Chapter-2 Overview of Offshore Wind Technology

Contents
Nomenclature .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 3
1. Introduction- ................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Evaluation of wind power and Offshore wind forms ......................................................... 4
1.2 Current status of offshore wind Technology ........................................................................... 6
1.3 Sustainable Siting of Offshore Wind Farms............................................................................ 6
2 Introduction to Wind Turbine Plants ............................................................................................... 7
2.1 Wind Turbine and its Types .................................................................................................... 7
2.1.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines....................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines ........................................................................................... 9
2.2 Key Components of Wind Turbine ......................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Turbine ............................................................................................................................ 9
2.2.2 Tower .............................................................................................................................. 9
2.2.3 Nacelle .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.4 Control Mechanism ....................................................................................................... 10
3 Basic Principle of Offshore Wind ................................................................................................. 10
3.1 Wind Energy Conversion process for Offshore wind turbine ............................................... 10
3.2 Strategic framework for Offshore Wind Energy Project development in India .................... 11
4 Comparison with Onshore Wind Turbines .................................................................................... 12
4.1 Onshore versus Offshore wind energy development ............................................................ 12
4.2 Power capacity factor of Onshore and Offshore wind energy system .................................. 13
4.3 Recent trends of Onshore and Offshore wind power generation .......................................... 13
4.4 Levelized cost of onshore and offshore wind energy systems .............................................. 14
5 Installation Techniques and Foundations ...................................................................................... 14
5.1 Overview of Offshore wind turbine installation ................................................................... 14
5.1.1 Installation vessels Equipments and methods ............................................................... 15
5.1.2 Standards and Guidelines .............................................................................................. 17
5.2 Types of Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations ...................................................................... 17
5.2.1 Gravity base foundations .............................................................................................. 18
5.2.2 Monopile foundations ................................................................................................... 18
5.2.3 Multipod (Tripod + Jackets) types foundations ............................................................ 18
5.2.4 Floating foundations ..................................................................................................... 19

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6 Connection to the Power Grid....................................................................................................... 19
6.1 Key Design Considerations for Offshore Grids .................................................................... 20
6.2 Components of the Offshore Grid ......................................................................................... 20
6.2.1 Offshore Wind Turbines ................................................................................................ 20
6.2.2 Offshore Array Cables................................................................................................... 20
6.2.3 Offshore High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) Substations................................. 21
6.2.4 Offshore High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Converter Stations............................. 21
6.2.5 Submarine Export Cables.............................................................................................. 21
6.2.6 Landfall & Onshore Cables........................................................................................... 22
6.2.7 Onshore HVDC Converter Stations .............................................................................. 22
6.2.8 Onshore HVAC Substations .......................................................................................... 22
6.3 Connection Type ................................................................................................................... 22
7 Environmental and Economic Benefits......................................................................................... 23
7.1 Environmental benefits of offshore wind power ................................................................... 23
7.2 Economic Opportunities: Jobs, Local Development, and Industry Growth ......................... 24
7.3 Role of Offshore wind in facilitating low carbon development ............................................ 24
8 Challenges and Environmental Impacts ........................................................................................ 25
8.1 Environmental impacts of offshore wind power ................................................................... 25
8.1.1 Noise Emissions and Vibrations.................................................................................... 25
8.1.2 Impact on birds.............................................................................................................. 25
8.1.3 Magnetic and Electric field ........................................................................................... 25
8.2 Recommendations for mitigation of environmental impacts ................................................ 26
8.3 Challenges for offshore wind ................................................................................................ 26
9 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 26
References ......................................................................................................................................... 27

Nomenclature
HVAC High Voltage Alternating current
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
GOWA Global Offshore Wind Alliance
GWEC Global Wind Energy Council
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency
MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
OWF Offshore Wind Farms
OWT Offshore Wind Technology
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
NIWE National Institute of Wind Energy

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 OM Operation and Maintenance
VGA Viability Gap Funding
OWEC Offshore Wind Energy Converters
HAWT Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
VAWT Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
MVAC Medium Voltage Alternating Current
WT Wind Turbine
EPR Ethylene Propylene Rubber
XLPE Cross-linked Polyethylene
HV High Voltage
DFIG Doubly Fed Induction Generator

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of offshore wind technology, focusing on its importance,
development, and potential on a global scale. It starts by examining wind power, particularly
offshore wind farms, and their distribution worldwide. The chapter also highlights critical
factors for choosing suitable sites for wind turbines. It covers the different types and
components of wind turbines, how offshore wind energy is converted into power, and the
development framework for offshore wind projects, with a particular focus on India. A
comparison with onshore wind systems examines their power capacity, economic aspects, and
costs. Installation methods, turbine foundations, and relevant standards and guidelines are also
discussed.

The chapter further explores how offshore wind farms are connected to the grid, considering
systems like HVAC and HVDC, and addresses the challenges specific to offshore
environments. It also examines the environmental and economic advantages of offshore wind
energy, especially its role in reducing carbon emissions, while acknowledging the challenges
it poses to marine life and birds. Finally, the chapter looks at the latest trends, innovations, and
future prospects for offshore wind energy.

This analysis is intended as a helpful resource for policymakers, engineers, and researchers
who aim to develop offshore wind energy as a sustainable solution for the future.

1. Introduction-
In recent decades, the global push toward cleaner renewable energy sources has driven
significant advantages in wind energy technology, with offshore wind emerging as one of the
most promising solutions. Offshore wind farms capitalize on stronger, more consistent wind
resources found over the ocean, where wind speed is typically higher and turbulence is lower
than onshore. This promising renewable energy source holds the potential to power entire
coastal regions, significantly reducing dependence on fossil fuels and lowering greenhouse gas
emissions.

Offshore wind energy has experienced substantial growth in recent years, with installed
capacity now exceeding 35 GW. Projected annual growth rates are expected to remain above
30 % through 2025[1].The addition of 8.8 GW in new installations has raised the global

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offshore wind power capacity to 64.3 GW, reflecting a y-o-y (year-on-year) growth rate of 16
%. This expansion accounts for 7 % of cumulative global offshore wind installations [2].Fig. 1
displays the global offshore wind installation between 2023 to 2032.

In September 2022, Denmark's government, along with IRENA and GWEC, founded the
Global Offshore Wind Alliance (GOWA) to promote global offshore wind adoption through
political engagement and the formation of a global network of practitioners. GOWA's
objectives include achieving at least 380 GW of global offshore wind capacity by 2030 and
2,000 GW by 2050, with an average annual deployment of 35 GW throughout the 2020s and a
minimum of 70 GW per year starting in 2030[3].GOWA envisions offshore wind playing a key
role in energy transition and advancing sustainable development goals by generating large-
scale renewable power. This shift will benefit regions, nations and critical sectors like industry
and transport.

