Oceanographic Exploration: Historical Eras

Overview
The exploration of the sea can be divided into seven distinct eras, each characterized by
different approaches, technologies, and scope of investigation (Wust, 1964, extended through
the 20th century).

Era 1: Surface Oceanography (Earliest times - 1873)

Key Characteristics:
Systematic collection of mariners' observations from sailing ships
Focus on phenomena observable from ship decks
What was studied:
Winds
Currents
Waves
Temperature
Other surface phenomena
Notable Examples:
Halley's charts of the trade winds
Franklin's map of the Gulf Stream
Matthew Fontaine Maury's Physical Geography of the Sea

Era 2: Deep-Sea Exploration (1873-1914)

Key Characteristics:
Few but wide-ranging oceanographic expeditions
Survey of both surface and subsurface conditions
Focus on areas near colonial claims
Major Expeditions:
Challenger Expedition (primary example)
Gazelle Expedition
Fram Expedition
Era 3: National Systematic Surveys (1925-1940)
Key Characteristics:
Detailed surveys of colonial areas
National rather than international efforts
Systematic approach to data collection
Notable Examples:
Meteor surveys of the Atlantic Ocean
Discovery Expeditions

Era 4: New Methods (1947-1956)

Key Characteristics:
Long surveys using newly developed instruments
Introduction of advanced technology to oceanography
Key Achievements:
Seismic surveys of the Atlantic by Vema
Heezen's maps of the sea floor (resulting from seismic data)

Era 5: International Cooperation (1957-1978)

Key Characteristics:
Multinational surveys of oceans
Studies of oceanic processes
Collaborative international efforts
Major Programs:
Atlantic Polar Front Program
NORPAC cruises
International Geophysical Year cruises
International Decade of Ocean Exploration
Multiship Process Studies:
MODE experiment
POLYMODE experiment
NORPAX experiment
JASIN experiment
Era 6: Satellites (1978-1995)
Key Characteristics:
Global surveys of oceanic processes from space
Remote sensing technology
Comprehensive global coverage
Major Satellite Programs:
Seasat
NOAA 6-10
Nimbus 7
Geosat
TOPEX/Poseidon
ERS 1 & 2

Era 7: Earth System Science (1995-Present)

Key Characteristics:
Global studies of interconnected systems
Integration of biological, chemical, and physical processes
Combined ocean, atmosphere, and land interactions
Use of both in situ measurements and space data in numerical models
Major Programs:
World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE)
TOPEX/Poseidon (continued)
Joint Global Ocean Flux Study
Key Concept:
In situ: Measurements made directly in the water

Study Tips
Evolution Pattern:
1. Surface observations → Deep-sea exploration → Systematic national surveys
2. New technology → International cooperation → Satellite technology
3. Integrated Earth system approach
Technology Progression:
Sailing ship observations → Deep-sea instruments → Systematic surveys → Advanced
instruments → International collaboration → Satellites → Integrated modeling
Scope Evolution:
Local/regional → Colonial areas → National interests → International cooperation → Global
satellite coverage → Earth system integration

Evolution of Theoretical Ideas in Oceanography

Overview
The theoretical understanding of oceanic processes is built on classical physics combined with
evolving understanding of:
Chaotic systems in mathematics
Theory of turbulence applications
Note: All dates are approximate

19th Century: Foundation of Analytical Hydrodynamics

Key Development:
Development of analytical hydrodynamics
Major Work:
Lamb's Hydrodynamics - considered the pinnacle of this theoretical work
Important Contribution:
Bjerknes develops geostrophic method
Widely used in both meteorology and oceanography
Fundamental to understanding large-scale fluid motion

1925-1940: Early Turbulence Theory

Key Development:
Development of theories for turbulence based on:
Aerodynamics principles
Mixing-length ideas
Leading Scientists:
Prandtl - pioneering work in turbulence theory
von Karman - fundamental contributions to fluid mechanics
Focus:
Application of aerodynamic concepts to ocean and atmospheric turbulence
1940-1970: Statistical Turbulence Theory
Key Development:
Refinement of turbulence theories based on:
Statistical correlations
Isotropic homogeneous turbulence concept
Major References:
Batchelor (1967) - fundamental textbook on turbulence
Hinze (1975) - key reference work
Other important contributions by various researchers
Theoretical Advance:
Move from empirical to statistical understanding of turbulent processes

1970-Present: Computational Era

Key Development:
Numerical investigations of turbulent geophysical fluid dynamics
Technology Driver:
High-speed digital computers enable complex calculations
Impact:
Ability to model and simulate oceanic and atmospheric processes
Bridge between theory and observation

