan Krishi Konkan Tara Fruits green, prickly, medium long (15-16 cm)
Vidya Peeth, and spindle shaped. Yield 24 t/ha.
Dapoli

Punjab Agricultural Punjab 14 Plants bushy and bear light green fruits with
University, average weight of 35 g. Yield 14 t/ha.
Ludhiana.

CSAUA&T. Kalyanpur Fruits long (30-35 cm), light green, thin and
Kanpur Baramasi tapering, tolerant to fruit fly and mosaic, yield
20 t/ha in 120 days.

MPKV, Rahuri. Hirkani Fruits dark green, 15-20 cm long, spindle

shaped with warts and prickles, yield 14 t/ha in
160 days.

Phule Green Fruits dark green, 25-30 cm long, prickled,

tolerant to downey mildew, yield 23n t/ha in
160-180 days.

Climate and soil

Bitter gourd is a warm season crop with wide adaptability. Ideal temperature for its
growth and flowering is 25-30oC. Crop can be grown even in places of slightly lower
temperature and high rainfall areas. Production of female flowers, fruit set and growth of
plant are seen affected above 35oC and will be susceptible to viral infections. As seeds have a
hard seed coat, germination is affected below 10oC.
Well-drained and fertile sandy loam or silt loam is ideal for the crop.
Season
In hills, the crop is sown during April-May. In plains where season is early, bitter
gourd is sown during January-March in states like Rajasthan and Bihar. In states where
winter is late and prolonged, sowing is done in February-March. In areas where winter is
mild, crop is sown throughout the year. In Kerala, when bitter gourd is grown in an intensive
way, sowing is done during January-February for summer crop, May-June for kharif crop and
September for rabi crop.
Kakrol and sweet gourd are normally grown during rainy season in fertile soil rich in
humus. Performance is better under partially shaded condition.
Land preparation and sowing
Preparation of land, sowing and other cultural practices for bitter gourd are similar to
that of cucumber except that bitter gourd is trained to bower or cut branches of trees. In
Kerala, the crop is cultivated in an intensive way. Land is ploughed to a fine tilth and pits of
60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth are made at a spacing of 2.0-2.5 x 2.0 – 2.5 m. well
rotten farmyard manure @ 20-25 t/ha is applied in pits and filled with top soil up to 3/4th
height and 4-5 seeds are sown in each pit @ 5.0-6.0 kg/ha.
Since bitter gourd seeds have a hard seed coat, soak 2-3 months old seeds overnight in
cold water. Seeds are then stored in moist cloth and kept for one or two days for germination.
Seeds immediately after germination are sown in pits. Mechanical scarification is effective
for germination of seeds soon after harvest.
Irrigation
Bitter gourd cannot tolerate drought or water stagnation. Frequent irrigation at 2-5
days interval especially at fruiting stage is necessary for high yield. Under Kerala condition,
crop is irrigated at 3-4 days interval during initial stage and at alternate days during fruiting.
Manures and fertilizer application
In addition to 20-25 t/ha of farmyard manure, a fertilizer dose of 70 kg N, 25 kg P 2O5
and 25 kg K2O / ha is recommended by Kerala Agricultural University. Initial dose of
farmyard manure is applied in pits and incorporated with top soil. Apply 1/3 rd N and full
dose of P and half dose of K either just before sowing or 10-15 days after sowing as basal
dose. ½ K can be applied 45 days after sowing. Remaining fertilizers can be applied in
several split doses (5-6) at fortnightly intervals. Since bitter gourd is harvested frequently,
fertilizer also should be applied in several splits.
Drenching pits with cow dung slurry at fortnightly intervals, top-dressing with poultry
manure and organic cakes are practiced by bitter gourd farmers in Kerala.

Application of fertilizers :
Varieties : Apply 10 k of FYM per pit (20 t/ha) 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 per pit as basal
and 10 g of N per pit 30 days after sowing.
Hybrids : Apply 200:100:100 kg of NPK throughout the cropping period through
split application.
Inter-culture
Being a shallow-rooted crop, deep intercultural operations should be avoided. Land,
particularly pits, should be kept weed-free by frequent hand weeding, hoeing and light earthing up
along with application of fertilizers. Excess lateral branches, if any, may be pinched off for
allowing plants to reach bower height at the earliest. Erect bower when plant starts vining. Plants
may be trailed to bower by erecting small twigs in pits. Erection of bower or pandal is a costly
operation and nearly 20% of cost of production is for making bower alone. Height of bower is
adjusted as 2 m and is usually made of bamboo poles, G1 wire and thin coir or plastic wire. Bower
once erected can be utilized for raising at least three crops.
Plant growth regulators
Application of several plant growth regulators like MH (50-150 ppm). CCC (50-
100 ppm), Ethrel (150 ppm), silver nitrate (3-4 ppm), boron (3-4 mg/ha) at 2-leaf stage and 4
leaf stage increases the female flowers and yield in bitter gourd. Among the above foliar
application of Ehtrel @ 150 ppm thrice at 15 days interval starting at two true leaf stage
is commercially important. Soaking of seeds with Ethrel or boron (3-4 mg/kg) also
increases yield in bitter gourd.
Harvesting
Harvesting starts 55-60 days after sowing. Picking is done when fruits are fully
grown but still young and tender. Seeds should not be hard at the time of harvest. From a
good crop, 15-20 harvests are possible and harvesting is done twice a week. If fruits are
allowed to ripen on vines, further bearing is adversely affected.
Fruits after harvest are packed in thin gunny bags or directly packed in tempo and
marketed. Since keeping quality of fruits is less, fruits should be marketed without any delay
to nearby markets on the same day itself. Otherwise tubercles will be dropped and freshness
and appearance of fruits will be adversely affected.
Yield : 11-25 t/ha.
 Production technology of snake gourd
Snake gourd : (Trichosanthes anguina L.) (2n = 22) - (Hindi : Chichinda)
Snake gourd is a popular and widely grown vegetable in Gujarat, Maharashtra and
South Indian states. Fruits having a unique smell is harvested at tender stage and used after
cooking. Fruit is a good source of vitamin A and vitamin B. It improves the appetite and acts
as a tonic and stomachic and cures biliousness. Wild bitter forms are used in many ayurvedic
preparations. Fruits of cultivated forms also have medicinal uses and are useful for people
suffering from blood pressure, heart diseases, rheumatism and psoriasis.
Origin and distribution
Snake gourd is originated in India or in the Indian Archipelago and is widely
cultivated in South and South East Asia. T. cucumerina L. is an ancient cultivar and occurs
wild in India. Its fruits are small in size, highly bitter and have medicinal value.
Botany
Out of 40 species under the genus Trichosanthes, three species viz., T.anguina
(2n=22,), T.cucumerina 2n=22) and T.dioica (2n=22) (pointed gourd / parwal) are cultivated.
T.anguina is a monoecious annual climber with small white flowers. Female flowers are
solitary, sessile with long narrow ovary and fimbriate corolla and are 5-partite. Male flowers
appear in clusters on long densely pubescent stalks of 10-20 cm long. Plants flower at early
hours of night. Anthesis begins at 5.15 am and continues up to 9.30 a.m. Anther dehiscence
occurs before flower opening and is completed by one hour. Pollen grains remain viable 10
hours after anthesis. Stigma is receptive 7 hours before and 51 hours after opening of flower.
T. dioica is perennial and dioecious
Varieties
Varieties differ in length, thickness, colour, presence or absence of white stripes or
striations on fruits. Brief description of varieties developed by different Agricultural
Universities are given below :

Developing Variety Special features

institution
Tamil Nadu CO.1 It is a pure line selection from one of the types
Agricultural collected from Alangulam, Tirunelveli district.
University Fruits 160-180 cm long and dark green with
white stripes. Yield 18 t/ha.
CO.2 It is a pure line selection from a local type of
Coimbatore district. Plants less spreading.
 Fruits short (30-35 cm long), greenish white.
Yield 25-30 t/ha.
PKM-1 Induced mutant from H.375. Fruits extra long
(180-200 cm). Yield 25 t/ha.

MDU.1 It is a F1 hybrid between Panripudal and

Selection-1 from Thaniyamangalam. Fruits 60
cm long and white stripes under green back
ground.

PLR 1
PLR 2
Snake gourd Hybrid
CO 1
Kerala Agricultural Kaumudhi Uniform white large fruits with acute tip, av.
University Fruit length 100 cm, av. Fruit girth 29.4 cm av.
Fruit weight 1.34 kg. productivity 50.0 t/ha-1

Baby Small attractive white fruits suitable for easy

handling and marketing, av. Fruit length 36.5
cm, av. Fruit girth 22 cm, av. Fruit weight
474g. productivity 40.0 t/ha-1

Manusree Uniformly white and medium long (67.72 cm)

cylindrical fruits with green markings at the
pedicel. Av. Fruit weight 775.0g. Yield 32.5
t/ha in 120-140 days.

APAU, Hyderabad. APAU Swetha Fruits long with green stripes in white
background. Yield 28-30 t/ha.

Konkan Krishi Konkan Swetha Fruits 90-100 cm long, white duration 120-300
Vidya Peeth, days yield 15-20 t/ha.
Dapoli.

Cultivation practices
Growth, climatic and soil requirements, sowing, cultivation practices, fertilizer
requirements and harvesting of snake gourd are exactly similar to that of bitter gourd. Snake
gourd is cultivated by trailing on bower. Since it grows more vigorously and produces heavy
yield than that of bitter gourd, care should be taken to make the bower strong enough to
withstand weight of fruits and foliage.
Season and sowing
As the crop is more susceptible to downy mildew, it is better to skip rainy season crop
in high humid high rainfall areas. Vegetative growth and spread of crop are slightly more
than that of bitter gourd. So spacing under pit system of sowing should be enhanced to 3.0 x
3.0 m. Seed rate is 3-4 kg/ha.
Harvesting
To obtain straight fruits in long and slender fruited varieties, there is a practice of
hanging weight from bottom of developing fruits. Fully mature fruits will be fibrous and
hard. Hence fruits are harvested at tender stage. Usually harvesting is twice in a week and it
continues for two months. Productivity of snake gourd is more than that of bitter gourd and it
varies with soil and season. Average yield in a well managed field will be about 30-35 t/ha in
Kerala. Fruits, immediately after harvest, are tied into bundles of 15-20 kg and covered with
arecanut sheath and marketed to nearby places.
Seed production
Fruits for seed extraction are harvested when they turn yellow in colour. Seed
extraction and drying are similar to that of bitter gourd. Average seed yield is 250-300 kg /
ha.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu :
Varieties : Apply 10 kg of FYM, 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 as basal per pit and N @ 10
g pit 30 days after sowing
Hybrids : 250 : 100:100 of kg NPK /ha
 Production technology of ribbed gourd
Ridge Gourd
(Luffa acutangula Roxb.) (2n = 26)
(Hindi : Ghia tori) &

Smooth Gourd
(Luffa cylindrical Roem.) (2n = 26)
(Hindi : Kali tori)
Both ridge or ribbed gourd and smooth or sponge gourd belong to genus Luffa. Genus
name was derived from the product “Loofah” used as bathing sponges, scrubber pads,
doormats, pillows, mattresses, cleaning utensils etc. Both species contain a gelatinous
compound called luffein.
Both crops are cultivated on a commercial scale and grown in homesteads for its
immature fruits which are used as cooked vegetable. Fibre of mature dry fruits is used as a
bath sponge. As tender fruits are easily digestible and appetizing, it is prescribed for those
who are suffering from malaria and other seasonal fevers.
Origin and distribution
Origin of ridge gourd is not known. Smooth gourd may be a native of South Asia or
Africa or Australia.
Varieties-Ridge gourd
Developing Variety Special features
institution
Tamil Nadu CO.1 It is a selection from the type collected
Agricultural from Aduthurai. Fruits long (60-75 cm),
University first harvest in 55 days, 10-12 fruits /
plant weighing 3-4 fruits / kg.
PKM-1 It is an induced mutant from the type
H.160. Fruits dark green, average weight
300g, yield 28-30 t/ha in 160 days.
CO.2 It is a selection from a germplasm type.
Fruits very long (90-100 cm), weighing
350-400g., green with shallow grooves,
duration 120 days, yield 25 t/ha.
Ridge Gourd
Hybrid CO 1
IIHR, Bangalore. Arka Sumeet Fruits lush green, cylindrical, 55 cm long
2.5 cm girth and 380 g weight with
prominent ridges, delicate aroma. Days
to first harvest 50-55.
Arka Sujat Fruits lush green, cylindrical, medium
 long (35-45 cm) and average weight
(350g). Yield 63 t/ha in 100 days.
IARI, New Delhi. Pusa Nasdar Fruits club shaped, light green in colour,
15-20 fruits / plant, yield 15-16 t/ha.
GBPU&T, Pantnagar. Pant Torai-1 Fruits 5 cm long and club shaped, yield
10 t/ha. More suitable for rainy season.
Punjab Agricultural Punjab Sadabhar Fruits long, 3-5 cm thick and slightly
University, Ludhiana. curved, yield 10 t/ha.
KKV, Dapoli Konkan Harita Fruits dark green, 30-45 cm long,
tapering at both ends, 10-12 fruits / plant.

Satputia is a cultivar in Bihar which is hermaphrodite and produces pale green small
fruits in clusters. In each cluster 5-7 fruits are produced. Yield is 20-25 t/ha.
Varieties – Sponge gourd
Developing Variety Special features
institution
IARI, New Pusa Chikni Early variety. Fruits smooth dark green and
Delhi. cylindrical, 15-20 fruits / plant.
Pusa Supriya Fruits pale green, 15-20 cm long, straight and
slightly curved at stem end, pointed distal end with
long peduncle, average fruit weight 110 g at
vegetable harvest stage. Yield 10-11 t/ha.
Pusa Sneha Suitable for long distance transport, fruits dark
green, 20-25 cm long with hard skin and soft flesh.
Yield 12 t/ha.
MPAU, Phule Prajakta Fruits medium green with dark green sutures, yield
Rahuri. 15 t/ha.
BAC, RAU, Rajendra Fruits long, greenish white, smooth and thick,
Sabour, Bihar Nenua 1 resistant to fruit fly and fruit rot. Yield 25 t/ha.