Fig. 1 Total Global Offshore wind added between 2023 and 2032 [2]

From 2019 to 2023, global installed offshore wind capacity surged by 157 %, increasing from
28.29 GW to 72.66 GW. This growth is largely concentrated in Asia and Europe with China ,
United Kingdom and Germany leading the way, holding 37.29 GW, 14.74 GW and 8.41 GW
of capacity respectively [4].India’s Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) recently
set a target of achieving 5 GW of offshore wind capacity by 2022 and 30 GW by 2030. With a
7,600 km coastline, India has the potential to generate up to 127 GW of offshore wind energy
[5].

1.1 Evaluation of wind power and Offshore wind forms

Wind is defined as the movement of air across the earth’s surface driven by atmospheric
pressure gradients. A pressure gradient, created by differences in atmospheric pressure, causing
flow of air from high pressure areas towards low pressure areas. These pressure differences
arise due to uneven heating of earth, surface, particularly between tropical and polar regions
.Such temperature variations lead to distinct pressure zones, generating gradients that set air in
motion. Consequently, wind patterns form, playing a crucial role in balancing energy
distribution across the planet's surface. The use of wind energy for practical purposes, such as
sailing, dates back thousands of years. One of the earliest recorded wind energy devices is
believed to be the Persian windmill in Nashtifan, Iran, constructed around the 9th century [6].

4
This ancient windmill represents an early adaptation of wind power for mechanical work,
showcasing humanity’s long-standing ingenuity in harnessing natural forces for daily needs.

Offshore wind energy is generated by harnessing wind over the sea. Wind results from the sun's
uneven heating of the earth’s surface. A wind turbine converts the wind’s kinetic energy into
mechanical or electrical energy, which can be used for practical purposes. As wind flows across
the rotor blades, it causes them to spin, which drives a shaft connected to the rotor hub,
ultimately producing usable energy[7].

Fig. 2 Wind Turbine Development [8]

Offshore wind energy development has progressed from modest beginnings to a vital
component of global renewable energy strategies. Initiated in the 1990s, Denmark pioneered
offshore wind with its Vindeby wind farm in 1991, using small turbines in shallow waters [9].
By the 2000s, European countries like the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Netherlands
started scaling up offshore wind farms, deploying larger turbines, and developing foundation
technologies like monopiles to reach deeper waters. Turbine sizes increased, allowing more
power to be generated per unit. In the 2010s, offshore wind became increasingly cost-effective
due to technological improvements, economies of scale, and government incentives. This
period also saw the initial development of floating wind technology designed for deep-water
installations. Since 2020, offshore wind has grown substantially, with China now leading in
global capacity, followed by Europe and the UK. The United States, though a late entrant, is
accelerating its offshore wind expansion with initiatives under the Inflation Reduction Act.
Floating wind farms have gained traction, enabling installations in deep waters like Japan and
the U.S. West Coast.

Advances in turbine size, green hydrogen integration, and autonomous maintenance

technology are anticipated, solidifying offshore wind’s role in the transition to clean energy.
This evolution reflects offshore wind’s growing importance in meeting climate goals, reducing
reliance on fossil fuels, and achieving energy security[10].

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1.2 Current status of offshore wind Technology
The current status of offshore wind technology highlights rapid global advancements and
increasing contributions to renewable energy goals. Since the installation of the world's first
offshore wind power plant in Denmark in 1991, the offshore wind industry has experienced
significant growth, with expectations for even faster expansion in the coming years[11] . At
present, there exist 112 offshore wind farms that are actively functioning across the globe,
alongside 53 initiatives that are either in the pre-construction phase or currently under
construction, as illustrated in Fig. 3. Additionally, there are 712 more projects that are at varying
stages of planning and development, underscoring the sector's substantial pipeline and its vital
importance in the worldwide transition towards renewable energy sources[12].

Future offshore are primarily being developed in countries with existing experience and
infrastructure for this technology. Europe remains a leader in offshore wind development,
notably the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Netherlands. Meanwhile, China has emerged
as the largest market, with the most installations completed in 2023[13]. Nevertheless,
numerous additional countries, such as India, Greece, Finland, Norway, Brazil, Canada,
Australia, Croatia, Sri Lanka, Poland, and Cyprus, are commencing active participation in the
development of offshore wind energy. This increasing engagement reflects a more extensive
international dedication to utilizing offshore wind energy within the framework of renewable
energy initiatives.

Fig. 3 Offshore Wind Farms at pre, post and future construction phase

1.3 Sustainable Siting of Offshore Wind Farms

Offshore wind farms are crucial in transitioning to renewable energy and combating climate
change. However, their siting must be carefully managed to ensure sustainability, minimize
environmental impacts, and maximize social and economic benefits. Sustainable siting
involves a multidisciplinary approach, balancing ecology protection, economic feasibility, and
social acceptance. The advancement of offshore wind farm technology and economics must be
balanced with sustainable siting, ensuring both transparency and fairness[14].

Offshore wind energy gained growing appeal due to its vast available offshore spaces and
significant energy potential. The turbulence in Offshore wind farms (OWF) is less than
onshore, leading to much higher wind speed and generating a huge amount of electricity.
Offshore wind energy was first introduced in northern Europe. European offshore wind farms

6
are mainly located in the North-sea and Baltic Sea, particularly in Denmark, Sweden, Germany,
and the Netherlands. The region’s consistent seabed depth and strong winds enable the
installation of offshore wind turbines for efficient wind power generation[15].The choice of
site is crucial to the technical, social, economic, and environmental success of OWF projects.
Many nations are currently facing increasing limitations in assessing the best locations for
offshore wind generation. Energy companies now place greater emphasis on the factors that
influence investment and the acceptability of offshore wind farm site selection[16].

Research on OWF site selection has enhanced our understanding of the factors that will shape
the future of OWFs. Numerous criteria have been identified for site selection, including
weather conditions, operational profitability, environmental impact, social factors (such as
community and local acceptance), power network accessibility (grid integration), shipping
density, incentives, and regional characteristics and so on[17].

2 Introduction to Wind Turbine Plants

Wind turbine plants, also known as wind farms, are facilities that harness wind energy to
generate electricity. They consist of multiple wind turbines, each equipped with large blades
that capture the wind’s kinetic energy and convert it into electrical power. Wind energy is one
of the fastest-growing renewable energy sources globally, due to its sustainability and minimal
environmental impact. These plants can be located on land (onshore) or at sea (offshore), with
offshore wind farms typically benefiting from stronger and more consistent winds. Wind
turbine plants play a critical role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, supporting clean energy
transitions, and promoting energy security.