1985-Present: Chaos Theory Era

Key Development:
Mechanics of chaotic processes
Current Status:
Application to hydrodynamics is just beginning
Revolutionary implications for oceanography
Major Implication:
Most motion in the atmosphere and ocean may be inherently unpredictable
Challenges traditional deterministic approaches
Key Concepts and Terms
Geostrophic Method:
Balance between pressure gradient and Coriolis force
Fundamental to large-scale ocean and atmospheric circulation
Turbulence:
Irregular, chaotic fluid motion
Critical for understanding mixing and transport in oceans
Isotropic Homogeneous Turbulence:
Theoretical idealization where turbulent properties are the same in all directions and
locations
Chaotic Systems:
Systems where small changes in initial conditions lead to dramatically different outcomes
Implies fundamental limits to predictability

Study Tips
Theoretical Evolution Pattern:
1. Analytical (19th century) → Empirical turbulence (1925-1940)
2. Statistical (1940-1970) → Computational (1970+)
3. Chaos theory (1985+) → Unpredictability recognition
Key Transition Points:
1925: Shift from pure analysis to turbulence focus
1940: Move to statistical approaches
1970: Computer revolution enables numerical studies
1985: Chaos theory challenges predictability assumptions
Important Implication:
The evolution shows a progression from believing oceans could be fully predicted analytically to
recognizing that inherent unpredictability may be fundamental to oceanic and atmospheric
systems.
Modern Significance:
Understanding chaos theory is crucial for:
Climate modeling limitations
Weather prediction boundaries
Ocean circulation variability
The Role of Observations in Oceanography
Overview
Observations are essential for understanding the ocean because:
Theory for convecting, wind-forced, turbulent fluid in rotating systems is insufficient
Important oceanic circulation features cannot be predicted before they are observed
Oceanographers must resort to observations to understand oceanic processes

The Sampling Problem

Current State of Ocean Sampling (as of 2000)

Hundreds of expeditions have been mounted since 1873
Results are impressive, but much of the ocean remains poorly explored
Most ocean areas sampled from top to bottom only once
Some areas (like Atlantic) sampled only three times:
International Geophysical Year (1959)
Geochemical Sections cruises (early 1970s)
World Ocean Circulation Experiment (1991-1996)

Consequences of Poor Sampling

All areas are vastly under-sampled
Insufficient samples to describe ocean well enough to predict:
Variability
Response to changing forcing
Lack of sufficient samples = largest source of error in ocean understanding

Major Conceptual Error

"Absence of evidence was taken as evidence of absence"
When phenomena weren't observed, they were assumed not present
Great difficulty of ocean observation led to oversimplified understanding
Quote: "The more one is able to observe the ocean, the more complexity and subtlety
appears" (Wunsch, 2002a)
Selecting Oceanic Data Sets

Problems with Using Others' Data

1. How accurate are the data?
2. What are the limitations?
3. How does it compare with similar sets?

Guidelines for Data Set Selection

1. Use Well-Documented Data Sets

Complete description of:
Sources of original measurements
All processing steps
Criteria for data exclusion
Version numbers to track changes

2. Use Validated Data

Well-documented accuracy
Validation through comparison with different measurements
Global or regional validation clearly specified

3. Use Sets Referenced in Scientific Papers

Widely used for good reason
Producers used data in their own published work
Trusted by scientific community

4. Don't Use Data Just Because It's Handy

Document the source thoroughly
Example: Multiple versions of 5-minute seafloor maps exist
Some from U.S. Defense Mapping Agency
Others from ETOPO-5 set
Don't rely on colleagues' statements - find documentation
If documentation missing, find another data set
Designing Oceanic Experiments

Why Experimental Design Matters

Observations are expensive (ships and satellites costly)
Poor planning leads to:
Ambiguous results
Wrong variables measured
Completely useless data

Key Design Principles

1. Determine WHY Before HOW

Most important: Determine why you want to measure before deciding how or what

2. Essential Questions
What is the purpose? (Test hypotheses or describe processes?)
What accuracy is required?
What resolution in time and space is needed?
What duration of measurements?