Climate and soil

Like bitter gourd, ridge gourd and smooth gourd are typical warm season crops and
come up well during summer and rainy seasons. Optimum temperature required is 25-27oC.
Ideal soil is fertile well drained loam rich in humus.
Cultivation practices
Both ridge and smooth gourd are grown during summer and rainy season by sowing
seeds during January – February and June – July, respectively. Seeds are sown in raised beds,
furrows or pits @ 3.5-5.0 kg/ha for ridge gourd and 2.5-5.0 kg/ha for sponge gourd. Since
seeds are with hard seed coat, it is advisable to soak seeds overnight in water. A row-to-row
distance of 1.5-2.5 m and hill to hill distance of 60-120 cm is required for both crops under
bower or trellis system. When it is trailed to ground under pit system, a row-to-row spacing
of 1.5-2.0 m and pit-to-pit distance of 1.0-1.5 m are recommended for both crops.
Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu :
Varieties : Apply 10 kg of FYM, 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 as basal per pit and N @ 10 g pit 30
days after sowing
Hybrids : 250 : 100:100 of kg NPK /ha
Harvesting
Crop is ready for harvest in about 60 days after sowing. Both crops are picked at
immature tender stage. Fruits attain marketable maturity 5-7 days after anthesis. Over-
mature fruits will be fibrous and are unfit for consumption. To avoid over-maturity, picking
is done at 3-4 days interval. Harvested fruits are packed in baskets to avoid injury and can be
kept for 3-4 days in a cool atmosphere.
Yield : 7-5 – 15.0 t/ha.
 ONION
Allium cepa L. (2n = 2 x = 16)
(Hindi : Pyaz)
Onion is valued for its bulbs having characteristic odour, flavour and pungency,
which is due to the presence of a volatile oil – allyl-propyl-disulphide. Pungency is
formed by enzymatic reaction when tissues are broken. Bulbs are suited for storage for
a long period and for long distance transport. It is used as salad and cooked in many
ways in curries, fried, boiled, baked and used in making soups, pickles etc. Value
addition in onion is done by marketing dehydrated onions and onion flakes. Onion bulb
is rich in minerals like phosphorus (50 mg / 100 g) and calcium (180 mg / 100 g). Many
medicinal uses are reported for bulbs and is commonly used as diuretic and applied on
wounds and boils. Onion greens are also used by harvesting crop at pencil thickness
and when small bulb is formed.

India is the second largest producer of onion in the world, next to China and
ranks third in export of onions, next to Netherlands and Spain. During 2001-2002, a total
of

52.52 lakh metric tones of bulbs was produced from an area of 4.96 lakh hectares in
India. Maharashtra is the leading onion producing state in India followed by Karnataka
and Gujarat. The crop is grown on extensive scale in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Bihar.

Origin and taxonomy

Onion originated in Asia. According to Vavilov (1951), onion originated in
Pakistan. Jones and Mann (1963) proposed the area comprising Pakistan, Iran and
mountain areas to the North India as primary centre of origin of onion.
The following types of onions are grown in India :
1. Common onion (Allium cepa var. cepa) – with large bulbs born singly and
propagated through seeds. It is mainly used as salad or in curries.
2. Multiplier onion or potato onion (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) – producing
small bulbs borne in clusters and generally propagated through small bulbs.
Mainly used for seasoning curries.
3. Shallot (Allium cepa var. ascalonicum) – Produces bulbs in clusters on surface of
soil. This perennial onion rarely produces seeds and is propagated through bulbs.
 4. Tree onion or Egyptian onion (Allium cepa var. viviparaum / proliferum) – This
viviparous plant produces a perennial underground bulb and is not widely
cultivated. The bulblets produced in place of umbel are used for pickling and
seasoning. Bulb-lets are also used for propagation.
5. Chive (A. schoenoprasum) (2n=16, 24, 32). This is a hardy perennial bunching
herb grown for their hollow green leaves. It is propagated by root division and is
tolerant to extreme cold and drought.
In addition, a perennial bunching species, A. fistulosum is very common in China
and Japan and is grown for its edible tops and leaf bases.

Botany
Onion is a biennial herb with a characteristic smell. The leaves are tubular and
the bulbs are formed by the attachment of swollen leaf bases to underground part of stem
which is small and rudimentary. Flowers are produced during second phase after
formation of bulbs. Flowering structure is called an ‘umbel’, which is an aggregate of
many small inflorescences (cymes) of 5-10 flowers. Length of peduncle commonly
known a ‘scape’ varies with variety. Though individual flowers are hermaphrodite, they
are cross pollinated due to protandry. Cross pollination is achieved by honey bees when
they visit flowers for nectar. Stigma becomes receptive 3-4 days after shedding of pollen
grains. Artificial selfing is done by covering all umbels of a plant together and by shaking
or rubbing each other or by introducing flies.

Male sterility
Jones and Clarke (1943) reported male sterility formed by interaction of nuclear
gene and cytoplasmic factor. It is presumed that there are two types of cytoplasm –
normal

(N) and sterile (S). All male sterile plants have ‘S’ cytoplasm which is inherited maternally
through egg. A recessive gene ‘ms’ in homozygous condition results in sterile pollen grains
when carried in plants with ‘S’ cytoplasm [S(msms)]. Plants with ‘N’ cytoplasm
[N(MsMs)], N(MsMs), N(msms) and plants with genetic constitution S (MsMs)
and S (Msms) are fertile. Besides modifier genes, environmental factors also cause
variation in expression of male sterility.
 Male sterile plants ([S(ms ms)] are usually designated as ‘A line’. They can be
maintained by crossing with male fertile ‘B line’ having fertile cytoplasm – N(msms). B
line can be identified by crossing ‘A line’ with several other lines and if the progeny turns
out to be completely male sterile in a particular case, that particular parent will be
considered as B line with N (msms). Fertility of ‘A line’ can be maintained by crossing
with ‘C line’ having a constitution of N (Msms) as pollen parent. Progeny segregates in
the ratio of 1 male sterile : 1 male fertile. ‘C line’ is generally designated as fertility
restorer line.

Climate
Onion is a cool season vegetable and grows well under mild climate without
extreme heat or cold or excessive rainfall. It does not thrive when the average rainfall
exceeds 75-100 cm during monsoon period. The young seedlings withstand freezing
temperature. The ideal temperature for vegetative growth is 12.8 – 23.0oC. For bulb
formation it requires long days and still higher temperature (20-25oC). Even though
onion is treated as a long day plant, for bulb formation and its development, varieties
differ in their response to length of day. Most of cultivars grown in plains of North India
are short day cultivars. Long day varieties will not produce bulbs under short day
conditions and short day cultivars if planted under long day conditions will develop early
bulbs. For seed production, temperature has more relevance than photoperiod.
Varieties
Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency, maturation etc. of bulbs.
Large sized bulbs are mild in pungency and are sweet in taste compared to small sized
onions. Red coloured cultivars are more pungent than silver skinned varieties and
keep better in storage. Yellow cultivars have less demand in the market. The local
cultivars are known and marketed after the names of places where they are grown.
Poona Red, Nasik Red, Bellary Red, Patna Red and Patna White are common in onion
trade. Most of the improved varieties were developed through mass selection from
local collections of segregating populations. A brief description of improved varieties is
given
below :

Developing
Variety Special features
institution
IIHR, Arka Niketan Bulbs globular and pink with a weight of 100-
Bangalore 180g, thin neck, highly pungent, TSS 12-13%,
good storage quality. Yield 42 t/ha in 145 days.
 Arka Kalyan Bulbs globular and pink with a weight of 130-190
g, TSS 11-13%, good storage quality. Suitable
for kharif season only. Moderately resistant to
purple blotch. Yield 47 t/ha in 140 days.
Arka Bindu Bulbs small, crimson red colour with 12.5% TSS.
(Rose onion) Yield 25 t/ha in 90-95 days.
Arka Pragathi Bulbs globular with thin neck and deep pink with
high pungency. Early variety with good storage
quality. Yield 45 t/ha in 130 days.
IARI, New Pusa Red Bulbs red, globular, 5-6 cm in diameter and 70-
Delhi 90 g in weight, less pungent, good keeping
quality, TSS 12-13%, yield 25-30 t/ha in 125-140
days.
Pusa Ratnar Bulbs bronze deep red, flat globular, less pungent
and good keeping quality, yield 32.5-35 t/ha in
145-150 days.
Pusa White Bulbs medium to large, attractive round, good
Round keeping quality, suitable for dehydration, yield
32.5 t/ha in 125-140 days.
Pusa Madhvi Bulbs light red, good keeping quality, yield 30-40
t/ha.
Pusa White Good for dehydration and green onion yield
Flat 33-35 t/ha.
Early Grano Introduction from USA with large globular
yellow coloured bulbs having mild pungency,
suitable for salad purpose and for green onion
purpose, poor keeping quality, yield 50-60 t/ha in
95 days.
IARI Regional Brown Spanish Long day type suitable for hills, yield 28 t/ha in
Station, Katrain 160-180 days.
NHRDF, Nasik Agrifound Dark Bulbs dark red, globular 4-6 cm in diameter,
Red moderately pungent, TSS 13%, good keeping
quality, yield 30-40 t/ha in 160-165 days.
Agrifound Suitable for export bulbs dark red, yield 19-20
Rose t/ha.
VPKS, Almora, VL 3 Bulbs medium size, globular, red and pungent.
UP. Yield 25 t/ha in 145 days.
MPKV, Rahuri N-2-4-1 Bulbs brick red, globular, 6.1 cm in diameter,
pungent and firm with good keeping quality, TSS
12-13%, yield 30 t/ha in 140 days.
 N-257-9-1 Bulbs globular and white, suitable for rabi season,
suitable for dehydration. Yield 25 t/ha in 125
days.
Baswant-780 Bulbs crimson red with 12% TSS. Yield 25 t/ha
in 125 days.
N-53 (Nishad- Suitable for kharif season. Bulbs shining red, less
53) pungent, globular, yield 15-20 t/ha.
HAU, Hisar Hisar-2 Bulbs light red, yield 20 t/ha.

Punjab Punjab Naroya Bulbs red, medium to large, round with thin neck,
Agricultural tolerant to purple blotch, yield 37.5 t/ha. in 123
University, days.
Ludhiana.

Punjab Bulbs red, globular, 5-6 cm in diameter and 50-

Selection 70 g in weight, good keeping quality, yield 30
t/ha.

Punjab Red Bulbs shining red, globular, medium size with

Round thin neck, yield 28-30 t/ha.

S-148 Bulbs white, flat round, average weight 80 g, TSS

12-13%, good storage quality, yield 25-30 t/ha in
140 days.

CSAU&T, Kalyanpur Red Bulbs light red, yield 20 t/ha.

Kanpur. Round

RAU, Udaipur 102 Bulbs white suitable for dehydration, yield 25-30
Rajashthan t/ha.

Hybrid vigour
IIHR, Bangalore has developed F1 hybrids like Arka Kirtiman, Arka Lalima and Arka
Pitamber. A brief description of the above hybrids is given below :
Arka Kirtiman - F1 hybrid of CMS 65 x Selection 13-1-1. Suitable for kharif and rabi
seasons, bulbs medium size and dark red, yield 45-60 t/ha, good keeping quality,
suitable for export to Gulf countries.
Arka Lalima – F1 hybrid of MS 48 x Selection 14-1-1, bulbs globe shaped an deep red
each weighing 120-130 g, good shelf life of 5 months, tolerant to purple blotch, suitable
for export to Gulf countries.
Arka Pitamber (IIHR Yellow) – Short day variety with globe shaped yellow bulbs,
average bulb weight 80 g, moderately resistant to purple blotch, yield 35-38 t/ha.
Soil
Onion prefers a well drained, loose and friable soil rich in humus. It is sensitive to
high acidity and alkalinity and the ideal pH is 5.8 to 6.5.

Methods of planting
The following three methods of planting are followed depending on soil,
topography, climatic conditions and economic aspects :

1. Raising seedlings and transplanting

2. Planting bulbs directly in the field.
3. Broadcasting or drilling of seeds directly in the field.
Transplanting method
This is the most common method practiced for irrigated crop as it results in high
yield and large size bulbs. In plains, seeds are sown during October-November for a rabi
crop. In hills, seeds are sown from March to June. Seeds are first sown in well prepared
nursery beds of 90-120 cm width, 7.5-10.0 cm height and convenient length. Ratio
between nursery area and main field is about 1:20. Seed rate varies from 8 to 10 kg/ha.
Seedlings of 15 cm height and 0.8 cm neck diameter are ideal for transplanting and this
is achieved in 8 weeks. However, it varies from 6-10 weeks depending on soil, climate
and receipt of rain. There is a practice of topping seedlings at the time of transplanting if
seedlings are over-grown.

For transplanting, the land is brought to a fine tilth by thorough ploughing,

leveling and breaking clods. The field is then divided into small plots of convenient sizes
for irrigation and seedlings are transplanted at 15 x 8-10 cm spacing.

Planting of bulbs
 This method is practiced in hill slope and in terrace cultivation since seedlings are
easily washed off in rain. Medium to small sized bulbs alone are used for plating since
large sized bulbs result in early bolting and high cost. Medium sized bulbs obtained from
a seedling planted in June crop are used for planting in September – October after giving
a month rest. Bulbs are dibbled at 15 cm apart on the side of 45 cm wide ridges or in
beds or in furrows depending on soil or climate. 10-12 quintals of bulbs are required to
plant one hectare.

Broadcasting or drilling method

Direct sowing by broadcasting or drilling at 30 cm apart is practiced in some
areas to save labour for transplanting. Here seed requirement is as high as 25 kg / ha.
Care should be taken to remove weeds during initial stages to prevent smothering of
seedlings by weeds. Usually weeding is done at 10 days interval for the first 1-2 months.
When bulbs are 6-8 weeks old, seedlings should be thinned to proper distance which
usually synchronizes with gap filling.

Manures and fertilizers

Onion is a heavy feeder of nitrogen and potash and a crop yielding 35 t/ha
requires 120 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 160 kg K2O, 15 kg Mg O and 20 kg sulphur. Apply 20-25
tones of farmyard manure at the time of first ploughing so that it may get mixed
thoroughly during subsequent ploughings. Entire dose of P and K should be applied at
the time of final land preparation. Nitrogen should be top-dressed in two equal splits,
first half 3-4 weeks after transplanting and second half two months after transplanting.

Application of fertilizers in Tamil Nadu :

Apply FYM 25 t/ha, Azospirillum 2 kg and Phosphobacterias 2 kg/ha, N 30 kg, P
60 kg and K 30 kg/ha as basal and 30 kg N/ha on 30th day of sowing.
Irrigation
Onion is mainly grown as a irrigated crop in India. Frequency of irrigation depends
on soil and climatic conditions. Requirement of water varies with stages of crop. It
requires less water immediately after establishment of seedlings and consumption goes
on increasing with maximum requirement before maturity, around 3 months after
transplanting, and thereafter it is reduced. So irrigate the crop at 13-15 days interval
during early stage followed by subsequent irrigations at 7-10 days interval.
Weeding and inter-culture
During early stages of the crop, plants grow slowly and it is essential to remove
weeds. Pre-plant incorporation of Basalin (2 kg a.i./ha) along with one hand weeding at
45 days after transplanting is recommended to control weeds. Being a shallow rooted
crop, deep inter-culture operation is likely to injure roots and reduce yield. Generally
two hoeings are essential for making soil loose and to cover bulbs.

Harvesting and yield

Onion is ready for harvest in 3-5 months after transplanting depending on
variety. Harvesting is done by pulling out plants when tops are drooping but still green.
During hot days when soil is hard, bulbs are pulled out with a hand-hoe. Yield varies with
season and variety. 15-25 tonnes of bulbs are expected from one hectare of
transplanted crop. Yield of kharif crop is comparatively low.

Rainy season onion cultivation

Onion was grown during rabi season only. Development of varieties suitable for
rainy season is a significant achievement in onion breeding and it resulted in cultivation
of onion in kharif season also. Varieties like N-53, Agrifound Dark Red, Baswant 780 and
Arka Kalyan are suitable for growing in rainy season. For a successful crop, seeds are
sown by end of May or June, transplanted in August and harvested in December-
January. In kharif season, yield will be less and ranges from 15-20 t/ha.
Green onion or Spring onion
Consumption of green onion is almost equal to that of dry onion in the world.
Both bulb-forming and non-bulb forming types are used as green onion. For green onion
production, seeds are sown in August, transplanted in October and harvested after 75-
80 days at tender stage. Varieties like early Grano, Pusa White Flat and Pusa White
Round are suitable for green onion purposes. Yield ranges from 40-45 t/ha.