In 2022, wind power generation saw a record increase of 265 TWh, a 14% rise, bringing the
total to over 210 TWh. This marked the second-largest growth among all renewable energy
sources, trailing only solar PV. However, to align with the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 scenario
which projects wind power generation at roughly 7400 TWh by 2030, the annual growth rate
must rise to around 17%. This means that annual capacity additions need to surge from 75 GW
in 2022 to 350 GW by 2030. Achieving this ambitious target will require significant efforts
from both policymakers and the private sector, particularly in improving processes for onshore
wind and reducing costs for offshore wind projects[18].

2.1 Wind Turbine and its Types

A wind turbine is a device that transforms the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical
energy. When this mechanical energy is harnessed to generate electricity, the device is referred
to as a wind generator. If the mechanical energy is used to power equipment like grain mills or
water pumps, the device is known as a wind-mill or wind pump [19]. The power in the wind
refers to the amount of energy that can be extracted from the wind as it moves. This energy is
a function of the wind’s speed, the air density, and the area swept by the turbine blades. The
power available in the wind increases with the cube of the wind speed, meaning that even a
small increase in the wind speed can significantly raise the amount of energy that can be
captured. The power of wind is given as[20] -
1
𝑃𝑊 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 (1)
2

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Where, Pw is the power output from the wind.𝜌, 𝐴 and 𝑣 are the air density, swept area of the
wind turbine blades, and wind speed respectively. The formula provides the power available in
the wind passing through the area swept by the turbine blades. The actual power that can be
captured by the turbine is less than this value due to efficiency losses and the Betz limit, which
states that no turbine can capture more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy in the wind[21].

There are two types of wind turbines –

• Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines -

• Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Wind turbines come in a wide range of sizes. The primary determinant of a wind turbine's
capacity to produce power is the length of its blades. A single home could be powered by a
small wind turbine with a 10kW electric-generating capability. The largest wind turbines
currently in operation can generate roughly 15,000 kilowatts (15 megawatts) of electricity.
There are plans to construct larger turbines. In order to generate electricity for electric power
systems, wind turbines are frequently placed together to form wind farms[22].The fig. 4 depicts
the various kinds offshore wind technology.

Fig.4 (a) Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT), (b) Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT),
(c) Domestic (small scale) HAWTs, (d) Domestic (small scale) VAWT (Savonius type), (e)
Domestic (small scale) VAWT (Darrius type) [23]

2.1.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

The most common type of wind turbine is the Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. In this type, the
turbine’s rotation axis is parallel to the ground, and the blades rotate in the same direction as
the wind. Two common examples are aero- turbine mills, which have an efficiency of 35%,

8
and farm mills, which have an efficiency of 15 %. It is suitable for areas with wind shear and
placement on uneven land or in offshore locations.

2.1.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

The Vertical Axis Wind Turbines has its axis parallel to the ground. Unlike HAWTs, VAWTs
cannot take advantage of the stronger winds found at higher elevations, so they are less
common. The main types of VAWTs are:

• Darrieus Wind Turbine: I t has curved blades and an efficiency of 35%.

• Giromill Wind Turbine: It has straight blades and an efficiency of 35%.
• Savonius Wind Turbine: It uses scoops to catch the wind and has efficiency of
around 30 %.

2.2 Key components of Wind Turbine

Wind Turbines comprise several main parts: a tower, nacelle, turbine, control system and
sensors. Fig. 5 shows the basic setup of a wind turbine system. These turbines are designed to
adjust their speed or even stop during high winds or for maintenance. Modern wind turbines
include advanced control systems supported by various components. These include an
anemometer to measure wind speed, sensors to monitor electrical and mechanical systems, a
wind direction sensor to adjust the turbine position, stall controllers to start or stop the turbine
at specific wind speed and power limits, control electronics for power conversion and
management, batteries for energy storage, and a transmission link to connect to the power grid.
2.2.1 Turbine

Low-speed rotors or turbines usually have two to six blades, with three-blade designs being the
most common. Three-blade turbines are more stable, efficient, and lightweight. Turbines can
range in size, from a few kilowatts (used in standalone remote areas) to several megawatts for
large-scale power generation. The blades are aerodynamic and designed to be as lightweight as
possible.

2.2.2 Tower

Most modern wind turbine towers are made of round tubular steel, with a diameter of 3–4
meters (10–13 feet) and a height of 75–110 meters (250–370 feet). The height of the tower
depends on the size of the turbine and its location. A general rule is that the tower's height is
about the same as the diameter of the circle made by the rotating blades.

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2.2.3 Nacelle
A nacelle is a wind turbine part containing essential components like the generator, shafts,
gearbox, brake, and control mechanism. It’s attached to the tower using a yaw control
mechanism, which helps it to rotate to face the wind. Inside the nacelle, there are two shafts: a
low-speed shaft and a high-speed shaft. The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at 30 to 60 rpm. A
gearbox increases the speed of this rotation, transferring it to the high-speed shaft, which spins
at 1200 to 1800 rpm, the speed the generator needs to produce electricity.
2.2.4 Control Mechanism
The control mechanism in a wind turbine helps keep it working safely and efficiently within
certain limits. It can operate either actively or passively, depending on the needs. The system
monitors wind speed, rotor performance and electrical and mechanical values to adjust when
needed. The main goal is to generate the maximum power with the best efficiency, regardless
of changing wind conditions.

Fig. 5. Components of a Wind Turbine [24]

3 Basic Principle of Offshore Wind

Offshore wind power uses turbines placed in the ocean to capture wind energy. The spinning
blades turn the rotor connected to a shaft that rotates the generator in the nacelle to produce
electricity. This electricity is then sent to the shore through cables. Offshore wind farms
generate clean, renewable energy. They help reduce carbon emissions and provide sustainable
power.
3.1 Wind Energy Conversion process for Offshore wind turbine
OWT works similarly to those onshore but is designed to operate in the sea. The basic principles
behind the offshore wind turbines are:

• Wind Energy Conversion:

OWT uses wind to generate electricity. When the wind blows, it turns the blade. The blades are
connected to a rotor, which turns a shaft connected to a generator. The generator produces
electricity.

• Wind Strength:
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OWT gets stronger and more consistent winds than onshore turbines, which makes them more
effective at producing electricity.

• Location

These turbines are placed in the water, usually far from the shore. This avoids disrupting
shipping routes and takes advantage of stronger winds over the sea.

• Structure

OWT are supported by special structures designed to survive rough sea conditions. These
structures include floating platforms, large poles (monopiles) sunk into the seabed, or steel
frameworks (jackets).

• Electrical Transmission

The electricity generated by the turbines is sent to shore through underwater cables, where it
connects to the power grid and is used by homes and business.

• Maintenance and Accessibility:

OWT are far from the land hence maintenance requires special equipments. However, their
location helps keep them out of sight and reduces noise, which is less disruptive for the people
living nearby. OWTs generate electricity by using strong winds at sea, supported by special
structures, and sending power to the grid.