Example: Measuring Salinity/Temperature vs. Depth

Purpose 1: Describe Water Masses in Ocean Basin

Vertical spacing: 20-50 m
Horizontal spacing: 50-300 km
Frequency: Once per 20-50 years in deep water

Purpose 2: Describe Vertical Mixing in Equatorial Pacific

Vertical spacing: 0.5-1.0 mm
Horizontal spacing: 50-1000 km between locations
Frequency: Once per hour for many days

Key Measurement Concepts

Accuracy vs. Precision
Rifle Target Analogy:
Accuracy: Average distance from center of target to hits
Precision: Average distance between hits
Example:
10 shots clustered in 10 cm diameter circle
Center of cluster 20 cm from target center
Accuracy: 20 cm
Precision: ~5 cm

Linearity
Definition: Output must be linear function of input
Why Important:
Non-linear devices rectify variability to constant value
Leads to wrong mean values
Can be as important as accuracy
Mathematical Example:

If Output = Input + 0.1(Input)²

And Input = a sin t
Then Output = Input + 0.05a² + 0.05a² cos 2t

Input mean = 0
Output mean = 0.05a² (plus frequency doubling term)
Critical for Turbulent Variables:
Essential for linear current meters near sea surface
Wind and waves create large current variability

Sensitivity to Other Variables

Errors may correlate with other variables
Example: Conductivity measurements sensitive to temperature
Temperature errors in salinometers → salinity measurement errors
Study Tips

Key Takeaways
1. Theory insufficient → Observations essential
2. Ocean vastly under-sampled → Major source of error
3. Absence of evidence ≠ evidence of absence
4. Careful experimental design crucial for expensive observations

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Using undocumented data sets
Assuming unobserved = non-existent
Poor experimental design leading to useless data
Ignoring instrument linearity requirements

Remember
"Our understanding of the ocean is often too simple to be correct" - because observations
are limited and the ocean is incredibly complex.

Oceanography Notes: Salinity Patterns

Overview of Salinity

Definition and Units

Salinity: Total dissolved salts and ions in seawater
Standard Expression: Grams of salt per kilogram (1000g) of seawater
Average Ocean Salinity: 35 parts per thousand (ppt)
Equivalent to 3.5% (parts per hundred)
Also expressed as Practical Salinity Units (PSU): 1 PSU = 1 ppt
Often written simply as "35" (units omitted)

Composition of Seawater
Water: 96.5% (965g per kg)
Salt: 3.5% (35g per kg)
Major Ions in Seawater

The Six Major Ions (99.4% of dissolved ions)

Ion Formula g/kg in seawater % by weight

Chloride Cl⁻ 19.35 55.07%

Sodium Na⁺ 10.76 30.6%

Sulfate SO₄²⁻ 2.71 7.72%

Magnesium Mg²⁺ 1.29 3.68%

Calcium Ca²⁺ 0.41 1.17%

Potassium K⁺ 0.39 1.1%

Key Points about Major Ions

Chloride + Sodium = 85.67% of all ions (table salt components)
This explains why seawater tastes salty
Called "conservative ions" because proportions remain constant

Minor Constituents

Characteristics
Found in ppm (parts per million) or ppb (parts per billion)
Make up less than 1% of total ions
Include: radionuclides, organic compounds, metals

Perspective on Concentrations
1 ppm = 1 mg/kg = 1 teaspoon sugar in 14,000 cans of soda
1 ppb = 1 µg/kg = 1 teaspoon in 5 Olympic-sized swimming pools

Examples of Minor Elements

Element Concentration (g/kg)

Carbon 0.028

Nitrogen 0.0115

Oxygen 0.006

Silicon 0.002

Iron 2 × 10⁻⁶

Gold 4 × 10⁻⁹
 Element Concentration (g/kg)

Lead 5 × 10⁻¹⁰

Interesting Fact
Gold in seawater: Parts per trillion concentration
1 km³ of seawater contains about $20 million worth of gold

Rule of Constant Proportions

Definition
Absolute salinity may vary between locations
Relative proportions of six major ions are always constant
Example: 55% always chloride, 30% always sodium, regardless of total salinity

Practical Application
Calculate total salinity by measuring just one major ion
Chloride × 1.8 = Total salinity
Example: 19.25 ppt chloride × 1.8 = 35 ppt total

Ion Types
Conservative ions: Major ions with constant proportions
Non-conservative ions: Minor ions with variable proportions

Why Constant Proportions?