Post-harvest handling
It is estimated that 60-65% of onion produced in India is consumed internally, 5%
exported and 30-40% lost by post harvest damage.

Curing
 Sprouting and rotting are common problems in storage since bulbs contain high
moisture. The bulbs should be adequately cured for proper development of skin colour
and to remove field heat before storage of bulbs. It is done till the neck is tight and outer
scales are dried. This will prevent infection of diseases and minimize shrinkage loss.
Bulbs are cured either in field or in open shade or by artificial means before storage.
During kharif season, bulbs are cured for 2-3 weeks along with top. In rabi, bulbs are
cured in field for 3-5 days, tops are cut leaving 2.0-2.5 cm above bulb and again cured
for 7-10 days to remove field heat.

Storage
After curing, bulbs are stored in well ventilated rooms by spreading them on dry
and damp proof floorings or on racks. Periodical turning of bulbs and removal of rotten
and sprouted bulbs is highly essential. A pre-harvest spray of maleic hydrazide (2000-
2500 ppm) prevents rotting and sprouting of bulbs stored at room temperature. At
BARC, Trombay irradiation of bulbs with very low doses (4000-9000 krads) of gamma
rays is effective for preventing sprouting and enhancing storage life of onion bulbs.

Bulbs harvested from kharif crop do not store well for long period. At 2.2 oC
under cold storage, bulbs can be stored for long period. NHRDF erected storage
structures in Nasik for helping farmers. Three types of storage structures, viz., Panipat
type 2-tiered, 3- tier onion store and 2-tier model were established by Government
itself investing heavily. Grading

Thick necked, bolted and decayed bulbs are removed. Cured bulbs are graded
based on size, and depending on market to which it is sent. Big sized onion is in demand
in New Delhi, medium sized in Kolkata, Patna and small sized onion in North Eastern
regions of the country.

Marketing
Between farmers and consumers, several intermediaries are involved in
marketing of onions. After entry of NAFED(National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing
Federation of India) in onion trade, farmers’ co-operatives are playing a key role in

marketing. Lasalgoan
is the biggest onion market in India. November – June is the peak period of onion
market.
Export
India is the third biggest exporter of onion, next to Netherlands and Spain, in
world. Major export is to Gulf countries, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka and
Bangladesh. Export of onion is channelised through NAFED. Depending on preference
of colour and size of bulbs, different varieties are exported. Middle East countries
prefer light red to dark red bulbs. In Malaysia preference is for dark red bulbs. In
America and Japan, demand is for yellowish or brown onion having mild pungency.
Europe and Japan markets prefer large sized bulbs while in Singapore, demand is for
small onions.
Onion accounts for major share (nearly 75%) of vegetables exported from India. Export
of 4.4 lakh tones of fresh onion worth of Rs. 332.43 crores during 2001-02 was increased
to 8.33 lakh tones worth of Rs. 621.09 crores during 2004-05. During 2004-05 share of
fresh onion export was 3.8% of the total export earning from agriculture sector. Major
importers for Indian onion are Bangladesh, Malaysia, UAE and Sri Lanka. About 90% of
export from India is of big onion (4-6 cm diameter) and 10% of small onion (3-4 cm
diameter) and multiplier onion. Large onion is exported to Malaysia, Gulf countries,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh etc. and small and multiplier onion to Bangladesh,
Singapore and Malaysia.
Dehydrated onion
Popularity of dehydrated onion is increasing now-a-days. Advantages of
dehydrated onion are storage stability and ease of preparation. Commercial processing
plants prescribes a shrinkage ratio of 7:1 to 17:1 with a moisture content of 4% in final
product. Dehydrated onions are sold in many forms as slices, chopped, minced,
granulated and powdered.

Bulbs for dehydration should have the following characteristics :

1. Devoid of any green patches so that it may not develop discoloration on drying.
White onions are preferred to red or yellow onions.
 2. TSS should be 15-20o Brix in common onion and 25oBrix in multiplier onion.
3. Onion with small neck and root zone and those with tall globe shape are
preferred than flat types to permit greater efficiency in topping.
4. Large bulbs are preferred due to economy in harvests.
5. Pungency should be high since dehydrated product is primarily used as
flavouring agent.
6. The bulb should have good stability with minimum shrinkage loss and rotting.
Moisture content should be around 80%.
South Port White Globe and White Cresole are primarily used for dehydration in
Central California and Central America. Varieties like Pusa White Red, Pusa White Flat, S-
48 and N-257-9-1 and Udaipur-102 are suitable for dehydration purposes.
Seed Production
Onion is a cross-pollinated crop and isolation distance of 1000-1600 m and 500
m is recommended for production of foundation and certified seeds, respectively. Two
methods of seed production are followed-seed to seed method and bulb to seed
method. Even though seed yield is more under seed to seed method, bulb to seed method
is followed for production of quality seeds.

In bulb to seed method, bulbs are produced as for market and bulbs with desired
quality are replanted for seed production. Bulbs are replanted in first fortnight of
October. Normally medium sized bulbs of 2.5 to 3.0 cm diameter are planted on the side
of ridges or on beds at 45 x 30-45 cm spacing. 1000 kg bulb is required to plant one
hectare. Flower stalks will be produced during third month after planting of bulbs and
seeds ripen within six weeks after formation of flower clusters. Heads are harvested
when seeds turn black in colour, but before seeds are shed. Seeds are dried in well
ventilated rooms under shade and are stored. Seed yield is 800 – 1000 kg / ha.

Seed production of varieties which do not store well in storage is done by seed
to seed method.

Multiplier Onion
(Syn : Aggregatum onion)
(Allium cepa var. Aggregatum) (2n = 2x = 16)
 (Hindi : Cotta pyas)
Multiplier onion is used mainly for seasoning of curries. Unlike common onion, it
is propagated through bulb-lets. The small bulbs grows into large ones which again
break into smaller ones.

Unlike common onion, multiplier onion comes up well under tropical condition
with sufficient soil moisture. Heavy rain during germination and bulb formation stage is
highly deleterious for the crop. It prefers well drained loamy soil.

Varieties
The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University developed five varieties viz., Co.1, Co.2,
Co.3, Co.4 and CO On 5 and NHRDF, Dindigul one variety – Agrifound Red. A brief
description of the varieties is given below :

CO.1 – Bulbs large and pink, 7-9 bulbs / clump, yield 9-10 t/ha in 85 days. CO.2
– Bulbs large and crimson, 7-9 bulbs / clump, yield 12 t/ha in 65-70 days.

CO.3 – Bulbs pink with a weight of 75 g, 8-10 bulbs / plant, moderately resistant
to thrips, good storage quality, yield 15.8 t/ha in 65 days.

CO.4 – Bulks attractive light pink, 9-13 bulbs / plant. Average weight 90 g/lump.
Yield 19 t/ha in 65 days.
COOn 5 - High bulb yield (18.91 t/ha), free flowering and high seed setting
ability, propagation through seeds.
Agrifound Red-Each clump weights 65 g with 5-6 light red bulb-lets, TSS 15-16oB,
yield 18-20 t/ha in 65 days.

Under Tamil Nadu condition, bulbs are planted during April-May. As in common
onion, field is ploughed to fine tilth and ridges and furrows are prepared at 45 cm apart.
Medium sized bulbs are planted at a distance of 10 cm on either side of ridges. 1500 kg
of bulbs are required to plant one hectare. As in common onion, seedlings raised from
seeds are also used for planting. Cultural practices are same as in common onion. Yield
varies from 10-15 t/ha with a crop duration of 2-3 months.

CULTIVATION DETAILS FOR CO On 5 – ONION

Breeding method : Mass selection from Gnanamedu local

Duration : 90 days
Season : March – July
May – September
November – January (Seed Production)
Yield : 19 t/ha
Seed yield : 300 kg /ha
Seed rate : 8 kg /ha
Method of planting : Transplanting
Spacing : 45 cm x 10 cm
Manuring : FYM 25 t/ha
Basal: 30 kg N: 60 kg P: 30 kg K/ha
Top dressing: 30 kg N at 30 DAP
Thrips : Methyl dematon 25 EC 1 ml/lit.
Leaf spot : Mancozeb 2 g (or)
Copper oxychloride 2.5 g
Growth regulator : Maleic hydrazide 2500 ppm spray 15 days
before harvesting to enhance storability
 Production technology of cassava
Cassava: (Syn: Tapioca) Manihot esculenta (Crantz) (2n = 2x = 36) (Hindi : Mravuli) Family :
Euphorbiaceae
Cassava is the most important starchy root crop grown in the tropics and is mainly cultivated in
southern peninsular India. Introduced during seventeenth century by Portuguese, the crop played a
significant role to overcome food shortage among the low income group of people in Kerala.
Underground tuber is rich in starch and mainly consumed after cooking. Processed products like chips,
sago and vermicelli made of tapioca are also popular in the country. Being easily digestible, it forms an
important ingredient in poultry and cattle-feeds. It is also widely used for production of industrial
alcohol, starch and glucose.

Origin and distribution

Cassava is not known in wild state. North-Eastern Brazil is the centre of origin. Portuguese
distributed the crop from Brazil to countries like Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia and India.

Nigeria is the major growing country in world accounting for 50% of area and production. In
India crop is cultivated in southern peninsular region, particularly Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh contributing 93% of area and 98% of production in the country. Kerala accounts for nearly 50%
of total area under cassava in India and is mainly grown as rainfed crop.

Botany
Cassava belongs to family Euphorbiaceae and is diploid (2n=36). Polyploids with 2n=54 and 72
are also available. It is a perennial shrub producing 5-10 cylindrical tubers per plant. Being a member of
family Euphorbiaceae, it produces latex. The stem is woody and variously branched. Two distinct types
are present – one without branching at the top and the other with spreading nature. Leaves are
palmately lobed with 5-9 lobes. Cassava is monoecious in nature and cross-pollinated. Female flowers
are few in numbers and are borne in the base of inflorescence and male flowers are borne above.
Female flowers open about 10 days before male flower anthesis. Stigma is receptive from 6.30 a.m.
and continues up to 2.30 p.m.

Plants when raised from seeds produce typical tap root system. Since crop is mainly propagated
by vegetative means by stem cuttings, numerous adventitious roots develop, of which a few develop
into tubers. Tubers are composed of a thin peridium, white or purple cortex known as rind and central
massive flesh rich in starch (25-40%). Bitterness often encountered in a few varieties and at certain stage
is due to a bitter principle cyanogenic glucoside (HCN).
 Varieties
Varieties differ in colour of rind and flesh, size of tubers, colour of stem, leaf and petiole,
branching pattern, duration of crop and resistance to mosaic disease. High amount of cross-pollination
results in heterozygous nature. Vegetative method of propagation resulted in development of a
number of polyploidy varieties and hybrids. Most of the crop improvement works on cassava are done
at the Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), Thiruvananthapuram. Important varieties
developed at CTCRI are given below :

H-97 : This erect branching hybrid, developed by crossing Manjavella Local with a Brazilian Local, is
characterized by the light sepia colour of emerging leaf with brown tubers; yield 25-35 t/ha in 10 months.
H-165 : This is a non-branching hybrid with mature leaves showing drooping nature; tubers are relatively
short with cream coloured rind; yield 33-38 t/ha in 8-9 months.

H-226 : This semi-branching hybrid having characteristic green coloured leaves; tuber rind is light purple
and skin is cream with purple patches; susceptible to cassava mosaic disease (CMD); yield 30-35 t/ha in
10 months.

Sree Sahya : This is a multiple hybrid involving five parents. It is non-branching with dark brown petiole
and spiny prominent stipular mark; tubers are long and rind is cream coloured; yield 35-40t/ha in 10-11
months.

Sree Vaisakham : This is a semi-branching hybrid with slightly yellow fleshed tubers which remains
yellow even after cooking; carotene content is 466 IU / 100 g; tuber rind is cream and skin is brown
coloured; yield is 35-38 t/ha in 10 months.

Sree Prakash : This is a short, non-branching, early maturing (7-8 months) variety developed by clonal
selection; highly tolerant to Cercospora leaf spot; yield 35-40 t/ha in 7-8 months.

Sree Harsha : This is a triploid clone developed by crossing a diploid with an induced tetraploid clone of
‘Sree Sahya’; plants are stout, erect and non-branching with tubers of good cooking quality and high
starch content (38-41%); yield 35-40 t/ha in 7-8 months.

Sree Jaya : This is a short-duration (6 months) clonal selection suitable for low land cultivation as a
rotation crop in paddy-based inter-cropping system; tubers are with brown skin and purple rind and
have good cooking quality; yield 26-30 t/ha; susceptible to CMD.

Sree Vijaya : This is also a short-duration (6-7 months) clonal selection suitable for low land cultivated
as a rotation crop in a paddy-based inter-cropping system; tubers are with cream coloured rind and
light yellow flesh due to high carotene; susceptible to mite and scale insect; yield 25-28 t/ha in 7
months.
M-4 : This is a non-branching variety with excellent cooking quality; susceptible to mites; yield 18-23
t/ha in 10 months.
Sree Rekha : Erect branching variety with excellent cooking quality; susceptible to mites; yield 18-23
t/ha in 10 months.

Sree Prabha : Semi-spreading variety with good taste and quality; yield 35-40 t/ha in 10 months.
Three varieties viz., Nidhi, Kalpaka and Vellayani Hraswa were developed by Kerala Agricultural
University.

Nidhi : Yield (25.1 t/ha), tolerant to mosaic, short duration (5-6 months) grayish white stem, petiole
white with red shade, skin light pink.

Kalpaka (KMC-1: Yield (28.4 t/ha), short duration (6 months), non branching stem, pink tuber rind.
Vellayani Harswa : High yield (44.01 t/ha), short duration (5-6 months), pink tuber rind, excellent
cooking quality.

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University also developed four varieties viz., CO-1, CO-2 and CO-3.
CO-1 : A clonal selection with tubers having whitish brown skin, creamy rind and 35%
starch; yield 30 t/ha in 8-9 months.

CO-2 : A branching variety with tubers having brown skin, creamy white rind and 34.6%
starch; yield 35 t/ha in 8-9 months; suitable for consumption and industry.

CO-3 : A branching variety having tubers with brown skin and 35.6% starch; yield 42.6 t/ha
in 8 months.

Co(Tp)4: Selection from Me501,Yield 50 t/h,Starch 40 %,Field tolerant to Red spider

mite and scales

CTCRI CO(Tp)5: Seedling selection from Mnga,Released during 2007,Yield potential

30t/ha,Starch content 26%,Resistant to CMD,Duration 10
months,Suitable to irrigated conditions

Yethapur 1- Resistance to cassava mosaic disease

Climate
Cassava is a tropical crop tolerant to drought and cannot withstand frost. It is grown in altitude
up to 2000 m, but performance is better in lower altitudes. Though crop can be grown even in semi-
arid conditions, growth and productivity are better in warm humid climate with well distributed
rainfall.

