Basic RF concepts
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The trade-off in RF circuit
Application
• RF circuits and transceivers must deal with numerous trade-offs
• Need to quantise each of these aspects
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Power (Recap)
• Which of these definitions of power are correct?
RMS Peak values
1 1
1 𝑇 ∗ 𝑃 = ℜ 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼∗ 𝑃= ℜ 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼∗
𝑃 = 𝑉 𝑡 ∗ 𝐼(𝑡) 𝑃 = න 𝑉 𝑡 ∗ 𝐼 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑃 =ℜ 𝑉∗𝐼 2 8
𝑇 0
Complex Peak-to-Peak
Instantaneous Power
Average Power power!
• When to use which definition?
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Units of Power level
• Watt:
• The International System of Units (SI)
• one watt is one joule per second. Interestingly, electrical quantities do not even enter into this definition of power. In fact, other electrical units are
derived from the watt.
• standard prefixes the watt becomes the kilowatt (1 kW = 103 W), milliwatt (1 mW = 10-3 W), microwatt (1 μW = 10-6 W), nanowatt (1 nW = 10-9
W), etc.
• dB:
• the ratio of two powers, or relative power, is frequently the desired quantity rather than absolute power.
• Relative power is the ratio of one power level, P, to some other level or reference level, Pref . → The ratio is dimensionless.
• Relative power is usually expressed in decibels (dB). The dB is defined by
𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 ( 𝑃/𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
• dBm:
• The absolute signal levels are often expressed in dBm rather than in watts or volts. Used for power quantities, the unit dBm refers to “dB’s above 1
mW.” To express the signal power, Psig, in dBm, we write
𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑔
𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑔|𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10 log 1 𝑚𝑊
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Gain
Vout and Vin are rms values
• RF design has traditionally employed certain units to express gains and signal levels. It is helpful to review these units at the outset so that we can
comfortably use them in our subsequent studies.
• The voltage gain, Vout/Vin, and power gain, Pout/Pin, are expressed in decibels (dB):
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑉|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log ; 𝐴𝑃|𝑑𝐵 = 10 log
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛
• These two quantities are equal (in dB) only if the input and output voltages appear across equal impedances. For example, an amplifier having an
input resistance of R0 (e.g., 50 ) and driving a load resistance of2R0 satisfies the following equation:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡൘
𝑅0 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑃|𝑑𝐵 = 10 log 2 = 20 log = 𝐴𝑉|𝑑𝐵
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛
൘
𝑅0
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Time variance
• A system is linear if its output can be expressed as a linear combination (superposition) of
responses to individual inputs. More specifically, if the outputs in response to inputs 𝑥1 (𝑡)
and 𝑥2 (𝑡) can be respectively expressed as:
𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑓 [𝑥1 (𝑡)]
𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑓 [𝑥2 (𝑡)]
• then,
𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑓 [𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 ]
• for arbitrary values of a and b. Any system that does not satisfy this condition is nonlinear.
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Non-linearites
• Memoryless-linear: A system is called “memoryless” or “static” if its output does not depend on the past values of its
input (or the past values of the output itself). For a memoryless linear system, the input/output characteristic is given by
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝛼𝑥(𝑡)
where α is a function of time if the system is time-variant.
• Memoryless & non-linear: For a memoryless nonlinear system, the input/output characteristic can be approximated
with a polynomial,
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝛼2 𝑥 2 𝑡 + 𝛼3 𝑥 3 𝑡 + ⋯
where 𝛼𝑗 may be functions of time if the system is time-variant
• Dynamic & time-invariant: A system is called “dynamic” if its output depends on the past values of its input(s) or
output(s). For a linear, time-invariant, dynamic system,
𝑦 𝑡 = ℎ(𝑡) ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)
where h(t) denotes the impulse response.
Dynamic & time-variant: If a dynamic system is linear but time-variant, its impulse response depends on the time origin;
if 𝛿(𝑡) yields h(t), then 𝛿(𝑡, 𝜏) produces h(t, τ). Thus,
𝑦 𝑡 = ℎ(𝑡, 𝜏) ∗ 𝑥(𝑡)
• Finally, if a system is both nonlinear and dynamic, then its impulse response can be approximated by a Volterra series.
