EUROCODES

EUROPEAN STANDARD UNE-ENV 1997-1

EXPERIMENTAL March 1999

EUROCODE 7
GEOTECHNICAL PROJECT
PART 1: GENERAL RULES

7
Part 1
g
 Preamble

This publication contains the UNE-ENV 1997-1:1999 Experimental Standard, which includes a
set of non-mandatory technical specifications ('general rules') related to the geotechnical project
and constitutes the Spanish version of the corresponding European Experimental Standard.

The content of this Experimental Standard must be valued with caution, since it is currently
is in the process of review and modification, as some of its sections have been questioned.

The above does not prevent the technical specifications contained in this Experimental Standard
UNE-ENV 1997-1 should be disclosed and made known for consideration by all interested parties.
construction sector.

The undeniable importance of this experimental norm derives, substantially, from the fact that it is
call to establish the starting point of a future European regulation that will contribute to the free movement
of people and construction products in the context of the European Union and will be able to serve as
basis for the development of technical regulations on the matter.

It should not be forgotten, in this regard, that the carrying out of geotechnical studies, prior to the
development of building projects and of concrete structures and structural elements, is a
mandatory requirement (according to the provisions of Decree 462/1971, of March 11, by which the
they dictate rules on project writing and construction direction; and in the Royal Decree
2661/1998, of December 11, which approves the Structural Concrete Instruction -EHE-.

The translation of this Experimental Standard, from the original version in English to its text in Spanish, has
was carried out by Subcommittee 7 of Technical Standardization Committee 140 'Structural Eurocodes'
from AENOR.

December 1998

Manuel L. Martín Antón

Deputy General Director of Regulations and Technical Studies
and Economic Analysis

Technical General Secretariat

MINISTRY OF DEVELOPMENT
g
 norm EN ENV 1997-1

Spanish
experimental
March 1999

TITLE EUROCODE 7: Geotechnical design

Part 1: General rules

Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. Part 1: General rules.

Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. Part 1: General rules.

CORRESPONDENCE This experimental standard is the official version, in Spanish, of the European Standard
Experimental ENV 1997-1 of October 1994.

OBSERVATIONS

BACKGROUND This experimental standard has been developed by the technical committee AEN/CTN 140.
Structural Eurocodes whose Secretariat is held by SEOPAN.

Edited and printed by AENOR OBSERVATIONS ON THIS DOCUMENT SHOULD BE SENT TO:
Legal deposit: M 9976:1999
124 Pages

AENOR 1999 C Genoa, 6 Phone 91 432 60 00 Group 672

Reproduction prohibited 28004 MADRID-Spain Fax 91 310 40 32
g
EUROPEAN EXPERIMENTAL STANDARD
EUROPEAN PRESTANDARD ENV 1997-1
EUROPEAN PRE-NORM
EUROPEAN PRESTANDARD October 1994

ICS 91.060.00; 91.120.20

Descriptors: Soils, calculation, building codes, calculation rules.

Spanish version

EUROCODE 7: Geotechnical design

General rules

Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. Part 1: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical calculation. Eurocode 7: Design, Calculation and
General rules. Part 1: General Rules. Dimensioning in Geotechnics. Part 1:
General rules.

This experimental European standard (ENV) was approved by CEN on 1993-05-25 as an experimental standard for
its provisional application. The validity period of this ENV standard is initially limited to three years. After two
years, the members of CEN will send their comments, particularly on the possible conversion of the ENV standard into
European standard (EN).

CEN members must announce the existence of this ENV standard using the same procedure as for
a standard EN and make this standard ENV available quickly and in the appropriate form at the national level. It
allows maintaining (in parallel with the ENV standard) national standards that contradict the ENV standard
until the final decision is made on the possible conversion of the ENV standard into the EN standard.

The members of CEN are the national standardization bodies of the following countries: Germany, Austria,
Bélgica, Dinamarca, España, Finlandia, Francia, Grecia, Irlanda, Islandia, Italia, Luxemburgo, Noruega, Países Bajos,
Portugal, United Kingdom, Sweden, and Switzerland.

CEN
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION
European Committee for Standardization
European Committee for Standardization
European Committee for Standardization
Stassart Street, 36 B-1050 Brussels

1994 Reproduction rights reserved to the members of CEN.

g
 7 ENV 1997-1:1994

INDEX

Page

0 Preamble
0.1 Objectives of the Eurocodes ................................................................................................ 12
0.2 Background of the Eurocodes program ................................................................. 12
0.3 Eurocode Program................................................................................................ 12
0.4 National Application Document...................................................................................... 13
0.5 Specific issues of this experimental regulation ........................................................... 13

1 GENERALITIES
1.1 Scope of application.............................................................................................................. 14
1.1.1 Scope of application of Eurocode 7 ................................................................. 14
1.1.2 Object of ENV 1997-1
1.1.3 Other parts of Eurocode 7
1.2 Rules for consultation ............................................................................................................ 15
1.3 Distinction between Principles and Application Rules
1.4 Hypothesis................................................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Definitions
1.5.1 Common terms for all Eurocodes........................................................................ 16
1.5.2 Special terms used in ENV 1997-1............................................................... 16
1.6 Units of the International System (S.I.)............................................................................ 16
1.7 Common symbols for all Eurocodes.............................................................. 16
1.8 Symbols used in Eurocode 7..................................................................................... 16
1.8.1 Latin characters in uppercase......................................................................................... 17
1.8.2 Lowercase Latin characters.......................................................................................... 17
1.8.3 Greek lowercase characters......................................................................................... 17
1.8.4 Subindices................................................................................................................................ 17