Soil
Cassava grows on all types of soils, but saline, alkaline and ill-drained soils are not suitable. Crop is
mainly grown in laterite soils to loan in Kerala and black and red soils in Tamil Nadu.
 Season of planting and preparation of setts
As an irrigated crop, cassava can be planted during any part of year, but December-January
planting is better. As a rainfed crop, planting is done during April-May before onset of South-West
Monsoon and during September-October coinciding with North East monsoon.

Stem cuttings, usually called as setts, for planting are taken from disease free stakes of 8-10
months maturity having a thickness of 2-3 cm diameter. Discard woody basal portion and tender top
portion of stem. Prepare sets of 15-20 cm length with a smooth circular cut at the base and slanting cut
at top for easy identification of base and top. The circular cut at base ensures uniform callus formation
and root initiation. Sets prepared from stem stored for 15 days with leaves give better sprouting.

Land preparation
Land is ploughed or dug properly for loosening soil to a depth of 20-25 cm. Depending on texture
of soil and slope of land, mounds or ridges or raised beds are prepared. Mounds of 25-30 cm height are
prepared in poorly drained soils. Ridges of 25-30 cm length are made in sloppy land for a rainfed crop
and in leveled for irrigated crop. Ridges are taken across the slope. Flat raised beds are taken in level
lands having good drainage. Since cassava mosaic disease is a serious problem, care should be taken to
select disease-free stakes for preparation of sets. Raising setts initially in raised beds by planting very
close (400 sets / m2), rouging out diseased plants and uprooting disease-free setts for planting at 3
weeks age ensure disease-free seedlings.

Planting
Setts 25 – 30 cm length are planted vertically in beds, mounds or ridges to a depth of 5 cm. Care
should be taken to avoid planting of sets inverted. Spacing depends on branching pattern of varieties.
Normally erect and non-branching varieties are planted at 75 x 75 cm and branching or semi-branching
varieties at 90 x 90 cm. In case, setts are dried after planting, 5% of stakes may be planted as reserve in
field, separately at a closer spacing of 4 x 4 cm for gap filling after 20-25 days.

Manures and fertilizers

Cassava is a heavy feeder and crop is to be adequately manured for getting high yield. Apply 25
tonnes of farmyard manure / ha as basal dose. For high yielding varieties, a fertilizer dose of 50 kg N,
50 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O / ha is recommended at the time of land preparation. If planting of setts is
done during hot condition, basal dose of fertilizers and manures may be postponed to one month after
planting. This will avoid attack of termites and drying up of setts. Apply second dose of fertilizer ie, 50
kg N and 50 kg K2O, 45-50 days after planting along with weeding and earthing up. In short duration
varieties, fertilizer dose can be reduced to 75:50:75 kg NPK/ha.
 Tamilnadu conditions
90;90;240 Kg NPK/ha - 50% N&K and 100% P applied as basal and remaining 50% N&K applied as top
dressing at 90 days after planting.

Rainfed : 50;65:125kg NPK/ha

Inter-culture
Pinching off excess sprouts emerging from setts is necessary in cassava cultivation. This may be
done 30-45 days after planting. As sprouts from top buds are more vigorous than those emerging from
lower nodes, retain only two sprouts from top portion, that too on opposite sides of sett.

Inter-culture operations are aimed at removing weeds in early stages of crop and to improve
physical condition of setts for proper tuber development. First inter-culture operation may be done
sufficiently deep at 45-60 days after planting and a shallow inter-culture by way of weeding or earthing
up may be given one month after the first.

Cassava is grown mainly as a rainfed crop in Kerala and irrigated crop in Tamil Nadu. Irrigating
crop at 25% available moisture depletion level, could double tuber yield compared to flood irrigated
crop.

Harvesting and yield

The crop is ready for harvesting in 10-11 months after planting. Short duration varieties can be
harvested in 6-7 months. Delayed harvest results in deterioration of quality of tubers. Harvesting is
usually done by uprooting plants gently by holding stem. After harvesting, stack stems vertically in well
aerated place for use in subsequent planting.

Yield is 25-30 t/ha for short duration varieties and 30-40 t/ha for other varieties.
Intercropping
As cassava is widely spaced, intercropping with short duration crops like ground nut,, French
bean and bush cowpea will utilize light and water more effectively and give an additional income of
Rs.3000-3500/ha within 3-3½ months. It adds organic manure to soil and controls weeds. Intercrops
are to be adequately manured for avoiding competition with main crop.

Pests
 Two groups of spider mites occur during dry season from January to May. One group
Tetranychus cinnabarinus and T. neocaledonicus feed on under surface of leaves causing
elongated streaks, chlorosis and withering of leaves. In severe cases, it covers the upper
surface also. The other group Eutetranychus orientalis and Oligonychus biharensis feed on
upper surface of leaves causing depletion of chlorophyll, resulting in typical rusted leathery
appearance. Curling of leaves starting from margins is also noticed. Water spray at run-off
level, spraying neem oil or dimethoate (0.05%) is effective for control of mites.
  Scale insect (Anoidomytllus albus) attack stem when stacked and occasionally in field causing
drying. Storing of stem in vertical position and spraying dimethoate (0.05%) will be effective for
control of insect.
 Termites (Odontotermes obesus) and white grubs (Leucopholis coneophora) infest roots
causing drying up of plants. In severe cases, follow soil application of insecticides.
Diseases
 Cassava Mosaic Disease is the most serious problem of cassava cultivation in Kerala and is
caused by Gemini virus. Infested plants show reduction in leaf size and stunted growth, curling
and typical mosaic pattern. Though quality is not reduced, yield reduction is considerable.
Field sanitation, selection of disease free stem for planting, timely rouging, control of vector
(white fly
– Bemisia tabaci).

 CTCRICO(Tp)5 and YTP 1 are the resistant varieties.

 Tuber rot caused by Phytophthora dreschleri: This is more in ill-drained soils; infected tubers
show brown discolouration of internal tissues and become rotten and emit foul smell. Remove
infected tubers and apply Trichoderma spp. In the soil.
 Production technology of Sweet Potato
Ipomoea batatas L. (2n = 90)
(Hindi : Shakarkand, Mitha alu) Family : Convolvulaceae
Sweet potato is cultivated for its sweet root tubers. It is mainly used for human food after
boiling or steaming, baking or frying and also as animal feed. Since roots contain 16% starch and 4%
sugar, it is used for production of industrial starch, syrup and alcohol.

Origin and distribution

Sweet potato is a native of tropical America. It is an important tuber crop in tropical and sub-
tropical countries like Africa, China and India. In India, it is grown mainly in Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.

Climate
Sweet potato requires well drained fertile soil rich in humus. Sandy loam soils with clay sub soil
is ideal for tuber production. In heavy soils, tuber size is reduced. If soil pH is below 5.2, liming is
necessary.

Botany
Sweet potato is a hexaploid species with 90 somatic chromosomes. It is a perennial herb with
trailing vines and with a cluster of a few medium sized tubers. For cultivation purpose, it is treated as
an annual with duration of 90 to 120 days. Though plants produce viable seeds, highly heterozygous
nature of the crop results in a heterogeneous population. Hence stem cuttings are used for
propagation purpose.

Sweet potato has an extensive fibrous root system both at stem cuttings and at nodes touching
soil. Some roots act as storage organs for storing reserve food. Storage roots may be fusiform, spindle
or globular in shape and surface is smooth. Skin has white, red or light copper colour. Flesh may be
white or with different combinations of orange and red.

Leaves are simple, alternate and exstipulate. They vary in size and shape, occasionally in same
plant. Shape varies from ovate to cordate, deeply lobed and may change on ageing. Leaf shape is an
important character for identifying clones.

All clones do not flower and in flowering ones, duration and initiation of flowering vary. Flowers
are axillary and borne solitary or in simple cymes. Flowers are bisexual. Corolla is attractive and funnel
shaped formed by fusion of five petals. Anthesis starts before dawn and closes by 9-11 a.m. Pollination
is entomophilous. Fruit is a capsule with false septa. Seed coat is hard and impervious to water. Hence,
scarification is required for promoting germination.
 Varieties
Sweet potato varieties differ in shape, size and colour of leaves, tubers and nature of tuber
flesh. A number of local cultivars like Badrakali chuvala, Chakkaravalli, Anakomban and Kottaram
chuvala are grown in Kerala. The Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), Thiruvananthapuram
developed quite a good number of varieties and a brief description of them are given below :

Varsha : A semi-spreading hybrid with reddish purple skin, light yellow flesh and excellent cooking
quality; yield 18-22 t/ha in 120-125 days.

Sree Nandini : A spreading variety with light cream skin, white flesh and good cooking quality; yield 20-
25 t/ha in 100-105 days.

Sree Vardhini : A semi-spreading variety with purple skin, light orange flesh and high carotene content
(1200 I.U.); yield 20-25 t/ha in 100-105 days. Tolerant to Feathery mottle virus.

Sree Ratna : A spreading variety with purple skin, orange flesh and excellent cooking quality; yield 20-
26 t/ha in 90-105 days.

Sree Bhadra : A semi-spreading variety with light pink skin and cream flesh; resistant to root knot
nematode; yield 20-27 t/ha on 90-95 days.
Sree Arun : A spreading variety with pink skin, cream flesh and good cooking quality; yield 20-28 t/ha in
90-100 days.

Sree Varun : A spreading variety with cream skin, cream flesh and good cooking quality; yield 20-28 t/ha
in 90-100 days.

Sree Kanaka : Short duration variety 75 to 85 days, very high carotene (8.8 – 10 mg/100g), yield
15t/ha
Gouri, Sankar, Kalinga, Goutam, Sourin, Kishan
The Kerala Agricultural University developed an improved variety, Kanjangad, yielding 12.39
t/ha. Purple coloured and spindle shaped tubers have yellow soft flesh. It is tolerant to shade and
weevil incidence.

IARI, New Delhi released two improved varieties viz., Pusa Safed, and Pusa Sunheri.
Pusa Safed : A white skinned variety with white flesh
Pusa Sunheri : A brown skinned variety with yellow flesh rich in carotene; boiled flesh is attractively
orange yellow.

Acharya Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad developed following improved varieties :

Cross-4 : Yield 20-30 t/ha in 90-105 days; highly susceptible to weevil infestation.
Rajendra Shakarkand-5 : Yield 30 t/ha in 105-120 days; resistant to Fusarium wilt and Cercospora
leaf spot disease.
Kalmegh : A short duration variety (90 days) yielding 26 t/ha.
 Tamil Nadu Agricultural University has developed four varieties viz., Co.1 and CO.2,Co3
and COCIP1.
CO. 1- Semi spreading , Less spreading Medium lobed, dark green leaves, Starch 24.2%, Good
consistency , duration 135 days, yield 28.33 t/ha

CO. 2 - Non spreading Vines less spreading Tubers medium sized Light pink skin with elliptic Starch
29.5%,Weevil incidence 10-15% only Better consumer’s appeal, duration 115 days, yield 32 t/ha

CO. 3 - Semi spreading Tubers medium sized, Tubers rich in carotenoids (13.28 mg/100g) Starch
30.72%,Tubers with less root weevil incidence (15%), duration110 days, yield 32.50 t/ha

CO.CIP.1 - Semi spreading, Shallow lobed leaves, pigmentation at round elliptic to long with attractive
pink outer skin, pale yellow flesh. Starch 14.8%, -carotene- 4200g/gm, Tolerant to weevil, duration
95-100 days, yield 31.76 t/ha.
CO 5 SWEET POTATO
This is a vigorous and high yielding variety developed from culture (CIP-440038) received from ICAR-
CTCRI Regional Centre, Bhubaneswar, which is introduced from CIP, Lima, Peru through AICRP on tuber
crops. Vines grows to a length of 2.33 m. Leaves are semi-elliptic, 3 lobed with petiole length of

15.5 cm, immature and mature leaf colour is green, abaxial leaf vein pigmentation is green, petiole colur
is green, flower colour is pale purple, tuber shape is long elliptic . Tubers are mild pink skin with orange
flesh and rich in carotene (20.02 µg/g). Total tuber yield 28.59 t/ha in 100-110 days.

Raising nursery
Sweet potato is mainly propagated by vine cuttings of 25-30 cm length. Cuttings for planting are
multiplied in two nurseries – primary and secondary. Tubers in primary nursery are planted three
months ahead of planting. A nursery area of 100m 2 is required to raise vines for planting one hectare.
Ridges are prepared at 60 cm apart and tubers of 125-150 g weight are used in planting and irrigate as
and when required. Clip off vines to a length of 20-30 cm at 40-45 days after sowing tubers for planting
in secondary nursery.

A 500 m2 secondary nursery is required to plant cuttings obtained from 100 m2. Plant the
cuttings at 25 cm apart in ridges taken at a spacing of 60 cm. 5 kg urea may be applied at 15-30 days after
planting in nursery. Clip off cuttings in 20-30 cm length after 45 days from middle and top portion of
vines. Cut vines are stored with intact leaves in shade for two days prior to planting in main field.
 Preparation of main field and planting
Vines are planted during June-July for a rainfed crop. Under irrigated conditions, plant during
October-November in upland and during January-February in low lands for summer crop. Main field is
prepared by making ridges of 25-30 cm high at 60 cm apart after thorough ploughing. 20-30 cm long
vines are buried horizontally with 2-3 nodes below soil, leaving the remaining portion above soil.

Manures and fertilizers

Apply 5 tonnes of farmyard manure / ha at the time of preparation of ridges. A fertilizer dose of
50:25:50 kg NPK / ha is recommended, of which 50% of N, full P and K to be applied as basal dose.
Remaining 50% of N is applied one month after along with weeding and earthing up.

Irrigation
During rabi and hot seasons, 12-14 irrigations are required at an interval of 10 days for heavy
yield.
Harvest
Harvesting is done by digging out tuber with pick-axe when leaves turn yellow in colour. Tubers
are cleaned and packed in gunny bags for marketing.

Yield : 6-9 t/ha for rainfed crop & 12-15 t/ha under average management.
Storage
Red skinned varieties store better than white skinned varieties. Tubers are stored better at 15 oC
and 85% RH. Tubers can also be stored for 2-3 months in a pit covered with straw.

Pests and diseases

Sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius) is the most important pest causing severe damage to the
crop. Adult weevil makes puncturing on vines and tubers. Grubs bore and feed by making tunnels. Even
slightly damaged tubers are unsuitable for consumption due to bitterness. Yield loss is up to 100% in
severe cases. On an average, 20-55% tuber loss occurs. Integrated pest management practices
recommended for control include dipping vine cuttings in Fenthion or Fenitrothion or Monocrotophos
(0.05%) solution for 10 minutes before planting. Reridging the crop two months after planting, installing
synthetic sex pheromone traps @ 1 trap / 100 m2 area to collect and kill the male weevils and
destroying crop residues after harvest by burning are recommended control measures.
 Production technology of Amorphophallus
(Syn : Elephant foot yam) Amorphophallus paeoniifolius
(Syn : A. campanulatus (Roxb.) Blume) (2n = 28)
(Hindi : Suran, Zamikand) Family : Araceae
Elephant foot yam is a remunerative and profitable stem tuber crop. The crop is gaining
popularity due to its shade tolerance, easiness in cultivation, high productivity, less incidence of pests
and diseases, steady demand and reasonably good price. Tubers are mainly used as vegetable after
thorough cooking. Chips are made of starch-rich tubers. Tender stem and leaves are also used for
vegetable purpose. Tubers contain 18.0% starch, 1-5% protein and upto 2% fat. Leaves contain 2-3%
protein, 3% carbohydrates and 4-7% crude fibre. Tubers and leaves are quite acrid due to high content
of oxalates. Acridity is usually removed by boiling fairly for a long time. Cultivation of elephant foot
yam is limited to India, Philippines, Sri Lanka and South East Asia.