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EFFECTS OF NONLINEARITY
• Input is considered: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
• Harmonic distortion:
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝛼1 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝛼2 𝑥 2 𝑡 + 𝛼3 𝑥 3 (𝑡)
𝛼2 𝐴2 3𝛼3 𝐴3 𝛼2 𝐴2 𝛼3 𝐴3
⟹𝑦 𝑡 = + 𝛼1 𝐴 + cos 𝜔𝑡 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + cos 3𝜔𝑡.
2 4 2 4
DC component is
the amplitudes of the second and third harmonics are proportional
generated from even
to 𝐴2 and 𝐴3 , respectively, i.e., we say the nth harmonic grows in
non-linearities
proportion to 𝐴𝑛 .
• even-order harmonics result from αj with even j, and vanish if the system has odd
symmetry, i.e., if it is fully differential.
• In reality, however, random mismatches corrupt the symmetry, yielding even-order
harmonics with finite amplitude.
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Effect of Non-linearity
• on a log-log scale as a function of the input level, the output level, 𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡 , falls below its ideal value by 1 dB at the 1-dB
compression point.
(a) 𝐴𝑖𝑛 and 𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡 are voltage quantities here, but compression can also be expressed in terms of power quantities;
(b) 1-dB compression may also be specified in terms of the output level at which it occurs, 𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡,1𝑑𝐵 .
3
20 log 𝛼1 + 𝛼3 𝐴2𝑖𝑛,1𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 𝛼1 − 1 𝑑𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴𝑖𝑛,1𝑑𝐵 = 0.145 𝛼1 /𝛼3
4
the 1-dB compression point represents a 10% reduction in the gain and is widely used to characterize RF circuits and
systems.
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Intermodulation
3 3
𝛼1 𝐴2 + 𝛼3 𝐴32 + 𝛼3 𝐴12 𝐴2
3 3 4 2
𝛼1 𝐴1 + 𝛼3 𝐴13 + 𝛼3 𝐴1 𝐴22
4 2
𝛼2 𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐴1 𝐴2
3 3 3 3
𝛼3 𝐴12 𝐴2 𝛼3 𝐴1 𝐴22 𝛼3 𝐴12 𝐴2 𝛼3 𝐴1 𝐴22
𝛼2 𝐴1 𝐴2 4 4 4 4
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡
• the third-order IM products at 2𝜔1 − 𝜔2 and 2𝜔2 − 𝜔1 are of
particular interest.
• This is because, if 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are close to each other, then
2𝜔1 − 𝜔2 and 2𝜔2 − 𝜔1 appear in the vicinity of ω1 and ω2.
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Third Intercept Point
• “two-tone” test using two pure sinusoids of equal amplitudes is applied to the input.
• The amplitude of the output IM products is then normalized to that of the fundamentals at the output.
3 𝛼3 2
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑀 = 20 log 4 𝛼1
𝐴 𝑑𝐵𝑐
• where the unit dBc denotes decibels with respect to the “carrier” to emphasize the normalization.
• “third intercept point” (IP3): if the amplitude of each tone rises, that of the output IM products increases more sharply (∝ 𝐴3 ).
Thus, if we continue to raise A, the amplitude of the IM products eventually becomes equal to that of the fundamental tones at
the output.
• the input level at which this occurs is called the “input third intercept point” (IIP3).
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Effect of non-linearity (desensitization)
• To quantify desensitization, let us assume 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜔2 𝑡, where the first and second terms represent the
desired component and the interferer, respectively. With the third-order characteristic of Eq. (2.25), the output appears as
3 3
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝛼1 + 4 𝛼3 𝐴12 + 2 𝛼3 𝐴22 𝐴1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + · · ·
• Note that α2 is absent in compression. For A1 ≪ A2, this reduces to
3
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝛼1 + 2 𝛼3 𝐴22 𝐴1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + · · ·
3𝛼3 𝐴22
• Thus, the gain experienced by the desired signal is equal to 𝛼1 + , a decreasing function of 𝐴2 if 𝛼1 𝛼3 < 0.