3.2 Strategic framework for Offshore Wind Energy Project development in

India
On October 6, 2015, the Government of India introduced the National Offshore Wind
ENERGY Policy to promote the development of offshore wind power in the country. The
policy allows wind farms to be developed up to 200 nautical miles from the coast, within India’s
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is
responsible for overseeing the policy, while the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) is
in charge of managing offshore wind energy projects in India[25].

To promote the development of offshore wind farms in the country and speed up the process,
three models have been proposed [26]:

• Model-A (VGF Model) - This approach will apply to specific offshore wind zones
where MNRE/NIWE has conducted or plans to conduct detailed studies. Currently, part
of Zone B3 (365 sq. km) off the coast of Gujarat and a similar area off the Tamil Nadu
coast will be included in the first phase of this plan, totaling 1 GW of capacity. MNRE,
through its agencies, will issue bids to buy offshore wind power under this model.
Financial support will be provided through Viability Gap Funding (VGF) to help
achieve a set power tariff. This support will make it easier for developers to set up wind
farms in these areas.

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 • Model- B (Non-VGF but with exclusivity over seabed during the study/survey
period) - This approach applies to offshore wind sites identified by NIWE, which will
be leased to developers for a fixed period through a bidding process. Developers will
build projects without financial support from the government. The power generated can
be used for the developer's own needs, sold through agreements, or traded on power
exchanges. The government may also seek bids to buy power for distribution companies
after two years, offering benefits like infrastructure support, transmission charge
waivers, renewable energy credits, and carbon credit benefits.
• Model- C (Non-VGF and without exclusivity over seabed during the study/survey
period) - In this model, the developer can choose any offshore wind site within the
EEZ, except the sites already included in Model-A and Model-B. The developer will
conduct studies and surveys for the site. The government will then issue a bid for the
development of the project and allocation of the seabed.

The share of wind energy in India's total renewable energy capacity will grow significantly
with the development of offshore wind power. Regulatory authorities should create policies
and support programs that attract investors, researchers, and public sectors. Policymakers can
consider making an Energy Standard policy that includes special provisions for offshore wind
energy. These provisions can provide direct support to the emerging offshore wind market,
encouraging investment in this area[27].

4 Comparison with Onshore Wind Turbines

Wind resources worldwide can be divided into onshore (land-based) and offshore (sea-based).
For many years, onshore wind farms have been the primary way to generate wind energy and
are a proven method. However, offshore wind energy is gaining more attention because it
benefits from stronger and more consistent winds, has minimal environmental impact, and
allows for larger wind turbines to be used [28].

4.1 Onshore versus Offshore wind energy development

Offshore wind energy systems need to be built under the sea, which requires stronger support
structures, special cables for power transmission, and special ships and equipment for
installation and maintenance. These extra requirements make offshore wind power much more
expensive compared to onshore wind power. Offshore wind turbines are currently about 1.5
times more expensive than onshore turbines of the same size[29].Offshore wind energy systems
are less noticeable than onshore ones because their size and noise are reduced or eliminated by
being located far out at sea. Offshore wind turbines benefit from more robust and more
consistent winds, which help them produce more electricity than onshore turbines. However,
factors like water depth, distance from shore, shipping routes, and protected nature areas must
be considered when building them. Offshore wind farms face challenges from saltwater, waves,
and intense storms. Access to the sites is also limited by weather conditions, so the turbines
need to be very strong and reliable. However, compared to onshore wind farms, offshore
turbines cause less noise and visual impact[30].

Offshore wind farms have turbines that are more spread out, use bigger equipment, and
generate much more power than onshore wind farms. Offshore wind energy development
introduces new technologies to improve the building and integration of wind systems to the
power grid. It also advances logistics for transporting, installing, operating, and maintaining

12
these systems. This has led to more interest in combining different areas of research to improve
offshore wind energy[31].

4.2 Power capacity factor of Onshore and Offshore wind energy system

The capacity factor is the ratio of the average power a wind farm produces to its maximum
possible power output. Onshore wind farms usually have lower capacity factors because of
their location compared to offshore wind farms. Wind speeds and power across onshore
locations can be affected by natural features like forests and hills and human-made structures
like buildings and towers. These obstacles can block or change the wind, making it less
consistent and not ideal for onshore wind farms, which reduces their power output. Offshore
wind farms, however, don't face these problems because the ocean surface is clear of obstacles,
allowing for more steady wind flows. This makes offshore wind power more reliable than
onshore wind power.

The average capacity factor for new onshore wind power plants has increased from 27% in
2010 to 34 % in 2018, and it is expected to continue growing over the next 30 years. By 2030,
onshore wind farms are projected to have a maximum capacity factor of 55 %, a minimum of
30%, and an average of 42.5%. By 2050, these figures are expected to rise to a maximum of
58%, a minimum of 32, and an average of 45%. Over the next 30 years, the average capacity
factor of offshore wind power facilities is predicted to rise from 38% in 2010 to 43% in 2018.
It is anticipated that offshore wind farms will have an average capacity factor of 47%, a
minimum capacity factor of 36%, and a maximum capacity factor of 58% by 2030. These
figures are expected to increase to an average of 51.5%, a minimum of 43%, and a maximum
of 60% by 2050[32].

4.3 Recent trends of Onshore and Offshore wind power generation

Both onshore and offshore wind power are growing rapidly but at different rates. Offshore wind
power is showing strong growth, and its share in global electricity generation is becoming more
noticeable. Currently, onshore wind energy makes up about 95% of global wind power
capacity. However, by 2030, offshore wind is expected to reach a total capacity of 228 GW,
and by 2050, it could grow to 1000 GW, up from the current 55.7 GW. The projected growth
of onshore wind energy, reaching a total capacity of 1787 GW by 2030 and 5044 GW by 2050,
marks significant progress toward transitioning to fully electric power[32].

TABLE- I Global cumulative installed and projected capacities of onshore and offshore wind
power (2018-2050)

IRENA 2021[32] GWEC- Global Wind

Report 2022 [33]
Historical Year Onshore Offshore Onshore Offshore
Data 2018 539.888 23.626 568 23
2019 593.291 28.355 621 29
2020 698.043 34.367 707 36
2021 769.196 55.678 780 57
2022 836 63 842 64
Projections 2030 1787 228 380 380
2050 5044 1000 2000 2000

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4.4 Levelized cost of onshore and offshore wind energy systems
The cost is the main factor in deciding whether onshore and offshore wind power can be
successfully developed. Because wind power is cost-effective, it has increased in recent years,
especially when compared to other types of renewable energy. The levelized cost of energy
(LCOE) is commonly used to compare the costs of different energy sources. It represents the
total cost of generating electricity from a power plant, including wind energy, over the plant's
entire lifetime. This helps standardize costs across various energy systems. As compared to
onshore wind power plants, the LCOE of offshore wind power plants is mainly influenced by
factors such as the distance from the shore, load factor, and availability. Additionally, offshore
wind farms incur higher costs for installing mooring systems and long transmission cables.