Unlike other tubers, Amorphophallus roots has many medicinal uses and is widely prescribed by
Ayurvedic physicians. Amorphophallus corm is a good sources of phyto-aestrogens and are effective
alternate of complementary to conventional hormone replacement for symptoms associated with
menopause and chronic degenerative diseases in women.

Botany
Cultivated species A. paeonifolius is a robust herbaceous plant 1.0 – 1.5 m tall. Large dissected
tripartite leaves constitute the luxuriant outspreading crown-like foliage, borne on a fairly thick single
upright “stem”. The aerial “pseudostem” which is round with characteristic irregular blotches is
botanically a leaf petiole.

Though crop is perennial due to underground stem, it is treated as an annual with a duration of
8- 9 months. It is usually harvested when top becomes yellow and withers (8-9 months after planting).
It flowers once in 1-3 years. Inflorescence consists of a bell-shaped spathe surrounding a central yellow
spadix and is borne on a very short stalk. It appears almost at ground level. Although wild species flower
and set seeds profusely, cultivated species fail to set seeds under normal condition due to extreme
protogyny coupled with delay in opening of spathe.

Climate and soil

Amorphophallus is a tropical / subtropical crop and hence thrives well under warm humid climate
with a mean annual temperature of 30-35oC and a well distributed rain of 1000-1500 mm spread over a
period of 6-8 months. It grows well on a variety of soils. Well drained sandy loam or sandy clay loam
with near neutral soil reaction is ideal for the crop. Soil should be rich in organic matter with adequate
amount of available plant nutrients.
 Varieties
Sree Padma – Developed at CTCRI, Thiruvannthapuram; yield 42 t/ha
Gajendra – Developed at APAU, Hyderabad.
Propagation
Amorphophallus is propagated through corm. Corms harvested during November are stored in
well ventilated rooms. Before planting during February, the corm is cut into setts of 750-100 g. each
bearing a portion of central bud. Cut corms are smeared with cow dung slurry or wood ash and allowed
to dry in partial shade. Rapid seed corm production technique suggests use of cormels and mini sett
transplants of 100 g size for planting at a closer spacing of 45 x 30 cm.

Cultivation practices
After one or two ploughings, pits of size 60 x 60 x 45 cm are made at a spacing of 90 x 90 cm
during February. For harvesting small to medium sized tubers, distance between pits is reduced to 60 x
60 cm. Pits are half filled with top soil and well dried farmyard manure @ 2.0-2.5 kg/pit and wood ash.
Planting material is placed vertically in the pit. After compacting the planted tubers, pits are covered
with organic mulches like green leaves or paddy straw. Apply fertilizer @ 40 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 50 kg
K2O / ha 45 days after planting along with mulching and application of cow dung or compost after
receipt of rains. This is followed by digging interspaces and light earthing up. Top dressing is done with
40 kg N, 50 kg K2O again one month after, along with shallow intercultural operations like weeding,
light digging and earthing up.

Amorphophallus is mainly grown as a rainfed crop. During periods of late receipt of monsoon, a
light irrigation is given during early stages of crop. Crop is susceptible to water stagnation.

Mulching immediately after planting is the most important operation in Amorphophallus. It not
only conserves soil moisture and regulates soil temperature, but also suppresses weed growth. A
plant usually produces a single “stem”. In case of more numbers, it is advisable to remove it retaining
only one healthy one.

Pests and diseases

Amorphophallus is free from major pests and diseases except collar rot caused by Sclerotium
rolfsii. Water logging, poor drainage and mechanical injury at the collar region favour disease incidence.
Disease can be managed by use of disease-free planting material, removal of infected plants, improving
drainage, application of neem cake in soil, use of bio-control agents like Trichoderma and drenching soil
with captan 0.2%.

Harvest and yield

 Underground corms are harvested with pick axe or by digging when the top is completely
withered and fallen. Crop will be ready for harvest in 8-9 months after planting. However on better
market price, tubers can be harvested six month onwards. Average yield is 30-40 t/ha.
 Yams
Plants belonging to genus Dioscorea of family Discoreaceae under Monocotyledons are
commonly known as yams. Dioscorea alata (greater yam) and D. esculenta (lesser yam) are main yams
of India. Another species, D. routundata (white yam or African yam), which is under extensive
cultivation in Western Africa, recently introduced to India is becoming popular. All species are typical
tropical crops grown for carbohydrate rich underground tubers. They form staple food in many parts of
Western Africa. In D. alata, tubers are peeled, cooked and sued as vegetable. D. esculenta is consumed
after boiling and peeling.

Botany
Yam tuber is neither a root structure nor a stem, but may have its origin as a hypocotyls
structure. Tuber grows from a small corm structure located at base of stem. In all yams, tubers are
renewed annually. Tubers may be single or two or three. D. esculenta produces a large number of small
and spindle shaped tubers. D.alata produces less number of large size tubers. D. bulbifera produce
aerial bulbs called bulbils from axils of leaves. Whole tubers or pieces of tubers with stem are used for
planting in yams. Bulbils can also used for propagation.

Stem is weak and climbs on trees by twining. In D. rotundata stem remains erect upto one
metre height. Leaves are simple. All species are dioecious. Fruits are dehiscent tri-locular capsules.
Seeds are small and dispersed by wind. Even though all the species have seed dormancy for three
months, D. alata does not exhibit seed dormancy. In D. alata, majority of male clones are tetraploids
(2n = 40) and majority of females have higher ploidy level (2n=60 or 80).

Production technology of Greater yam

(Dioscorea alata) (Hindi : Ratula) (2n = 20, 30, 40-80)
Sree Keerthi : Tubers are conical with brown skin and white flesh having 20-22% starch. It yields 25- 30
t/ha in 9-10 months.

Sree Roopa : Tubers are digitate in shape with black skin and white flesh. Productivity is 25-30 t/ha in
9-10 months.

Sree Shilpa : Tubers are swollen, oval and smooth with black skin and white flesh. Yield is 28 t/ha in 8
months.

Indu is a high yielding (39.39 t/ha) variety developed by Kerala Agricultural University. Tubers are
digitate with brownish black skin and white to pale flesh.
White yam (D. rotundata)
Sree Subhna : Tubers are cylindrical with brown and partially hairy skin and white flesh. Yield is 35- 40
t/ha in 9-10 months.
Sree Priya : It produces 2-3 tubers having smooth surface and good cooking quality. Yield is 35-40 t/ha in
9-10 months.
Sree Dhanya : This is a dwarf and bush variety with spineless stem and tubers containing 23.3% starch.
Propagation and time of planting
In greater yam and white yam, tuber pieces of 250-300 g size are used as planting material. For
this, tubers are cut longitudinally with a portion of stem end and allowed to dry under partial shade
after dipping in cow dung slurry. Planting is usually done during March-April.

Plough / dig land to a depth of 15-20 cm. Take pits of 45 cm3 at a distance of 1 m. Apply 1½ kg
compost or well rotten cattle manure in the pit and full up to ¾ with top soil. Plant tubers and mulch
with dry leaves. Approximately 1800-2700 kg seed material is required to plant one hectare.

Manuring
Apply cattle manure or compost @ 10 t/ha as basal dressing before planting. A fertilizer dose of
80 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 80 kg K2O per hectare in two split doses is needed for yams. Half dose of N, full
dose of phosphorus and half dose of potash are to be applied within a week after sprouting. Remaining
nitrogen and potash may be applied one month after the first application. Top dressing of fertilizers
should be followed by weeding and earthing up.

Inter-culture
Vines are allowed to trail on shrubs or trees or props for high productivity. Tubers are harvested
in 9-10 months when leaves turn yellow in colour. Harvesting is done by digging surrounding, area and
exposing tubers.

Production technology of Lesser Yam

(D. esculenta) (2n = 40, 60, 90, 100)
Hindi : (Suthni)
Sree Latha : Tubers are oblong to fusiform in shape with creamy white flesh and greyish brown skin
covered with thin hairs. It yields 20-25 t/ha in 8-9 months. Tubers have 18.4% starch content.

Sree Kala : Tuber is sweet, round and smooth. Yield is 20-25 t/ha in 8-9 months.
Cultivation of lesser yam is different from that of greater yam or white yam. Plough / dig the
land thoroughly and make small mounds at a distance of 70 cm after incorporating compost or well
rotten cow dung. Plant whole tubers of 100-150 g. Manuring and other cultivation practices are similar
to that of greater yam. Trailing is necessary to expose leaves to sunlight. It is done within 15 days after
sprouting by coir rope attached to artificial supports in open area. Lesser yam is harvested in 8-9
months after planting. Harvesting is done by digging out tubers carefully.

Scale insect is a serious pest of yam and is usually controlled by dipping planting material in
monocrotophos (0.05%).
 Taro: Colocasia esculenta L. Scott; Araceae
Varieties: Co 1, Panchamukhi and Satamukhi (Kovvur), Sree Pallavi, Sree Rashmi, Sree Kiran.

Soil and climate: It comes up well in loamy soils with a pH range of 5.5-7.0 and a combination of warm
and moist climate with a mean temperature of 21-270 C. It can be grown up to 1500 m elevation with
well distributed rainfall of about 1000 mm during growth period. In areas where rainfall is less, a good
amount of supplementary irrigation is required for successful production.

Planting material and seed rate: Cormels weighing about 20-25 g form good planting material. Seed
rate of 800 kg/ha is required.

Season: Under rainfed condition, planting during April to June is ideal. June – July and February –
March. If grown as irrigated crop, it can be raised throughout the year.

Preparation of field: Plough the field to a fine tilth and form ridges and furrows at a spacing of 45 cm.In
sandy loam soil, pit method is followed. Plant at a spacing of 45 cm in furrows.The cormels may be
planted to a depth of 2.5 to 7.5 cm.

Mulching:
Planted seed tubers take 30to 45 days for sprouting. Mulching helps to hasten sprouting and control weed
growth.

Gap filling:
Under field condtions, 5-10 per cent of the seeds fail to sprout. To overcome this situation, about 2000-
3000 corms / cormels per hectare may be planted in a nursery at a close spacing so that sprouted
tubers from the nursery can be used for gap filling.

Irrigation: Once in a week.

Application of fertilizers: Apply 25 tonnes of FYM, 20 kg N, 30 kg P and 60 kg K/ha as basal and 20 kg N,
30 kg P and 60 kg K/ha 45 days after planting.
After cultivation: Weeding and earthing up should be done 45 to 60 days after planting. Deep cultivation
should be avoided. Small inefficient suckers from the mother plants have to be removed along with the
second weeding.It requires profuse irrigation and shade.

Crop protection:

Aphids and worms are pests attacking the leaves.

Control: Spray Quinalphos or Dimethoate 0.05%.

Mealy bugs and scale insects damage cormels and corms and hence select cormels free of these pests
for planting. If infested, the seed cormels should be dipped in Dimethoate or Monocrophos 0.05%
solution for 10 minutes.

Leaf blight (Phytophthora colocasiae): Oval or irregular purplish or brownish necrotic lesions with
watersoaked periphery appear on leaves. In severe cases, the entire leaf lamina and the petioles are
affected giving a blighted appearance and collapse of the plant. Heavy incidence causes up to 50 per
cent crop loss.

Management : Use of field resistant varieties viz., Muktakeshi and Jankhri, early planting to avoid heavy
monsoon rains, use of healthy planting materials, removal of self-grown colocasia plants, spray with
fungicides viz., Mancozeb (0.2%) or Ridomil MZ 72 @ 2 g/l of water and treating the seed tubers with
biocontrol agents viz., Trichoderma viride

Harvesting
Crop will be ready for harvest in 6-8 months after planting. One month prior to harvest, all the
suckers may be wrapped around the base of the mother plant and covered with soil by earthing up, for
arresting further vegetative growth and sprouting of tubers. After this, irrigation has to be withheld to
hasten maturity. Harvesting is done by carefully uprooting the plants and the mother corms and
cormels are separated.

Yield: 8 – 10 t/ha in 180 days.

 Chinese potato: Coleus parviflorus L.; Syn : Solenostemon rotundifolius; Labiatae

Varieties: CO 1, Sree Dhara.

Soil and climate: Red, loamy and well drained soils. Comes up well in shade with warm humid climate. It
requires very good rainfall for its growth and cannot withstand drought conditions. In case rains are
not received, irrigation has to be provided for satisfactory growth.

Raising nursery : Raise a nursery, approximately one and half months prior to planting. An area of 500
m2 is required to produce vines for planting one hectare of land. Cattle manure or compost may be
applied @ 1 kg/m2 and ridges / mounds may be prepared at a closer spacing of 45/60 cm. Healthy
tubers that weigh about 15-20 g may be planted at 5cm spacing on the ridges / mounds so as to
accommodate 750- 1200 kg tubers in 500 m2 area during March- April. Top-dress with urea (5 kg / 500
m2) at about three weeks after planting to encourage good vine growth. Stem cutting of 15-20cm
length from these sprouts also used as planting material. To enable rapid multiplication of the planting
material, single node cuttings can be planted directly in the secondary nursery. Such single node
cuttings produce axillary shoots within one week can be planted in the main field.

Preparation of main field and planting: The field is ploughed 4 to 5 times to a fine tilth and form ridges
and furrows 60 cm apart. Use herbaceous cuttings of 10 cm length taken from the nursery beds and
plant in the main field during July – October at a spacing of 30 cm on the ridges either in vertical or
horizontal position. Horizontal planting of vines to a depth of 4-5 cm and exposing the terminal bud
ensures quick establishment and promote tuber yield. In loose soils having good drainage, planting can
also be done on flat beds with provision for drainage.

Irrigation: At weekly intervals.

Application of fertilizers: FYM at 25 t/ha as basal and NPK at 30:60:150 kg/ha. Apply 30 kg N 30 days
after planting at the time of earthing up along with 2 kg of Azospirillum. In case, the soil has eroded from
the base of the plant, give one more earthing up at 30 days later to promote tuber formation.
After cultivation: 2 or 3 weedings and earthing up 2 months after planting.
Crop protection : Root knot nematode is a serious pest on coleus and the infested plants exhibit serious
swellings or galls in the roots resulting in suppressed roots, stunted growth and wilting. Less than a
millimetre long, the nematodes are tiny worms that enter the plant roots of the seedling when the plant
is most vulnerable. Therefore, emphasis may be given for the selection of seed tubers free of
nematodes. Deep ploughing of the field immediately after harvest exposes the soil and kills the
nematodes. We can also control the nematodes by practising summer fallowing and soil solarization.
Cultivation of sweet potato (Sree Bhadra) as a preceding crop in May-June enables trapping of root knot
nematodes in the soil. To control leaf folding caterpillars and vine borers, dipping the vines in insecticide
solution (Dimethoate or Rogar 30 EC ie. 1.7 ml/litre) for 10 minutes prior to planting is helpful. In case,
severe damage is noticed in the field, field spraying may be adopted with Malathion (or) Fenthion (or)
Fenitrothion 50 EC 1 ml/litre).