1. River input has different proportions but low residence times
2. Ocean mixing time: ~1000 years
3. Major ion residence time: Tens of millions of years
4. Ocean mixes many times during single ion's residence time

Methods of Measuring Salinity

1. Direct Chemical Analysis

Most precise method
Conducted in laboratory settings
Time-intensive
2. Refractometer (Field Method)
Hand-held instrument
Measures light refraction through water
Greater dissolved salts = greater refraction
Quick estimate method

3. Electrical Conductivity (Most Common)

Principle: Higher salinity = better electrical conduction
Ions conduct electrical current
Used in CTD instruments

4. CTD Instruments
CTD: Conductivity, Temperature, Depth
Most commonly measured parameters
Can include additional probes:
Light sensors
Turbidity (water clarity)
Dissolved gases
Available as large research instruments or hand-held probes

5. Satellite Measurements
Example: Aquarius satellite
Measure surface salinity differences as small as 0.2 PSU
Global coverage every seven days

Variations in Salinity

Open Ocean Range

Typical range: 33-37 ppt
Variations due to: Water input/removal, not ion addition/removal

Processes Affecting Salinity

Fresh Water Input (Decreases Salinity)
Precipitation (rain, snow)
River runoff
Ice melting

Fresh Water Removal (Increases Salinity)

Evaporation
Freezing (ice is mostly fresh water, leaving salt behind)

Regional Examples

Low Salinity Areas

Baltic Sea: ~10 ppt
Enclosed water body
High river input
Southeast Asia: High precipitation + river input

High Salinity Areas

Red Sea: ~40 ppt
Lack of precipitation
High evaporation (hot environment)
Mediterranean Sea: High evaporation + isolation
Dead Sea: ~330 ppt
Almost 10× saltier than ocean
Hot, arid conditions
Jordan River diverted (1950s)
Water level dropping 1m/year
Saltiest large water body (but not saltiest overall)
Gaet'ale Pond, Ethiopia: 433 ppt (saltiest on Earth)

Global Salinity Patterns

Latitudinal Variations
Expected pattern: Higher evaporation at equator → higher salinity
Actual pattern: Slightly more complex
Equatorial Regions
Lower than expected salinity
High rainfall dilutes surface water
High evaporation but offset by precipitation

Subtropical Regions
Highest salinity
High evaporation + less precipitation
Warm temperatures, dry conditions

Polar Regions
Low salinity
Little evaporation
Ice/snow melting adds fresh water

Evaporation vs. Precipitation Patterns

Green areas: Precipitation > Evaporation (lower salinity)
Brown areas: Evaporation > Precipitation (higher salinity)
Strong correlation with surface salinity patterns

Vertical Salinity Structure

Surface Layer Processes

Most salinity changes occur at the surface
Deep water relatively uniform (unaffected by surface processes)

Three Main Zones

1. Mixed Layer
Top ~200m
Relatively uniform salinity
Caused by: Winds, waves, surface currents
High mixing creates uniform conditions
2. Halocline
Zone of rapid salinity change over small depth change
Transition zone between mixed layer and deep ocean
Rapid gradient

3. Deep Ocean
Below halocline to seafloor
Little variation in salinity with depth
Remote from surface processes

Latitude Comparison
Surface differences: High latitude (low salinity) vs. Low latitude (higher salinity)
Deep water similarity: Despite surface differences, salinity at depth often very similar

Study Tips

Key Concepts to Remember

1. 35 ppt average ocean salinity
2. Six major ions = 99.4% of dissolved material
3. Chloride + Sodium = 85%+ (why ocean tastes salty)
4. Rule of constant proportions for major ions
5. Chloride × 1.8 = total salinity
6. Three vertical zones: Mixed layer, halocline, deep ocean

Important Instruments
CTD: Conductivity, Temperature, Depth
Refractometer: Light bending measurement
Aquarius satellite: Global surface salinity mapping

Salinity Extremes
Lowest: Baltic Sea (~10 ppt)
Ocean average: 35 ppt
High: Red Sea (~40 ppt)
Extreme: Dead Sea (~330 ppt)
Highest: Gaet'ale Pond (~433 ppt)
Notes: Bowen's Ratio and T–S Diagrams
Bowen's Ratio
Definition: Ratio of sensible heat flux to latent heat flux from Earth's surface into the air.
Formula:

where
= psychrometric constant
, = kinematic fluxes of potential temperature and moisture
, = differences measured between two heights in the surface layer
Typical Values:
Sea: ~0.1
Irrigated grass/orchards: ~0.2
Grasslands/forests: ~0.5
Semiarid regions: ~5
Over oases (advective cooling): negative

Temperature–Salinity (T–S) Diagrams

Purpose: Identify and classify water masses by their conserved potential temperature ( )
and salinity (S).
Axes:
Horizontal: Salinity (PSU or ppt)
Vertical: Potential temperature (°C)
T–S Curve: Connects points in depth order to show stratification.
Density Isopleths: Overlaid contours of constant potential density (σθ in g/cm³) aid
interpretation.
Applications:
Recognize core water masses that retain T–S signatures when isolated from surface and
mixing.
Example: WOCE Station P17N (37.5°N, 135°W, 1 June 1993) shows surface, central,
deep-water layers on a T–S plot.
T–S–t Diagrams
Extension of T–S diagrams to include time evolution.
Construction: Plot for a given location at regular intervals (e.g., monthly).
Use: Track seasonal or interannual changes in water mass properties.