By 2030, onshore wind power is expected to become entirely cost-effective, with prices
dropping below the lowest cost of fossil fuels (0.05 USD/kWh), ranging from 0.03 USD/kWh
to 0.05 USD/kWh, with an average of around 0.04 USD/kWh. By 2050, the cost is predicted
to fall even further, reaching between 0.02 USD/kWh and 0.03 USD/kWh, with an average of
about 0.025 USD/kWh. As the world moves towards a complete transition, the average global
LCOE for offshore wind power will drop further. By 2030, it is predicted to range from 0.05
USD/kWh to 0.09 USD/kWh. By 2050, the cost is expected to decrease even more, with prices
ranging from 0.03 USD/kWh to 0.07 USD/kWh[34].

5 Installation Techniques and Foundations

The installation techniques and foundations of OWT are crucial for the successful deployment
of these renewable energy systems in marine environments. OWTS are typically placed in deep
waters where specialized methods are required for both installation and stability. Various
foundation types such as monopiles, jackets, and floating platforms are used depending on
water depth and seabed conditions. These techniques ensure the turbines are securely anchored
and can withstand harsh ocean conditions, enabling efficient energy generation from offshore
wind resources.

5.1 Overview of Offshore wind turbine installation

Installing OWTs is a complex process involving several key steps, from planning and site
preparation to assembly and connecting to the power grid. It usually begins with designing the
wind farm and selecting suitable locations offshore. Next, the seabed is prepared, which might
involve dredging or installing foundations to support the turbines. The installation involves
assembling various wind turbine components and eventually linking them to the grid. Since
this work happens at sea, it’s considered a marine operation and faces challenges like weather
conditions, safety risks during lifting, and the availability of specialized equipment [35]. The
fig. 6. shows the process involved in installation of integrated offshore wind structures
including foundation, Tower and WT [Link] wind installation is essential for
increasing the amount of renewable energy we use, as it has great potential to generate clean
power. As technology improves and costs decrease, offshore wind energy is expected to
become a more critical part of the world’s energy supply. Developing offshore wind farms is

14
crucial for achieving climate goals, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, and promoting sustainable
energy.

Foundation + Tower + Wind Turbine

Onshore Assembly, Integrated marine Offshore

manufacturing Commissioning and transportation Installation
loading at dock

Fig.6. Integrated Installation of Offshore Wind Structures

5.1.1 Installation vessels Equipments and methods

Installation vessels are essential for the execution of any OWT installations. The selection of
vessels is predicated upon various factors, including market availability, the financial allocation
for installation operations, and the specific technologies associated with wind turbines, such as
the dimensions and number of their components. An OWF development may use a variety of
installation vessel types; Table II provides a brief overview of several examples. Of these,
tugboats are the most cost-effective and are frequently employed for floating foundations or
non-self-propelled barges.

Table II OWT installation vessels and day rates (in US$)[36],

Type Specification Day rates

Tugboat Diesel engines; large power- $ 1000–5000
tonnage ratio (2.2–9.5)
Jackup barge Non-self-propelled; medium $ 100,000–180,000
to large crane capacity (200–
1300 tonnes);
Heavy lift cargo vessel Loading and discharging of $ 30,000–50000
heavy objects; spacious main
deck area.
Crane barge Sheerleg or rotating crane; $ 80,000–100000
large crane capacity (1000–
4000 tonnes)
Semi-summesible crane Self-propelled; large lifting $ 280,000–500000
vessel height and crane capacity
(3000–20000 tonnes).
Purpose-built jackup Self-propelled; jacking $ 150,000–250,000
vessel system; dynamic positioning;
large working deck; large
crane capacity (800–1500
tonnes)

Heavy lift cargo vessels are equipped with spacious cargo holds that allow them to transport
large, heavy modular components tailored to meet the specific needs of a project. During
15
installation, pre-assembled wind turbines or support structures are often lifted with the help of
crane barges and jack-up barges because these lifting tasks require cranes with strong lifting
power. Fig. 7. shows the different vessels used in the OWT installation. An example of a vessel
is the Heavy Lift Cargo vessel used in the Veja Mate offshore wind farm (OWF) project[37],
where it was used to transport 67 transition pieces from Denmark to the Netherlands wind farm
site.

Fig. 7. Common vessels used in OWT installation[38]

An offshore installation task cannot be completed without specialized equipment. This

equipment can be related to the installation vessel or the OWT, and it is constantly being
improved. Fig. 8. shows the two categories and provides several examples of equipment in
each category. The equipment related to offshore wind turbines (OWTs) has been designed
alongside OWT technology. Depending on its function, this equipment can be used for
transporting or installing the turbines.

Fig. 8. Category of specialized equipment involved in OWT installations.

16
5.1.2 Standards and Guidelines

The installation of offshore wind turbines (OWTs), like any other offshore activities, must
follow the guidelines set by regulatory authorities to ensure safety. The planning and execution
of OWT installations should address various aspects, including risk management, operational
criteria, weather forecasts, and structural integrity, as required by the offshore oil and gas
industry. Standards and guidelines for installing offshore wind turbines (OWTs) are important
to ensure safety, efficiency, and environmental protection. These rules cover different parts of
offshore wind farm projects, including planning, design, construction, operation, and
decommissioning. They are created by government authorities, industry groups, and global
organizations to make sure everything is done correctly and safely.

Table III Standards and guidelines for offshore wind turbine installation[39]

STANDARDS TITLE
DNVGL-ST-N001 Marine operations and marine warranty
DNVGL-ST-0378 Standard for offshore and platform lifting appliances
DNVGL-ST-0437 Loads and site conditions for wind turbines
DNV-RP-H103 Modelling and analysis of marine operations
ISO 29400:2015 Ships and marine technology – Offshore wind energy – Port and
marine operations

DNVGL-ST-0054 Installation and Transportation of wind power plants

A few standards relevant to OWT installations are listed in Table III. Among these, the outdated
DNV–OS–H series standards have been replaced by the unified DNVGL-ST-N001 standard.
This new standard provides guidelines for maritime operations related to various offshore
structures. Another comprehensive standard with a similar scope is ISO 29400:2015, which is
relevant to port and marine operations for offshore constructions, including subsea templates,
foundations, and OWTs.

For planning and executing marine operations, DNVGL-RP-H103 offers simplified methods
for determining design loads. Platform cranes and offshore cranes must comply with the
DNVGL-ST-0378 standard. A newer standard, DNVGL-ST-0054, provides safety guidelines
and principles for installing and transporting OWTs and onshore vessels. DNVGL-ST-0437
offers guidelines for wind turbine loads and site conditions[40].