2
• In fact, for sufficiently large 𝐴2 , the gain drops to zero, and we say the signal is “blocked.” In RF design, the term “blocking
signal” or “blocker” refers to interferers that desensitize a circuit even if they do not reduce the gain to zero.
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Cross modulation
• If a weak signal (𝐴1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 ) and a strong interferer 𝐴2 1 + 𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 pass through a nonlinear system →
results in transfer of modulation from the interferer to the signal.
• Called “cross modulation,” where variations in 𝐴2 affect the amplitude of the signal at 𝜔1 .
3 2 𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝛼1 + 𝛼 3 𝐴 2 1+ + cos 2𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 2𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝐴1 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 +· · ·
2 2 2
• In other words, the desired signal at the output suffers from amplitude modulation at 𝜔𝑚 and 2𝜔𝑚 .
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Cascaded Nonlinear Stages
• Since in RF systems, signals are processed by cascaded stages, it is important to know how the nonlinearity of each stage
is referred to the input of the cascade.
• Consider two nonlinear stages in cascade. If the input/output characteristics of the two stages are expressed, respectively,
as
𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝛼1 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝛼2 𝑥 2 𝑡 + 𝛼3 𝑥 3 (𝑡)
𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝛽1 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝛽2 𝑦12 𝑡 + 𝛽3 𝑦13 (𝑡)
4 𝛼1 𝛽1
𝐴𝐼𝑃3 =
3 𝛼3 𝛽1 + 2𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛽2 + 𝛼13 𝛽3
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1 3 𝛼3 𝛽1 + 2𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛽2 + 𝛼13 𝛽3
=
𝐴2𝐼𝑃3 4 𝛼1 𝛽1
3 𝛼3 2𝛼2 𝛽2 𝛼12 𝛽3
= + +
4 𝛼1 𝛽1 𝛽1
1 3𝛼2 𝛽2 𝛼12
= 2 + + 2
𝐴𝐼𝑃3,1 2𝛽1 𝐴𝐼𝑃3,2
The key observation in Eq. (2.65) is that to “refer” the IP3 of the second stage to the input of
the cascade, we must divide it by 𝛼1 . Thus, the higher the gain of the first stage, the more
nonlinearity is contributed by the second stage.
Extending this result to three or more stages, we2 have
2 2
1 1 𝛼1 𝛼1 𝛽1
≈ + + +···
𝐴2𝐼𝑃3 𝐴2𝐼𝑃3,1 𝐴2𝐼𝑃3,2 𝐴2𝐼𝑃3,3
Thus, if each stage in a cascade has a gain greater than unity, the nonlinearity of the latter
stages becomes increasingly more critical because the IP3 of each stage is equivalently
scaled down by the total gain preceding that stage.
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Important observations regarding IMD
• The input tones are amplified by a factor of
approximately 𝛼1 in the first stage and 𝛽1 in the
second. Thus, the output fundamentals are given by
𝛼1 𝛽1 𝐴(cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + cos 𝜔2 𝑡).
• The IM products generated by the first stage,
3𝛼
namely, 4 3 𝐴3 [cos 2𝜔1 − 𝜔2 𝑡 + cos(2𝜔2 −
𝜔1)𝑡], are amplified by a factor of 𝛽1 when they
appear at the output of the second stage.
• Sensing 𝛼1 𝐴(cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + cos 𝜔2 𝑡) at its input, the
second stage produces its own IM components:
3𝛽3 3 cos 2𝜔 − 𝜔 𝑡 +
𝛼 1 𝐴 1 2
4
3𝛽3
𝛼1 𝐴 3 cos(2𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )𝑡
4
• The second-order nonlinearity in 𝑦1 (𝑡) generates
components at 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 , 2𝜔1 , and 2𝜔2. Upon
experiencing a similar nonlinearity in the second
stage, these components are mixed with those at 𝜔1
and 𝜔2 and translated to 2𝜔1 − 𝜔2 and 2𝜔2 − 𝜔1 .
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