T–S–V Diagrams
Extension of T–S diagrams to show volume distribution of ocean waters.
Construction:
1. Divide T–S space into grid cells.
2. Compute the volume of water whose falls in each cell.
3. Annotate each cell with its volume or represent volumes as vertical bars (3-D).
Use: Quantify what fraction of the ocean occupies each T–S class, revealing dominant water
types.

Key Takeaways
Bowen's ratio links heat and moisture exchange; varies widely by surface type.
T–S diagrams are fundamental for diagnosing water masses and ocean stratification.
T–S–t adds the time dimension to track changing water properties.
T–S–V adds the volume dimension to quantify the abundance of different water types.

Physical Oceanography Notes: Earth–Atmosphere

System & Wind Measurement
1. The Earth in Space
Location: Solar System on Orion Arm, ~26 000 ly from Milky Way center
Solar System: Sun + eight planets (Mercury → Neptune), dwarf planets, small bodies;
natural satellites orbit planets
Major Satellites:
Earth: 1 (Moon)
Mars: 2 (Phobos, Deimos)
Jupiter: 97 (Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto…)
Saturn: 274 (Titan…)
Uranus: 29 (Miranda…)
Neptune: 16 (Triton…)
Belts:
Asteroid Belt (between Mars & Jupiter; e.g., Ceres, Vesta)
 Kuiper Belt (beyond Neptune; e.g., Pluto, Eris)

Key Earth Parameters

Diameter: 12 736 km (equatorial)
Radius: 6 378.1 km (equatorial); 6 356.7 km (polar)
Mass & Density: 5.97×10²⁴ kg; 5.514 g/cm³
Orbit: 1 AU = 149.6 ×10⁶ km; period 365.256 d; speed 29.78 km/s
Aphelion/Perihelion (2026): 6 Jul / 3 Jan; distances ~152.1×10⁶ km / 147.1×10⁶ km
Rotation: Sidereal day = 23 h 56 m 4.1 s; axial tilt 23.439°
Gravity & Escape: g = 9.80665 m/s²; escape velocity = 11.186 km/s

Magnetosphere & Auroras

Core Dynamo generates dipolar magnetic field (~3.05×10⁻⁵ T at equator)
Magnetosphere deflects solar wind, compressed to ~10 Rₑ on dayside, elongated tail
nightside
Aurorae form when particles precipitate into ionosphere along field lines

2. Composition & Stratification of the Atmosphere

2.1 Composition (Dry Air by Volume)

Gas Formula ppm %

Nitrogen N₂ 780 840 78.084

Oxygen O₂ 209 460 20.946

Argon Ar 9 340 0.934

Carbon dioxide CO₂ 430 0.043

Neon Ne 18 0.0018

Helium He 5 0.0005

Methane CH₄ 2 0.0002

Krypton Kr 1 0.0001

Water vapor: 0–3% (variable, ~1% average)

CO₂ rising (≈430 ppm, June 2025)
2.2 Vertical Layers (by Temperature Profile)
Layer Altitude Range Characteristics

Troposphere 0–12 km 80% mass; temperature ↓ with height; weather layer

Stratosphere 12–50 km Ozone layer; temperature ↑ with height (UV heating); very stable

Mesosphere 50–80 km Temperature ↓ to ~–85 °C; coldest layer

Thermosphere 80–700 km Temperatures up to 2000 °C; contains ionosphere

Exosphere 700–10 000 km Very low density; merges into solar wind

3. Measurement of Wind

3.1 Anemometer & Vane

Wind speed unit: Knot (1 kt = 0.51 m/s = 1.15 mph)
Wind direction: Reported from where wind blows (true north reference)
Optimal mount: 10 m mast over uniform terrain, no obstacles within 300 m

Cup Anemometer
Three/four cups on vertical spindle
Rotation rate ∝ wind speed

Wind Vane
Horizontal arm with flat plate and balance weight on vertical spindle
Aligns with wind to indicate direction

3.2 Sonic Anemometer

No moving parts; heated to prevent icing
Measures sound travel time between transducers
Two pairs yield horizontal wind speed & direction
Sampling: 0.25 s intervals
Gust: maximum 3 s average
Mean: 10 min average