5.2 Types of Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations

Sea depth is generally divided into three categories: shallow waters (0–30 m), transitional
waters (30–50 m), and deep waters (50–200 m). The depth of the sea is the most important
factor influencing the feasibility of offshore wind farms, as the cost of foundations increases
significantly with depth. As a result, various types of foundations have already been developed,
and others are being designed, considering sea depth and other factors.

17
The most common foundation types for commercial offshore wind energy converters (OWECs)
are shown in the fig. 9. Monopile and gravity-type foundations are the most widely used in
shallow waters. These two types were chosen for the first offshore wind farms due to their
proven reliability in shallow waters. The water depth at potential farm locations and the
capacity of the installed OWECs make monopile foundations particularly popular. For OWECs
larger than 3 MW, gravity-type foundations are not used, as they would be extremely costly
and heavy to construct in deeper waters (over 10 meters), where they must withstand significant
aerodynamic and hydrodynamic loads from large-capacity wind turbines. Test floating OWEC
foundations are designed for very deep sites (e.g., 100–200 meters) and have a high rated
capacity (e.g., 5–6 MW)[41]. Table 4 describes the merits and demerits of different types of
foundations of OWT.

Fig. 9. Fixed bottom foundations and floating offshore concepts [42]

5.2.1 Gravity base foundations

The original foundation type used for OWECs was traditionally a gravity-type foundation,
consisting of a large circular pile with a concrete plate structure resting on the seabed. This
type of foundation was used near shore to build Denmark's first offshore wind farms, where
the water is very shallow. Additionally, because this established construction and installation
method helps reduce risk, it was used in several demonstration projects, including the Avedøre
Holme, Breitling, and Thornton Bank (Phase I) offshore wind farms[43].

5.2.2 Monopile foundations

The majority of OWECs, particularly offshore wind farms in Europe, use these types of
foundations. Given the conditions of the European seabed, this method is currently the most
cost-effective option. In 2014, 91% of offshore wind farms that were fully grid-connected also
used this type of foundation[44].

5.2.3 Multipod (Tripod + Jackets) types foundations

To reduce construction costs for transitional water depths, different substructure approaches
are required. Tripods and jacket structures are examples of space-frame substructures that

18
provide the necessary rigidity and strength. With relatively short penetration lengths, tripod
and jacket structures offer adequate bearing capacity at transitional water depths. Additionally,
the economic viability is enhanced by the relatively light weight of tripods and jackets.

5.2.4 Floating foundations

In deep waters, floating structures offer numerous benefits in terms of cost, construction,
installation, and decommissioning. Technology developed for the oil and gas sector also
provides valuable insights, even though the aerodynamic and hydrodynamic load
characteristics of OWECs introduce several differences. These structures are divided into three
categories based on how their design achieves stability: buoyancy-stabilized foundations,
mooring line-stabilized foundations (tension leg platforms), and ballast-stabilized
foundations[45].

Table IV Different Foundation types and their merits and demerits

Type Advantage Disadvantage

Gravity Easy construction process with reliable stability. Requires specific geological
conditions.

Monopile Straightforward manufacturing and robust structural Limited structural rigidity, susceptible
support. to scouring, and needs an extremely
large pile.

Jacket Provides excellent structural stiffness and stability, Complex forces can lead to fatigue,
suitable for deeper waters. with high installation and maintenance
costs.

Tripod High load-bearing capacity, suitable for greater Expensive and challenging to install.
water depths.

Suction Reliable structural performance, easy to transport Requires precise installation

bucket and install as a single unit, short construction time, techniques and advanced technology.
and cost-effective.

Floating Versatile design, suitable for deep waters and areas High dynamic loads and significant
with strong underwater currents. operational costs.

6 Connection to the Power Grid

Modern power systems are anticipated to undergo significant transformations due to the
prominent role of offshore wind in global decarbonization efforts. However, understanding the
capabilities and impacts of these newly introduced, uniquely positioned assets in grids with
high levels of inverter-based resources remains limited. This ignorance creates issues with
power quality, dependability, resilience, and grid stability. The lack of updated grid rules to
direct the widespread installation of offshore wind increases these difficulties.

The offshore wind sector is expanding globally, and as of 2023, Hornsea II, the largest AC-
connected offshore wind power plant in the world, is completely operational in the United

19
Kingdom with a total of 1.386 GW, powering 1.3 million homes[46]. The connection of
offshore wind farms to the grid involves several critical steps and technologies to ensure
efficient and reliable integration into modern power systems.

6.1 Key Design Considerations for Offshore Grids

The planning and design of OWT to grid connection. It is necessary to follow these key
steps[47]:

• Capital Cost: The capital cost of installing and connecting offshore wind farms to the
grid is high, with transmission costs accounting for 20% of the total cost.
• Electrical Losses: Depending on the export voltage and offshore distance,
transmission losses typically range between 2% and 5%. The location of the meters
and the distribution of transmission losses among various stakeholders influence their
valuation.
• Grid Code Compliance: Ensure that the offshore grid complies with national and
regional grid codes, including requirements for frequency regulation, reactive power
support, and fault-ride-through capabilities.
• System redundancy and Resilience: The risk exposure to single points-of-failure
(such as underwater transmission cables) must be carefully examined and reduced in
design and specification because offshore transmission systems are typically not fully
redundant due to the high construction expenditures.
• System Stability and Control: Incorporate advanced control systems to manage
power flow, voltage, and frequency fluctuations caused by variable wind generation.

6.2 Components of the Offshore Grid

Although offshore grid systems are very similar to traditional onshore grid systems, subtle
differences like their components, ratings, and applications make it essential to understand the
fundamental components before discussing network topologies.

6.2.1 Offshore Wind Turbines

The offshore grid architecture can be significantly influenced by the electrical rating and
performance of offshore wind turbines. Currently, 8 MW offshore wind turbines are available,
with 9 MW versions awaiting final qualification[48]. All offshore wind turbines currently
available on the market operate based on Type 3 or Type 4 designs, which correspond to the
electrical generator and power converter configurations, specifically the Doubly Fed Induction
Generator (DFIG) and Full Converter, respectively. These designs incorporate power
electronics, enabling them to support grid stability by meeting current grid code requirements
for voltage management and fault ride-through. Among these, the highly adaptable full-
converter (Type 4) design constitutes the majority of offshore wind turbines on the market
today[49].

6.2.2 Offshore Array Cables

Array cables typically operate at medium voltage levels, usually 33 kV, and are used to
interconnect arrays of offshore wind turbines to transmit power to shore or to an offshore
substation. These cables are designed with a 3-core configuration, incorporating three phases

20
into a single cable. They use extruded insulation materials, such as cross-linked polyethylene
(XLPE) or ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), and are of a wet or semi-wet type. This means
they lack an extruded, water-blocking metallic sheath, making them lighter and more cost-
effective than offshore high-voltage cables.