Harvesting: Harvest the crop when the vines dry up at 4-5 months after planting. Pull out the plants and
dig out the left over tubers in the field. Separate the tubers from the plant and destroy the crop
residues by burning.

Yield: 15 to 20 t/ha in 120 days.

 Lec 21.Cowpea
Botanical name : Vignauniguiculata L. Walp. orVignasinensis
Family : Fabaceae Chromosome
number : 2n =22 Origin : Africa
Economic importance
Cowpea is grown both for its tender pods and also for its dry seeds used as pulse
for culinary purposes. The pods are rich in protein, vitamin and minerals. It is also used as
a fodder and green manure crop. On dry weight basis the cowpea grains contain 23.4 %
protein, 1.8 % fat and 60.3 % carbohydrates.

Varieties
PusaPhalguni:
IARI, dwarf, bushy, mature in 60 days.Suitable for February-March sowing, yields
5t/ha.
PusaBarasati:
IARI, suitable for kharif season, viny plant habit and comes to harvest in 45 days
after sowing, yield about 9-9.5t/ha.

PusaDofasli:

IARI, it is cross between PusaPhalguni X Philipine selections. Photo insensitive,

bushy cultivar and suitable for both summer and rainy seasons. The crop comes to

harvest

in 55-60 days and yields about 7.5-8t/ha.

PusaKomal:
It is selected through pure line selection. Photo insensitive, indeterminate, bushy
cultivars. Pods are light green, 25-30cm long. It flowers in 40-45 days. Resistant to bacterial
blight, comes to harvest in 60 days and produces 10t/ha of green pods

PusaRituraj:
The variety can be grown in summer as well as kharif due to it’s highly photo
thermo insensitive nature, bushy type. Pods are 22-24cm long, thin and palatable. Dual
purpose variety.Seeds brown. The harvest starts from 45-50 days. Average yield is 8-9t/ha
green pods.

ArkaGarima

Derivative of the cross T.U.V.762 x V.uniquiculata sub sp.sesquipedalis Developed

by back cross and pure line selection. Plants tall, vigrous, bushy, with small vines and
photo insensitive.Leaf colour light green.Flower colour purple. Pods light green, long, thick,

round,
fleshy and string less. Suitable for vegetable purpose. Tolerant to heat, drought and low

moisture stress. Duration 90 days.Pod Yield 18 t/ha.

ArkaSuman and ArkaSamrudhi:
Bushy, photo-insensitive, pods medium long, medium thick, yield 15t/ha.Early

variety (70-75 days).

Selection 263:

Bush, photo-sensitive, yield 19t/ha

Narendra Lobia-1:
PusaKomal X Varanasi local. Determinate and photo-insensitive, green pods, 28-
32cm long. Seeds bold with black hilum. Yields 9.0 t/ha.

Soil and climate

It can be grown almost in all types of soils with pH 5.5 to 6.5. It is a warm season crop
and thrives best between 21 and 350C. It cannot withstand frost, heavy rainfall and
waterlogging. It is a drought hardy plant comes up well under rainfed condition.

Season and Cropping system:

Season

Generally two crops are grown starting from January-February and May-June. But

in places having mild climate, where summer and winter are moderate, it can be grown

round

the year.
Cropping system

It fits well in sequential and intercropping systems. It is grown as a catch crop after

the first crop of paddy or after the late winter crop. It fits well as an intercrop with widely

spaced vegetables and it is grown as a cover crop in basins in fruit orchards.The soil

should

be ploughed, clods are broken and weeds are removed and brought to fine tilth.
Seed rate

20-25 kg/ha for summer crop and 12-15 kg/ha for winter season crop. Seeds are
inoculated with Rhizobium species. It helps in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
Spacing

The seeds are dibbled in rows 45-60 cm and plant to plant distance of 10-15cm.
Nutrition
 Although cowpea is a legume crop, it responds well to the application of fertilizers.

About 25 tonnes of FYM is applied at the time of final preparation of land. Application of

25 kg N, 75 kg P2O5 and 60kg K2O/ha is recommended. Half of the N along with entire

dose of P and K should be applied at the time of sowing Remaining half of N should be

applied at the time of earthing up after 3rd week of sowing. Spraying micronutrients shall

improve the quality besides increasing yield.

Tamilnadu – 20 :60:60 kg NPK/ha

Irrigation

Cowpea is a hardy crop comes up well under rainfed condition. Flowering and pod

development periods are the critical stages. Depending on the atmospheric conditions 2

or 3 protective irrigations may have to be given. For higher yields the crop should be

irrigated regularly at 5-7 days interval. Hardening during pre flowering for avoiding excess

vegetative

growth and will induce early flowering

Weed control
Effective control of weeds in the first 20-25 days of the crop season is essential.

Atleast 2 weedings or hoeing required to check the weeds. Pre sowing application of

Fluchloralin @ 2l/ha is recommended.

Growth substances
Spraying of maleic hydrazide at 50-200 ppm just before flowering increases the
pod yield. Spraying of NAA 15 ppm induces fruit set.Tender pods are harvested for
marketing. Harvesting starts from 45-60 days and should be done at short interval before
the pods become fibrous and unfit for marketing. Marketable pods are available continue
up to 100 days in flushes. It produces about 5-10 t/ha green pods. Yard long
beansvarieties give 15- 18t/ha. the yield of dry seed is 1.2 -1.5 t/ha.

Marketing
After harvest, the pod should be kept in shade and all diseased and damaged ones

should be removed. Washing can also be done if they are covered with dust. The pods are
filled in baskets and sent to the market in the morning.
Storage
 Room temperature pods can be stored for 2-3 days at 00C with 85-90 % RH. Pods

can be stored for 15-20 days.

 Lec 20.Cluster Beans
Scientific name : Cyamopsistetragonoloba
Family : Fabaceae
Common Name : Guar
Chromosome number : 2n = 14
Origin : Africa

Economic importance

It is grown for green pods used as vegetable and dry seeds. It is also grown as

forage and green manure crop. Some of the varieties are used for extraction of gum (Guar

gum). It is one of the most important vegetable crops in northern India. Among

leguminous crops it is comparatively more drought resistant and is cultivated on a large

scale as a forage crop in dry regions. The gum (Guar gum – Galactomann) obtained from

this crop is used in various industries particularly textiles, cosmetics, explosives, paper and

food processing industries. Today it is one of the significant foreign exchange earners of

the country. Fresh pods contain 82.5% water, 9.9% carbohydrate, 3.7% protein, 0.2%

fat, 2.3% fiber and 1.4% mineral

matter.
Varieties
PusaMausami:

It is a selection from local cultivar of north India. Plants have densely branching

habit. Pods are smooth, bright green and 10-13 cm long. It comes for first picking in 80 days

after sowing. Suitable for sowing only in rainy season.

PusaSadabahar:

It is a selection from a local cultivar Jaipuri of Rajasthan. It is non branching type

suitable for both rainy and summer seasons. First picking starts 40-50 days after sowing.
PusaNaubahar:

Developed by cross between PusaMausami and PusaSadabahar. It combines the

good traits of both the above cultivars. Pods are longer (15cm) and of better quality.

Susceptible to bacterial blight and lodging.

SharadBahar:
 It is evolved on the basis of single plant selection from IC11704. It is branching type

producing 12-14 branches.

Pardeshi:
Produces long pubescent pods about 12-15cm long. Mostly grown in Gujarat.
Gomamanjari:Resistant to Powdery mildew, Bacterial blight and Leaf spot
NBPGR identified the following cultivars:

P28-1-1: It is developed from cross between PusaNaubahar and IC11521. It is

photoinsensitive, high branching can be grown both summer and rainy season. Yield

140- 150q/ha.

MDU 1 : high yielding type

Soil and climate

Cluster bean is a drought resistant crop and can be grown successfully in areas
where average rainfall is 30-40 cm. It is cultivated mostly as rainfed and warm season crop
in semi- arid zones of northern India. It is a warm season crop, grows well in summer
and rainy seasons. It cannot withstand water logging condition. It is photosensitive crop
and comes into flowering and fruiting when sown in kharif season only.All types of soils
are suitable for growing cluster bean, however, well drained sandy loams are best suited
with pH range from 7 to 8.0.

Season
June-July and Feb-March, in some areas it is grown during September-October
Cropping system
It is grown as a sole crop, mixed crop and border crop around the main crop.
However it cannot tolerate shade.2-3 ploughings, clods should be broken and bring the soil
to fine tilth Seed rate

25-30 kg/ha seeds are required for one hectare of area. Seed inoculation with
rhizobium helps in nodulation and nitrogen fixation.

Sowing
Seeds are dibbled in row or drilled behind the plough sometimes broadcasting is also

followed.
Spacing 45cm X 15-20cm
Nutrition

25tonnes of FYM is applied to the soil at the time of final preparation. Application

of 25:75:60 kg of NPK is recommended. Half of N along with entire dose of P and K

fertilizer should be applied at the time of sowing in bands about 7-8 cm to the side of the

seed.
 Tamilnadu – 30 :65 ;65 kg NPK / ha
Irrigation
Cluster bean is a hardy crop that comes up well under rainfed conditions.

Flowering and pod development periods are the critical stages. For higher yield the crop

should be irrigated regularly at 7-10 days interval.

Weed control

One or two weedings are essential for kharif season crop. Weedicides can be used

to suppress the weeds. At the later stages of crop growth, weeds are kept under check

due to the thick canopy of the crop.

Harvesting
Green pods will be ready for harvest at 45 days after sowing. Dry seeds are
harvested when a large percentage of pods are full and most of the remaining will turn
yellow. Yield is about 3-4t/ha of green pods.
 Lec 22.Dolichos Bean
Botanical name : Dolichos lablab var.typicus
Family : Fabaceae
Chromosome No. : 20, 22
Origin : India
Common name : Indian bean, Hyacinth bean
In India, it is grown all over the country but compact large acreage for commercial
production is uncommon.

It is grown for whole pod. Fresh seeds and dry seeds are used as pulse grain. It is
used for pod, feed and green manure. It is very popular in villages as well as cities where
less area is available for cultivation. Its fresh green pods contain 86% moisture, 3.8%
protein, 6.7%, CHO, 0.7% fat, 0.9% mineral matter, Vitamin A 312 IU. It is good source of
Vitamin B and C also.Mochai – Dolichos lablab varlignosus

Varieties
Pusa Early Prolific (IARI):
It is a pole type bean, suitable for autumn and spring season. It is an early variety,
bears long, thin and sickle shaped pods.

Blue Lake:
It is an early variety. The colour of the seed is brown length of the pod is 6 to 8 cm.
it becomes ready for harvesting 70-80 days after sowing.

ArkaAmogh:
Plants are medium tall, 50 % flowering in 40 days and pods are ready for harvest in
55 days. Pods are similar to Arka Jay and KonkanBhushan. Yield: 19-20 t/ha.

Arka Jay:

Developed through back cross and pedigree selection involving the Parents

HebbalAvare x IIHR 93. Plants dwarf, bushy, erect and photo insensitive. Flowers purple.

Pods long, light green slightly curved, Without parchment. Vegetable type with excellent

cooking qualities. Tolerant to low moisture stress. Duration 75 days.Pod Yield 12 t/ha.
ArkaSambhram:
Plants are medium height, 50 % flowering in 40 days and pods are ready for
harvest in 55 days. Pods are flat, light green, medium long (13-15 cm), medium width (1.5
cm). Yield: 19-20 t/ha

Arka Vijay:
 Developed through back cross and pedigree selection involving the Parents
HebbalAvare x IIHR 93. Plants dwarf, bushy, erect and photo insensitive. Leaves dark green,
Flowers white. Pods short dark green. Seeds bold. Pods with characteristic aroma,
without parchment.Vegetable type with excellent cooking qualities. Tolerant to low
moisture stress. Duration 75 days.Pod Yield 12 t/ha.

ArkaSoumya :
Plants are medium tall, 50 % flowering in 45 days and pods are ready for harvest in
55 days. Pods are slender (1.0 cm width), medium long (13-15 cm). Yield: 19 t/ha

Hebbal Avare-3:

Developed at UAS, Bangalore. It takes 70-75 days to harvest and grown in all

seasons throughout the year. Flowers are Photo-insensitive. Seeds are brown, round and

short duration (100 days)

CO 2 – Chinnaavarai, Photo sensitive, Sowing July – Aug. Light purple stem. Pods are light
green with purple margin. Crop duration 210 days

Co-3:

It is a pure line selection from YanaikathuAvare. Photosensitive. Pods are green with

purple tinge, hghly fleshy

Co-4:

It is a pure line selection from ShivappuAvare. Photosensitive. Pods are deep purple.
Co-5:

It is a pure line selection from local type Kozhikkalavare Characters: Pods are long

narrow. Light green to white , bloated tubular curved with serrated margin.
Deepaliwal and Dasarawal:

Released from PRKV, Akola, Maharashtra. Pole types beans, pods are extra long,

whitish in colour in Deepaliwal whereas purple green in Dasarwal yields about 6-8t/ha in
200-210 days.
Pusa Sem-2 and Pusa Sem-3:
 Released from IARI,New Delhi. Pole type, pods are borne on separate spike in

bunches above the plant canopy. Pods are dark green, tender, stringless, fleshy and borne

in
clusters of 11-13 members. Highly tolerant to anthracnose, YVMV, aphids, jassids, pod

borers and frost. Yields about 13.7t/ha.

KonkanBushan:
Released from KVK, Dapoli, Maharashtra. Bush type, pods are tabular and green in

colour, photo insensitive, yields 6-8t/ha in 100-110 days.

COGB -14:

It is a bush type, hybrid derivative of CO-9 (bush type) x Florika field. Photo

insensitive, flowers white with long green pods, yields 10t/ha.

Soil and climate

It is relatively a warm season crop. Some strains are highly drought resistant. The
best temperature for its seed germination is 180C to 270C. It can be grown in almost all types
of soils. Sandy loam, silt loam and clay loam are best suited.

Season

Best time for sowing is June-July and Feb – Mar (North India) - Pole types

June-July and Sep – Oct (South India) – Pole types

June – July, Sep – Oct and Jan – Feb – Bush types

Seed rate and seed inoculum

Seed rate for dolichos bean is 30 -35 kg for bush type and 20 kg for pole type.

Seeds treat with rhizobium helps in quick nodulation on the roots, which fix atmospheric

nitrogen.The soil is brought to fine tilth after a shallow cultivation. After the final

preparation of the land the field should be divided into convenient size.
Sowing
Seeds are sown in rows 1-1.5 m apart. It is dibbled or drilled behind the ploughed

at a distance of 10-15cm. It climbs on the roof tops.

Nutrition

Although dolichos bean is a legume crop it responds well to the application of

fertilizers, about 25t of FYM is applied to the soil at the time of final preparation of land.

Application of 25 kg of N, 50 kg of P and 25 kg of K per hectare is recommended.

TN –36 : 72 : 72 kg NPK / ha
 Half of the N alone with the entire dose of P and K should be applied at the time

of sowing. Remaining half dose of N should be top dressed 30 days after sowing.
Irrigation

It is a hardy crop comes up well under rainfed conditions. Flowering and pod

development period are the critical stages. Depending on the atmospheric conditions 2 to

3 protective irrigations are needed. For higher yields the crop should be irrigated regularly

at

7-10 days interval.