The dimensions of array cables are typically specified by the conductor's cross-sectional area
(CSA), with 630 mm² generally considered the maximum practicable size for handling in an
offshore wind farm and connection to 33 kV wind turbine switchgear. In this configuration, a
single array cable can carry a maximum power of approximately 35–40 MW.

6.2.3 Offshore High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) Substations

The fundamental purpose of offshore HVAC substations is to convert the medium voltage used
in offshore arrays to a higher voltage for more efficient transmission to shore. In addition to
MV/HV transformer the substation includes-

• High-voltage switching equipment

• Medium-voltage switching equipment
• Backup and auxiliary power systems
• Protection, control, and communication systems
• Optional reactive power compensation, depending on system design, such as shunt
reactors to offset the capacitance of HVAC cables.

6.2.4 Offshore High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Converter Stations

For transmitting power over longer distances, an HVDC transmission system is used. The
HVDC converter station converts HVAC to HVDC for power transmission to shore. This
conversion takes place at the HVDC converter stations and is more complex and expensive
than HVAC substations. Currently, offshore HVDC converter stations with ratings of up to
800-900 MW are in use, with 1000 MW being the realistic maximum for a single system. These
stations typically operate at +-20 kV and above however, newer designs tend to focus on +-
300 to 320 kV DC[50].

6.2.5 Submarine Export Cables

The offshore HVAC substation is connected either to an offshore HVDC converter platform or
directly to shore via HVAC export cables. Submarine HVAC cables use extruded XLPE
insulation and have a three-core architecture, with all three phases contained in a single cable.

Extruded insulation is also commonly used in HVDC cables for VSC applications. These cables
typically consist of two single-core cables with positive and negative polarity and operate at up
to 400 kV. The cable voltage must match that of the offshore HVDC converter station, and they
are often installed in the same underwater trench.

21
 Fig. 10 HVAC and HVDC submarine cables [51]

6.2.6 Landfall & Onshore Cables

Submarine cables are connected to an onshore cable system at the transition joint bay upon
reaching the landing point. The cables must be pulled from the installation vessel to the onshore
transition joint bay as part of the complex marine coordination involved in the landfall process.
Due to the potentially significant burial depth, the landing often represents the thermally
limiting condition for the cable system.

6.2.7 Onshore HVDC Converter Stations

In contrast to their offshore counterparts, onshore HVDC converter stations convert HVDC
power back to HVAC and adjust it to the appropriate voltage for injection into the onshore
grid. Each manufacturer has its own unique design for these massive facilities, which house
complex electrical and control technologies.

6.2.8 Onshore HVAC Substations

At the onshore HVAC substation, the power transmitted from the offshore system is adjusted
to the appropriate voltage for grid injection. In addition to HV transformers, the substation
typically includes:

• Fixed shunt reactors to compensate for the HV cable

• High-voltage switchgear

• Protection, control, and communication systems

• Additional compensation devices, such as STATCOMs, to meet grid code

requirements, depending on the system design and grid regulations

• Harmonic filters, which may be needed based on grid code requirements and the
specific characteristics of the local grid.

6.3 Connection Type

The connections of offshore wind farms can be classified into the following types: Medium
Voltage AC (MVAC), High Voltage AC (HVAC), and High Voltage DC (HVDC). MVAC is
22
typically used within the wind farm to link individual turbines to an offshore substation,
operating at 33 or 66 kV. HVAC connections transmit power from the offshore substation to
the onshore grid over short to moderate distances, ranging from 110 kV to 400 kV. HVDC
connections are preferred for long-distance transmission due to their efficiency and lower
power losses, utilizing voltage levels of ±200 kV to ±400 kV or higher. The choice of
connection type depends on factors such as distance to shore, efficiency requirements, and
project costs.[52].

Table V Comparison of different types of connection types of OWT[50]

Feature MVAC HVAC HVDC

Capital Cost Low, suitable for short Moderate Very high
distances
Energy Losses Significant Moderate Minimal, but includes
converter losses
Operating Range 0–20 km 20–80 km 80+ km
Impact of Single Failure Minimal; only ~35 High; up to 300– Very high; up to 800–1000
MW per cable 400 MW per MW per cable
cable
Offshore HVAC Substation Not required Required Required

Offshore HVDC Converter Not required Not required Required

Circuits for 150 MW 4–5 1 1

Circuits for 500 MW 14–15 2 1

Circuits for 1000 MW 28–30 3 1

7 Environmental and Economic Benefits

7.1 Environmental benefits of offshore wind power
Wind power is the most developed, widely used, and promising renewable energy source.
Offshore wind power has several advantages over onshore wind power. These include zero land
occupancy, high and consistent wind speed, low turbulence intensity, minimal noise and visual
pollution, reduced environmental impact, and a big wind power production capacity. The future
direction of the wind power industry and a meaningful way to reduce fossil fuel and carbon
dioxide emissions play a crucial role in energy transition and the fight against climate change.
Offshore wind energy resources alone would be sufficient to cover more than the world’s
electricity demand in 2050[53].Offshore wind turbines do not necessitate the utilization of
water for cooling purposes, in contrast to fossil fuel or nuclear power generation facilities. This
mitigates the demand on freshwater resources, thus conferring benefits to regions facing water
scarcity or drought conditions.

As clean energy projects, the construction and operation of offshore wind farms have limited
environmental pollution. In parallel, large-scale development and construction of wind power
equipment typically occupy habitats to a certain extent and cause disturbances to the marine
ecological environment, which could alter marine life behavior. There are also positive
examples, however. One study suggests that offshore wind foundation structures have positive
23
and long-term effects on aquatic species because they provide new habitats in artificial reefs
and because fishing – mainly trawling – tends to be restricted in their vicinity[54].

7.2 Economic Opportunities: Jobs, Local Development, and Industry Growth

• The offshore wind industry generates a wide range of job opportunities across various
stages of development, from manufacturing to installation and maintenance. As the
sector grows, the demand for skilled workers, including engineers, technicians, and
researchers also increases[55].
• Offshore wind projects create significant benefits for coastal and port communities.
These projects stimulate local economies by providing jobs, generating tax revenue,
and supporting businesses in sectors like logistics and service industries. In regions like
the UK and Denmark, offshore wind has already become a key driver of local economic
growth, creating hubs for renewable energy innovations and developments.
• The offshore wind sector drives the growth of specialised industries, including
manufacturing of wind turbines, foundations, cables, and vessels. This expansion
strengthens local manufacturing capabilities, especially in coastal areas with access to
ports. It also provides a reliable and growing market for investments in renewable
energy infrastructure. This long-term economic stability attracts both private and public
sector investments, ensuring sustained growth and innovation in clean energy
technology[56].
• Offshore wind creates new business opportunities in sectors beyond energy generation.
These include offshore services such as installation, grid integration, and
monitoring[47].
• Offshore wind technology and expertise offer significant export potential. Countries
with established offshore wind industries, like Denmark, Germany, and the UK, have
become global exporters of both technology and services. For example, Danish
company Ørsted is a major player in the international offshore wind market,
contributing to global supply chain development and exporting technology, knowledge,
and workforce training[57].

7.3 Role of Offshore wind in facilitating low carbon development

• Electricity is produced by offshore wind energy without releasing greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide. This lessens the need for fossil fuel power plants, which are a vital
cause of climate change. Global attempts to attain net-zero emissions are directly aided
by offshore wind, which replaces electricity generated by coal and gas[58].
• Offshore wind energy is critical in mitigating climate change by producing electricity
without burning fossil fuels. A 1 GW offshore wind farm can offset approximately 3.5
million tons of CO₂ emissions annually, equivalent to taking over 750,000 cars off the
road yearly. Offshore wind helps nations achieve their emission reduction targets by
replacing coal and gas power plants[33].
• Offshore wind is essential to nations' efforts to satisfy carbon reduction and renewable
energy goals under accords such as the Paris Agreement. It makes the large-scale
transition to renewable energy systems possible. Long-term environmental and
economic sustainability is ensured by its contribution to decarbonization.
24
 • Offshore wind is essential for achieving net-zero energy systems. In 2022, offshore
wind farms globally prevented the emission of over 200 million tons of CO₂. Countries
like Denmark generate more than 40% of their electricity from wind, including offshore
wind, demonstrating its capability to decarbonize energy grids[59].
• Green hydrogen may be generated through the process of water electrolysis, utilizing
energy derived from offshore wind resources. For industries that are challenging to
decarbonize, such as heavy manufacturing, maritime shipping, and aviation, this
hydrogen, devoid of carbon emissions, serves as an environmentally sustainable fuel
alternative. It provides a viable replacement for fossil fuels, thereby fostering a low-
carbon, circular economic model.
• Offshore wind plays a crucial role in establishing a robust energy system by broadening
the spectrum of energy sources and mitigating the risks associated with fluctuations in
fossil fuel markets. It assists nations in addressing climate-related challenges by
fostering a consistent and renewable energy framework. This guarantees a dependable
energy supply, even in severe weather events induced by climate change.

8 Challenges and Environmental Impacts

8.1 Environmental impacts of offshore wind power
Offshore wind energy is significant because, according to many experts, it has the most
significant potential to help achieve climate change policy goals by reducing greenhouse gas
emissions from electricity generation. While wind power is a clean and renewable energy
source that neither consumes water nor emits carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, it does have
several drawbacks[60].

8.1.1 Noise Emissions and Vibrations

Wind turbine generates two types of noise: engine noise and blade noise, both during the
construction and operation phases of a wind farm. Despite being located far from residential
areas , these noises can still have negative impacts, particularly those caused by pile-driving
during turbine installation. Research has shown that anthropogenic sound sources, such as
those from wind farms, have a significant potential to arm marine mammals by causing injury
or negatively affecting their hearing and behavior.

8.1.2 Impact on birds

The continuous operation of offshore wind turbines poses an unavoidable risk of collision for
both migratory and local birds with rotor blades or towers, potentially resulting in direct losses
of individuals. Additionally, the presence of wind farms increases the likelihood of shipping
collisions, which, under certain conditions—such as oil or chemical spills—could have
widespread environmental consequences extending far beyond the immediate vicinity of the
wind farm.

8.1.3 Magnetic and Electric field

Electric and magnetic fields are created around cable connections, which can affect the ability
of fish and marine mammals to navigate over short and long distances. Additionally, the

25
cables heat the surrounding sediments, attracting species that prefer warmer conditions or
driving away those sensitive to heat.[58]

8.2 Recommendations for mitigation of environmental impacts

To minimize environmental impacts, offshore wind projects often incorporate:

• Careful site selection to avoid sensitive ecosystems.

• Use of noise reduction techniques during construction.

• Ongoing environmental monitoring programs.

• Adaptive management strategies to address unforeseen impacts.

8.3 Challenges for offshore wind

Offshore wind energy holds significant promise as a renewable energy source but faces several
challenges. The high initial construction, transportation, and installation costs, combined with
the need for expensive subsea cables and offshore substations, make it a capital-intensive
endeavor. Operation and maintenance (O&M) in harsh marine environments are also costly
and technically complex due to accessibility issues and the need for specialized vessels.
Connecting offshore wind farms to the onshore grid involves implementing long-distance
transmission systems like HVDC or HVAC, which are both expensive and challenging.
Environmental concerns must be carefully managed, including noise pollution, habitat
disruption, and interference with marine life navigation[61].

Additionally, offshore wind production is weather-dependent, requiring efficient energy

storage or backup systems to ensure consistent power supply. Regulatory and permitting
hurdles often complicate project timelines, while technological limitations restrict the depth
and distance at which turbines can be installed[62]. Logistics and supply chain challenges arise
from transporting large turbine components to remote offshore locations. Conflicts with
stakeholders, such as fisheries, shipping industries, and coastal communities, further
complicate project development. Finally, offshore wind farms must be designed to withstand
extreme weather conditions like hurricanes and strong ocean currents, which increases costs
and engineering demands. Addressing these challenges requires innovative technologies,
regulatory support, and collaborative efforts to make offshore wind energy a sustainable and
reliable solution for the future[63].

9 Conclusion
The chapter highlights the crucial role of offshore wind technology in the global move toward
sustainable and low-carbon energy. Offshore wind energy uses the strong and steady winds at
sea to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fight climate change. With
improvements in turbine technology, grid connections, and installation methods, offshore wind
farms are becoming more efficient and cost-effective, making them a key part of renewable
energy plans.

26
The future of offshore wind involves increasing its capacity, upgrading infrastructure, and
adopting new technologies like green hydrogen production and energy storage. Innovations
such as floating wind farms open up opportunities to use wind energy in deeper waters, making
offshore wind possible in areas that were previously unsuitable. While challenges like high
costs, environmental effects, and complex regulations remain, advancements in technology,
better planning, and improved logistics will help address these issues.

Working together is crucial—policymakers, researchers, and industry experts need to

collaborate to overcome challenges and support the sustainable growth of offshore wind. This
technology has the potential to boost the economy, create jobs, and strengthen energy security.
By continuing to invest in research, innovation, and infrastructure, offshore wind can play a
central role in achieving a carbon-neutral future.

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