Weed control

Shallow cultivation during the early stages of crop is necessary to check the weeds

and to facilitate earthing up. A pre sowing application of Fluchloralin @2lit/ha checks the

weed growth for 20-25 days. At the later stages of crop growth, the weeds are kept under

check due to the thick canopy of the crop.

Harvesting

In bush variety the crop is ready for harvest at two months after sowing and in pole
types it takes 3 months for first harvest. Fully grown pods are harvested. Interval between
two pickings is about 15-20 days. It produces an average yield of 60-80q/ha of green
pods.Best storage temperature is 4.50C to 7.00C, RH 65-70%. Fresh pods can be kept for
about 15 to 20 days in cold storage. Dry seeds can be kept for 2-3 years at room
temperature under dry conditions.
 Lec23. Yam bean
Pachyrhizus erosus is a small genus of five or six species of tropical and subtropical
plants growing from large, often edible taproots. It is a vine widely grown for its large (10–
15 cm diameter and up to 20 kg weight), spherical or elongated taproot. After removal of
the thick, fibrous brown skin, the white flesh of the root can be eaten cooked or raw. Crisp,
moist, and slightly sweet, the flesh draws comparison with that of the apple. The plant
produces seeds that are comparable to butter beans, and that are sometimes eaten when
young. Jicama is native. The mature seeds contain high levels of rotenone, a chemical used as
an insecticide and pesticide. The remainder of this plant is very poisonous

Amazonian yam bean (Pachyrhizustuberosus) is an annual vine that is characterized

by a wrapped and herbaceous stem and a ligneous base. It has white and lilac flowers, pods
from 10 to 20 cm in length and beans with a high protein content (32%). Each plant has two
or more tubercles from 15 to 25 cm in length that are succulent, sweet and rich in starch
and protein (9%). They are consumed both raw and cooked. The leaves (20 to 24% protein)
and pods are also edible.
Annual moringa: Moringa oleifera L.; Moringaceae

Varieties: PKM 1 and PKM 2.

Soil: Comes up well in a wide range of soil. A deep sandy loam soil with a pH of 6.5 – 8
is ideal.

Season: July – October.

Seed rate: 500 g/ha

Sow two seeds per pit at a depth of 2.5-3.0 cm. The seeds can also be sown in polybags
containing pot mixture and transplanted after 35 -40 days of sowing.

Preparatory cultivation: Dig pits of size 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm with a spacing of 2.0-2.5

m either way. Apply 15 kg of compost or FYM/pit after mixing with top soil.

High density planting and fertigation in moringa PKM 1

High density planting at 1.5 X 1.0 m spacing with two plants/hill and plant
population 13,333 / ha along with the application of fertilizer dose of 135: 23 :45 g of
NPK/pit (150%) through drip increases the yield of moringa. In this phosphorus should be
applied basally as soil application. N and K can be applied in the form of urea and muriate
of potash through drip.
 For PKM-2, the closest spacing of 1.2 x 1.2 m is ideal to obtain the highest yield of
138 t/ha. The pinching of main shoots on 80 th day after sowing will also help
register the highest yield of fruits.

After cultivation: Gap filling may be done within a month. Pinch off the seedlings when
they are about 75 cm in height to facilitate more branching. Short duration vegetables like
cowpea, bhendi and tomato can be grown as intercrop.
 For perennial moringa, medium pruning of shoots at 70 cm from the tip has to be
followed to regulate flowering and obtain the highest yield of 37 kg/ tree.

Manuring: A fertilizer dose of 45:15:30 g of NPK/pit may be applied 3 months after sowing.
Apply 45 g of N/pit after 6 months when the crop is in bearing.

Irrigation: Irrigate before sowing, on 3rd day after sowing and subsequently at 10 to 15
days interval according to soil type.

Plant protection

Pests
Moringa pod fly management

Soil application of Thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 200g a.i. / ha on 150, 180 and 210

days after planting; placement of fermented tomato fruit trap @ 25 / ha; and need based
foliar spray of Spinosad 45 SC @ 56g a.i. / ha followed by Profenophos 50 EC@ 250g a.i.
/ ha
Bud worm, leaf caterpillar and leaf webber: Dust Carbaryl 10 D @ 25 kg/ha or spray
Carbaryl 50 WP @ 2 g/l.
Hairy caterpillar
1. Use flame torch when the caterpillars settle on the tree trunk.
2. Spray Chlorpyriphos 20 EC or Quinalphos 25 EC @ 2 ml/l.
Ratoon crop:
Cut back the trees at 90 cm from ground level after the harvest is over. In another
4 – 5 months, plants will again come for harvest. Two ratoon crops can be taken. Apply
the fertilizer dose of 45:15:30 g NPK/plant, within a week after cutting back along with 25
kg of FYM or compost every time.

Yield: 50 - 55 tonnes of pods/ha (220 pods/tree/year).

 Ivy gourd

C. Ciba
Asst. Prof. (Hort.)
 Botanical name : Coccinia grandis

 Family: cucurbitaceae
 Chromosome no: 2n =2x=24

 Orgin: Tropical Africa, India and Asia

Introduction

 Ivy Gourd also knows as Baby Watermelon, little gourd, gentlemen’s toes and
popularlyknown as “Tindora/Tondli/Kundru”in India.

 The Ivy Gourd is a vine basically.

 This vine has aggressive climbing properties and spreads easily over fences,
trees, shrubs& other supports.

 Dioecious, perennial and tuberous root.

Contn.,
 The immature fruits are eaten commonly in many parts of the world.

 The plant is mainly popular fruits medicinal properties.

 It can be eaten as a curry, fried or in many other ways.

 In India, this vegetable is widely grown in southern, eastern and western

regions.

 Mainly in states like Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra

Pradesh, Gujarat, Telangana and West Bengal.

 .
Nutritive and Medical Value of Ivy Gourd
 For people looking to reduce fat from their body, Ivy gourd is the best solution.

 It increases the metabolism of the body and thus reduces fat.

 The Tindora can be very beneficial for persons with respiratory problems.

 The Ivy gourd can help to control blood sugar levels (diabetic).

 Ivy gourd is rich in potassium.

 The potassium helps to maintain a regular flow of blood and also keeps the heart
healthy.

 Ivy gourd contains laxative properties.

 Ivy gourds also use Ayurvedic practices in India.

 It is a good source of Vitamin C.

  Ivy gourd possesses curative properties is for asthma, jaundice, bronchitis & skin
problems like leprosy, scabies, and psoriasis.

Varieties Specific features

Sulabha
•The fruits are suitable for making salads, pickles or for cooking
as well.
•This variety is propagated through cuttings.
•The plant bears fruits throughout the year.
Indira
kundru- 35 •This high yielding variety of ivy gourd is suitable for cultivation
in Chhattisgarh .
•The fruits are suitable to be cooked and for other table
purposes.

Indira •This is a high yielding variety of ivy gourd.

kundru-05
•This variety of ivy gourd fruit is mainly used for table purpose.
•This variety is suitable for growing in Chhattisgarh plains.
 Soil
 The ivy gourd grows well in well-drained sandy loamy soils The soil

must be fertile and rich in organic matter.

 The ivy gourd can grow in other types of soils also.

 The soil must be well aerated.

 The pH of the soil 6.0-6.5.

 A neutral pH of the soil is preferable for farming.

 The soil should not be too deep or light.

Climate
 The ivy gourd is basically a crop of the tropical climate.

 The crop must not be grown at too high altitudes.

 Full sunlight is needed for the proper growth of the plants It can also be

grown in partial sunlight.

 In winter, frost and extreme cold must be avoided.

 Too much rainfall is harmful to the crop.

 A moderate rainfall is sufficient for the ivy gourd cultivation.

Land Preparation
 The land must be thoroughly cleaned and made free of weeds and other
materials.

 Once the desired land is selected and cleared, it must be made suitable
for farming.

 After that, the field must be ploughed several times.

 Ploughingmakes the soil texture smooth.

 After ploughing,the land must be levelled and harrowed.

 Farmyard manure must be mixed with the soil after the last plough.
 Drainage channelsmust be made in the field.

 The drainage channels must be made so that extra water can be drained
out of the field.

Propagation
 The ivy gourd is propagated through seeds.

 The seeds must be selected properly.

 Only healthy seeds which are disease free must be selected for sowing.

 The seeds must be pre-treated before sowing them in the soil.

 Pretreatment prevents the fungal and other such diseases.

 The seed propagation takes a longer time to germinate and mature.

 Therefore, ivy gourd is also propagated through vegetative methods such

as by cuttings about 25-30cm.

Planting methods
 The cuttingsare raised in nurseries.

 When they are suitable for planting, they can be transplanted to the main
field.

 Healthy plants and cuttings must be used for vegetative propagation.

For transplanting,pits must be dug in the main field.

 The pits must be exposed to the sunlightfor about a month.

 After that, it must be filled with farmyard manure and topsoil.

 The cuttingsmust be planted in the pits and watered immediately.

 The seeds can be directly planted in the main field or can be

transplantedto the main field from the nurseries.

 The seeds usuallytake 3-4 weeks to germinate.

Contn.,
 In nurseries, they are grown under controlled conditions.

 After the seedlings have developed roots and few leaves, they can be
transplantedto the main field.

 They must be planted carefully in the main field and watered.

 Only healthy seedlings must be selected for planting in the main field.
 The seeds can be directly sown in the field.

 The seeds must not be planted too deep in the soil.

 While sowing, proper spacing 2 m x 2m

 There is no specific planting season for ivy gourd.

 The ivy gourd can be planted any time of the year.

Irrigation
 The ivy gourd plants need more water while it is still young.

 The first irrigation must be provided when the sowing is done.

 After that, irrigation must be given based on the moisture content of the soil.

 Extremely dry and hot weather, proper irrigation must be provided.

  To save water, sprinkler and drip irrigation can be used.

 In rainy weather, irrigation is not required.

 If there is too much rainfall, the water must be drained out of the field.

 For that, drainage channels must be provided in the field.

 In winter, the irrigation must be given based on the soil moisture.

 Little irrigation is needed to protect the plants fromfrost.

 Watering the plants is extremely important during fruit formation and

floweringtime.

Fertilizer and Manure Application

 A soil test must be done before application of fertilizers.

 Based on the results, the fertilizers must be applied.
 Farmyard manure must be applied at the time of land preparation.
 Too much chemical fertilizers must not be applied.
 It makes the soil dry and barren.
 The organic fertilizers must be applied along with chemical fertilizers in the land.
 After each time fertilizer is applied, a light irrigation must be given.
 Application of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus in the right amounts is very
important.
 In general. 60:40:40 kg NPK/ha.
 To avoid micronutrient deficiency, a proper quantity of micronutrients must also
be applied.

Intercultural operation
 The weeds from the ivy gourd crop must be removed at an early stage.
 The weeds can be removed by hand.

 The ivy gourd is a vine plant.

 When the plants start growing, they must be trained on a trellis or provided
a suitable support system.

 The training of the plants is important.

 Pruning can be done whenever necessary.

Pest and Disease

 The ivy gourd is not seriously affected by too many pests and diseases.

 In case of disease and pest attack, appropriate chemicals must be used.

 Proper crop management must be practiced to avoid such diseases and

pests.

 Seed treatment before sowing is also helpful.

 The insects such as mites, aphids, and caterpillars must be prevented.

 The fruits must be protected from the insects and pests as well.

 Spraying of pesticides must be done to avoid excessive pest attack.

 Harvesting
 Ivy gourd gives a continuous harvest of fruits for about 9-10 months of the
year.

 Picking is done at 3-4 days intervals when fruits are tender.

 Fruiting starts 10-12 weeks after planting, which continues throughout the
year in south and central parts of India.

 In north India, fruiting continues till November.

Chow Chow

 Botanical name : Sechium edule

  Family : Cucurbitaceae

 Chromosome number: 2n=24

 Origin : Southern Mexico and Central America

 Common name : Chayote

Important point

 Herbaceous perennial climbing monoecious vine with large tuberous roots

 Only single seeded fruit member of cucurbitaceous family

 Among gourds richest in nutritive value in CHO (6.3%) and calorific value
 Viviparousgerminationhabit

 Fruits as well as tuberous root of chow chow are used as vegetables

 Highly sensitive to frost

 Edible part: fruitandtuberous roots

 Commercially propagated by sproutedfruits

 Storage life: 2-4 weeks under normal condition

Economic importance
 It is grown principally for its pear-shaped fruits, which are cooked in many
ways.
 The fruits, tubers, seeds, and leaves have long been used by the native
Americans.

 The seeds are even considered a delicacy.

 Chayote has now spread throughout the tropics and subtropics.

 The fruits are fleshy and pyriform with longitudinal furrows, about 10-20cm
long and contain a single, large, flat seed about 5x3cm.

Health benefits
 In case of rashes in the skin, the chow chow can be very useful.

 The raw pulpis used to apply externally. It calms the rashes.

 The leaves can be roasted and applied to the burns.

 The fruits and leaves of chow chow have many properties which are
beneficial for the health.

 They are good for the heart and keep it healthy.

 The leaves of chow chow can help to lower the blood pressure.

 The leaves can be used to make tea.

Varieties

 Variations in fruit shape and colour occur in chow-chow and cultivars like

Round White, Long White, Pointed Green, Broad Green and Oval Green.
 In Bangalore region, two types viz., green and creamy-green are grown.

 In North-East India, these types are met with besides minor

variations in the fruit shape.

Soil
 The chow chow best survives in acidic soils.

 The ideal pH for chow chow cultivation is 5.5-6.5.

 The soil shouldbe well drained and rich in nutrients.

 A good soil must be used for its cultivation.

 Soils having extreme pH must not be used.

 To get a good yield, proper soils must be used.

 The soil must not be too deep or too light.

 Waterloggingshould not take place in the crop.

 Therefore well-drained soils must be used.

 Any kind of good soil can be used for the farming of chow chow.

Climate
 The ideal temperature for the cultivation of chow chow is 18-220c.

 The extreme temperature must not be used for farming chow chow.

 Too much heat or too cold is not suitable for growing chow chow plants.
  The moderate climate must be used for the cultivation of chow chow.

 Average rainfall must be present for good growth of the plants.

 The best altitude for growing the plants would be to an altitude of 1200-1500m.

 The climate must be suitable for growing the plants.

 Excess rainfall can cause waterlogging.

 It will be harmful to the crop.

 Frost during winter is also not good for the crop.

 Therefore such conditions must be avoided.

Land preparation
 The land must be selected based on the area of cultivation for chow chow.
 It must be cleared prior to cultivation.

 The weeds and other waste matter must be removed from the land.

 When the land is suitable for cultivation, it must be ploughed properly.

 Ploughingcan be done by tractors or bullocks.

 The field must be ploughed enough times so that the soil is smooth and fine
for cultivation.

 After that, harrowing must be done.

 Proper drainage channels must be made in the field.

 The drainage channels must be made so that extra water does collect in the
field.
 Propagation methods
 The propagation methods for cultivation of chow chow includes by seed.

 The seeds must be selected carefully (whole fruit/ vegetable is planted as

seed.)

 Only certified and healthy seeds must be collected for the cultivation of
chow chow.

 Only disease free seeds must be planted in the field.

 The seeds must be treated with appropriate chemicals before planting.

 That will ensure that they stay protected from fungal or other diseases.

 1500 fruits/ha
 Planting methods
 For planting, pits must be made in the field.

 The pits must have a dimension of 2 feet and 1.5 feet.

 The pits must be dug beforehand.

 After that, they must be exposed to the sun.

 After a month, the pits must be filled with a mixture of decomposed manure and
topsoil.

 The seedlings must be transplanted when the root system has developed well.

 In the nursery, the seedlings are grown under protected conditions.

 After transplanting, the soil around the stem must be pressed firmly.

 This should be done so that there is no space for insects to enter inside.

 After planting, a light irrigation must be given to the plant.

Field Preparation
 Pits of size 0.5 x 0.5 xO.5m are dug.

 FYM is mixed with soil and pits are filled with one third by FYM and sprouted fruit is planted
directly on center of pits.

 Pits system of growing is adapted for this crop so that the dug soil can support the vine for
long period.

 Seed Rate 1500 fruits/ha.

Time of Sowing
  Rainy season : Spacing 2 m X 3m

Manure and Fertilizer

 The dose of fertilizer depends upon soil, climate and system of cultivation.

 Well rotten FYM @15-20 t/ha is applied at the time of land preparation.

 NPK @ 120:80:80 kg/ha added with full dose of P and K before sowing and half dose of N at
the time of vining and remaining half dose of N before flowering.

Training and Pruning

Training:

 Pandals or trellis are erected for the vines to trail over at a height of 2 meters in
homestead garden, the vines are also allowed to climb on small trees.
 Most trellis in northeast India is constructed by bamboo about head height to
facilitate walking beneath the vines for harvesting and other operation.

 Bower can also be prepared at the height of 5 feet placing bamboo poles followed
by criss cross wire netting.

 Training on bower must be started just after 30cm of vine length from the ground
level.

 Once the crop anchor, branches spread easily because of tendrils.

Pruning:

 There are two fruiting season in a year and vines are pruned at end of each
season leaving only a small portion of about 1.5m of stem.
 Plant protection
 Pests
For controlling scales, mealy bugs and aphids spray Dimethoate 30 EC @
1 ml/lit.

 Fruit fly
1 Collect the damaged fruits and destroy.
2 The fly population is low in hot day condition and it is peak in rainy
season. Hence adjust the sowing time accordingly.
3 Plough the field to expose the pupae.
 4 Use polythene bags fish meal trap with 5 g of wet fish meal + 1 ml.
Dichlorvos in cotton 50 traps are required/ha, fish meal + Dichlorvos
soaked cotton are to be renewed once in 20 and 7 days respectively.

Diseases

Mosaic

Vectors can be controlled by spraying

 Dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/lit or

 Methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/lit thrice at fortnightly intervals.

 Harvesting and yield
 The climbers get ready for harvesting in a 5 months time and gives good yield
for 5 months continuously.

 Harvesting must be done once in 7 days and before the chow chow gets fully
matured.

 It must be sent to the market as a bag containing 100 chow chows weighting 30
to 35 kg.

 Care should be taken that these bags reach the user with 24 hours from the time
of harvesting.
 At an average, in the type of Rain fed cultivation, 30 tonnes yield, Irrigated

condition 40 tonnes/ha.
 PUMPKIN
[Cucurbita moschataPoir] Family : Cucurbitaceae
2x=40, allopolyploid
Carotene 50mg/100g

7/13/2021

PUMPKIN 36
  A direct sown vegetable

 Two related species

Cucurbita pepo - Summer squash

(Bushy growth habit)

Cucurbita maxima- Winter squash

(Vine habit)
SOIL

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PUMPKIN 37
 &
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

 A deep well drained loamy soil

 Also cultivated in clay soil under rainfed condition

 Best pH – 6.0-7.0

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PUMPKIN 38
  Grown successfully at 25°C-30°C

 At temperature > 40°C, affected by CMV

 By infection at early stage, fruit set badly affected

 At temp. <15°C, growth and yield very low

 No frost should be present

 Cucurbita maxima– requires Low temperature

 Cucurbita pepo– requires High temperature

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PUMPKIN 39
 VARIETIES
Varieties of Cucurbita moschata

CO.1
 A local selection
 Late maturing fruits
 Medium large sized
 Immature fruits – Dark green

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PUMPKIN 40
  At full maturity – Brownish orange
 Single fruit weight – 7-8 kg
 Yield – 30 t/ha
 Duration – 150-160 days
CO.2

 A selection from a local type

 Small flat fruits

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PUMPKIN 41
  Single fruit weight – 1.5 – 2.0 kg

 Yield – 23-25 t/ha

 Duration – 135 days

 Suitable to kitchen garden

Arka Chandan

 Fruits – Medium in size

 Single fruit weight – 2 - 3 kg

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PUMPKIN 42
  Rind colour – Light brown with creamy patches

 Duration – 125 days

Other varieties

 Ambili - KAU, Vellanikkara

 Solan Badami - Solan

 Pusa Biswas - IARI

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PUMPKIN 43
  Pusa Vikas – IARI

 Arka Suryamukhi-C. maxima Early yellow prolific

,Australian Green and

Patty pan : varieties of C.pepo

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PUMPKIN 44
45
 SEASON

 Best season

 Aadipattam - June – July

 Ready for harvest during - September – October Second season

 Thaipattam – January

 Harvest during – April - May

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PUMPKIN 46
 PREPARATION OF FIELD

 Ploughed 4 or 5 times

 Pits size – 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm

 Spacing– 2 x 2 m

PIT FILLING

• FYM – 10 kg + top soil

• 100 g of fertilizer mixture No.6 (6:12:12)

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PUMPKIN 47
  Long channels – 60 cm width

SEEDS & SOWING

 Seed rate – 1.0 kg / ha

 Seeds treated with 2 g of Thiram +Azospirillum

 Soak seeds in double the quantity of water for 30 mts and incubate for
6 days

 Five seeds / pit

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PUMPKIN 48
  Initially, pot-watering

 Germination in 7-8 days

 Thinned to 2-3 healthy seedlings after 15 DAS

 Irrigated through channels once in a week

AFTER CULTURE Application

of ethrel

 Flowers unisexual

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PUMPKIN 49
 Ethrel increases the production of female flowers

 Spray Ethrel @ 250 ppm at 2 true leaves stage

 Repeated once in a week for 3 more times

 Weeding and hoeing – 2-3 times, once in 15 days

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PUMPKIN 50
 TOP DRESSING

 30 days after sowing

 10 g of nitrogen / pit

HARVEST & YIELD

 First harvest – 85-90 days

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PUMPKIN 51
  Harvest index – Colour change green to yelow & drying / twisting of
pedicel

 Pedicel (fruit stalk) separates from the vine easily

 Yield – 18-20 t/ha

 Duration –140 days

 Pumpkin is harvested at fully mature stage when fruit colour changes

from green to yellowish brown and when rind is thick. Fruits are often
allowed to remain in field till vines are dried during summer months or
killed by frost during winter months. Fruits are also harvested at green

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PUMPKIN 52
 stage for local market. Average yield is 20-25 t/ha in a crop duration of
120-140 days.

 For seed purpose, fruits are harvested when vines and peduncle are
completely dried. At this time, fruit rind will be hard and a grey to white
coating will appear on fruits. Ripe fruits are then preserved for 2-3 months
before extraction of seeds. Seed yield is 150 kg/ha.

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PUMPKIN 53
 ASH GOURD
[Benincasa hispida Cogn.] Family : Cucurbitaceae

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PUMPKIN 54
 Also known as wax gourd
 Ash Gourd (Wax Gourd)
 (Benincasa hispida Cong.) (2n = 24)
 (Hindi) : Petha)
 Ash gourd is cultivated for its immature as well as
mature fruits which are used as a cooked vegetable and
are used in confectionary and ayurvedic medicinal
preparations. The delicacy ‘Petha’ made out of ash

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PUMPKIN 55
 gourd is famous all over India. A small fruited medicinal
ash gourd is also grown in Kerala. The famous ayurvedic
preparation ‘Kooshmanda rasayana’ is made of ash
gourd fruits. Ash gourd is good for people suffering from
nervousness.
SOIL

&

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PUMPKIN 56
 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

 A warm tropical climate ideal

 Deep loamy soil best suited

 Tank bed cultivation during summer season

 Sown in upper periphery and after the tanks dry away allowed to
spread

 Optimum pH – 6.5 – 7.5

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PUMPKIN 57
  Temperature – 25-35°C

VARIETIES

CO.1

 A local selection

 Fruits – large size, oblong oval in shape

 Single fruit weight – 8-10 kg

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PUMPKIN 58
  Duration – 140-150 days

 Yield – 20-25 t/ha

CO.2

 Small fruited variety

 Single fruit weight – 2-4 kg

 Fruits – Oblong shaped

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PUMPKIN 59
  Yield potential – 24 t/ha

 Duration – 120-130 days

APAU Shakthi

 Fruits – Long and cylindrical

 Yield – 30-35 t/ha

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PUMPKIN 60
 Duration – 140-150 days

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PUMPKIN 61
 Developing Institution Variety Special features

Kerala Agricultural KAU Local Medium sized oval to oblong fruits with high flesh
University, Thrissur. thickness, fruit length 45-55 cm. L: B ratio 2.05, fruit
weight6.1-8.1 kg,productivity 28.2 t/ha.

Indu Medium sized round fruits, tolerant to mosaic

disease, av. Fruit length 24.3 cm.

Tamil Nadu Agricultural Co.1 Fruits round, av. Fruit weight 5-6 kg. duration 140
University. days.

Co.2 Fruits small and long spherical, av. Fruit weight

3.0 kg.

APAU,Hyderabad. APAU Shakthi Fruits long and cylindrical, yield 30-35 t/ha in
140-150 days.

UAS, Bangalore. “Karikumbala” Local cultivar where the fruits are covered with ashy
coat.

IIVR, Varanasi. IVAG.502 Fruits oblong with average weight of 12-13 kg.
Yield 30-35 t/ha. 7/13/2021
PUMPKIN

62
 SEASON

 First season - sowing during June - July

 Harvest during October

 Second season – January

 Harvesting during April - May

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PUMPKIN 63
 PREPARATION OF FIELD
 Ploughing - 3-4 times

 Long channels of 60 m width

 Spacing between channels - 2.0 m

 Pit size – 30 cm3

 Spacing between pits – 1.5 m

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PUMPKIN 64
  Pit filled with 10 kg of FYM + 100 g of fertilizer mixture No.6
(6:12:12) and top soil

SEEDS & SOWING

 Seed rate – 2.5 kg

 Seeds treated with 2 g of Carbendazim

 Treated with 4 g of Trichoderma virideor 10 g. of Pseudomonas

fluorescensper kg. of seeds

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PUMPKIN 65
  Five to six seeds / pit

 Soak seeds in double the quantity of water for 30 min and incubate
for 6 days

 Initially, pot-watering , germination in 7-8 days

 2-3 healthy seedlings are left

IRRIGATION

 Later irrigated by flow method, once in a week

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PUMPKIN 66
  Interspaces kept dry

 Avoid fruits coming in contact with moisture –

Otherwise fruit rot

INTERCULTIVATION &
TOP-DRESSING
To increase female flower production,

Ethrel – 250 ppm (2.5 ml of ethrel mixed in 10 lit. of water)

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PUMPKIN 67
  I SPRAY

15 days after sowing, at 2 true leaves

 II SPRAY - 7 days after 1st spray

 III SPRAY - 7 days after 2nd spray

 IV SPRAY - 7 days after 3rd spray

 Use soft water

 Weeding and hoeing – once in 15 days

 Avoid moisture in interspaces

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PUMPKIN 68
  Weed growth restricted

 Top dressing - 30 days after sowing – 10 g of

N /pit

HARVEST & YIELD

 Fully matured fruits

 Harvest Index - disappearance of ashy coat

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PUMPKIN 69
  First harvest – 90-100 days

 Duration – 140-150 days

 Storage at room conditions - 4-5 months

 Yield – 20 -25 t/ha

BOTTLE GOURD
[Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl.] Family : Cucurbitaceae

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PUMPKIN 70
  Origin – Africa and India

 Cultivated in northern states

 Tender green fruits used as vegetable

 Hard shell –“Domestic utensils”

 Vine trailing on the ground

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PUMPKIN 71
 SOIL & CLIMATE

 Very hardy crop

 Withstands drought

 Cannot tolerate frost

 Optimum pH – 6 - 7

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PUMPKIN 72
  Wide range of soil

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PUMPKIN 73
 VARIETIE
S

7/13/2021

PUMPKIN 74
 CO.1

 Typically bottle shaped

 Fruits are pale green

 Yield – 25-30 t/ha

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PUMPKIN 75
 Pusa Summer Prolific Long
(PSPL)
 Local selection Pale green fruits Fruit

length – 40-50 cm

 Suitable for summer sowing

Pusa Summer Prolific Round

(PSPR)
 Local selection

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PUMPKIN 76
  Round fruits Fruit girth – 15-18 cm

 Green in colour

 Heavy yielder

Pusa Megdoot

o F1 hybrid between Pusa Summer Prolific Long and

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PUMPKIN 77
 Selection.2 o Long light

green fruits

Pusa Manjari

F1 hybrid – PSPR x Selection.11

Round fruits

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PUMPKIN 78
 Light green

Arka Bahar

 Long type without crook neck

 “Export oriented” bottle gourd variety

 Pure line selection

 Fruits – Straight, medium size

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PUMPKIN 79
  Singh fruit weight – 1 kg

 Skin light green and shining

 Flesh is tender with pleasant aroma

 Packed easily for distant markets

 Yield – 40-45 t/ha

 Duration – 120 days

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PUMPKIN 80
 Samrat

 Fruits are uniformly cylindrical

 Greenish in colour

 Length – 30-40 cm

 Single fruit weight – 700-800 g

 No curved neck

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PUMPKIN 81
  Average yield – 43 t/ha

Pusa Sandesh

 Fruits round, attractive green & medium sized

 Single fruit weight – 600 g

 Good for commercial cultivation and home gardening

 First harvest at 60-65 days - Summer

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PUMPKIN 82
 55-60 days - Kharif

 Yield – 29-32 t/ha

PREPARATORY CULTIVATION
 Ploughed – 3-4 times
 FYM @ 20 t/ha
 Channels – 60 cm width
 Spacing – 2.5 m x 2.0 m

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PUMPKIN 83
  Pit size – 30 cm3
 Seed rate – 3 kg/ha

 Treated with 4 g of Trichoderma virideor 10 g. of

Pseudomonas fluorescensper kg. of seeds

 100 g of fertilizer mixture (6:12:12) / pit as basal

 4-5 seeds / pit

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PUMPKIN 84
 IRRIGATIO
N

 Very hardy plant

 Irrigation once in 10-15 days

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PUMPKIN 85
 INTERCULTIVATION

 Hoeing and weeding - 20 days after sowing then

40 days after sowing

 Top dressing with 10 g N/pit - 30th day

 During rainy season, vines staked on thin bamboo

poles - otherwise, fruits rot

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PUMPKIN 86
 HARVESTING & YIELD

 Harvested at sufficient size - Tested by piercing the nail on the skin

 Over matured fruits not harvested

 Used for seed multiplication

 Yield – 15-20 t / ha

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PUMPKIN 87