2 GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS OF PROJECT .............................................. 18

2.1 Project Requirements.......................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Previous project information............................................................................................ 20
2.3 Durability.............................................................................................................................. 21
2.4 Project method using geotechnical calculations............................................................ 21
2.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 21
2.4.2 Actions in geotechnics applied to the project.......................................................... 22
2.4.3 Land Properties ......................................................................................................... 25
2.4.4 Resistance of project of structural materials..................................................... 27
2.4.5 Geometric data................................................................................................................... 27
2.4.6 Limit values of movements....................................................................................... 27
2.5 Design through prescriptive measures............................................................................... 28
2.6 Load tests and tests with experimental models.................................................. 28
2.7 Observation method ........................................................................................................ 29
2.8 The Project Geotechnical Report

3 GEOTECHNICAL DATA..................................................................................................... 31
3.1 General considerations
3.2 Geotechnical recognitions................................................................................................. 31
3.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 31
3.2.2 Preliminary Investigations ................................................................................................. 31
3.2.3 Project acknowledgments................................................................................................ 32
3.3 Evaluation of geotechnical parameters........................................................................... 34
3.3.1 Generalities.......................................................................................................................... 34
3.3.2 Characterization of soil and rock type .............................................................................. 34
ENV 1997-1:1994 8

3.3.3 Unit weight............................................................................................................................ 35

3.3.4 Relative density.................................................................................................................... 35
3.3.5 Degree of compaction ......................................................................................................... 36
3.3.6 Shear strength without drainage of cohesive soils ........................................................... 36
3.3.7 Shear strength parameters in terms of effective pressures for soils........ 36
3.3.8 Soil deformability....................................................................................................... 37
3.3.9 Quality and properties of rocks and rock masses............................................ 37
[Link] Simple compression resistance and deformability of rock materials............ 38
[Link] Shear resistance of the joints........................................................................................... 38
3.3.10 Permeability and consolidation parameters ................................................................... 39
3.3.11 Parameters for resistance to static penetration........................................................... 39
3.3.12 Number of blows of the standard penetration test and dynamic tests...... 39
3.3.13 Pressure meter parameters..................................................................................... 40
3.3.14 Dilatometers parameters................................................................................................... 40
3.3.15 Compactability..................................................................................................................... 40
3.4 Geotechnical Report
3.4.1 Presentation of the geotechnical information.................................................. 41
3.4.2 Geotechnical information assessment............................................................... 42

4 SUPERVISION OF CONSTRUCTION, INSTRUMENTATION

AND MAINTENANCE.......................................................................................................... 43
4.1 General requirements ............................................................................................................... 43
4.2 Supervision
4.2.1 Supervision Program........................................................................................... 43
4.2.2 Inspection and control................................................................................................................ 44
4.2.3 Project Evaluation......................................................................................................... 44
4.3 Checking the ground conditions..................................................................... 44
4.3.1 Soils and Rocks .......................................................................................................................... 44
4.3.2 Groundwater ........................................................................................................................... 45
4.4 Construction verification ........................................................................................ 46
4.5 Instrumentation...................................................................................................................... 46
4.6 Maintenance

5 FILLINGS, EXHAUSTIONS, IMPROVEMENT AND STRENGTHENING OF THE GROUND.......... 48

5.1 Generalities.......................................................................................................................... 48
5.2 Fundamental Requirements...................................................................................................... 48
5.3 Construction of a landfill.................................................................................................... 48
5.3.1 Principles................................................................................................................................. 48
5.3.2 Selection of filling material................................................................................... 48
5.3.3 Selection of the procedures for the placement of the fill and its compaction ... 49
5.3.4 Filling verification...................................................................................................... 50
5.4 Depletion or lowering of the groundwater level..................................................... 51
5.5 Improvement and reinforcement of the ground............................................................ 52

6 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ............................................................................. 53

6.1 Generalities
6.2 Limit states .......................................................................................................................... 53
6.3 Project actions and situations....................................................................................... 53
6.4 Project and construction considerations
6.5 Project in a critical final state........................................................................................... 54
6.5.1 General stability
6.5.2 Bearing capacity failure .......................................................................................... 54
[Link] Generalities
[Link] Analytical method ..................................................................................................................... 55
[Link] Semi-empirical method................................................................. 55
 -9- ENV 1997-1:1994

6.5.3 Slip failure.......................................................................................................... 55

6.5.4 Loads with large eccentricities .................................................................................... 56
6.5.5 Structural failure due to foundation movements ............................................... 57
6.6 Project in critical service status.................................................................................... 57
6.6.1 Seats.................................................................................................................................... 57
6.6.2 Vibration analysis........................................................................................................... 58
6.7 Rock formations: additional project considerations ....................................... 58
6.8 Structural project of shallow foundations.......................................................... 59

7 PILE FOUNDATIONS................................................................................... 60
7.1 Generalities.......................................................................................................................... 60
7.2 Limit states .......................................................................................................................... 60
7.3 Project actions and situations................................................................. 60
7.3.1 General information
7.3.2 Actions due to ground movement............................................................... 60
[Link] Generalities
[Link] Negative friction .............................................................................................................. 61
[Link] Lifting
[Link] Transversal load ................................................................................................................... 61
7.4 Project methods and considerations............................................................................... 62
7.4.1 Project Methods .............................................................................................................. 62
7.4.2 Project considerations................................................................................................. 62
7.5 Pile load tests ................................................................................................... 63
7.5.1 Generalities.......................................................................................................................... 63
7.5.2 Static load tests .................................................................................................... 64
[Link] Loading process ........................................................................................................................ 64
[Link] Test drivers..................................................................................................................... 64
[Link] Service pilots.................................................................................................................... 65
7.5.3 Dynamic load tests................................................................................................. 65
7.5.4 Load test report.................................................................................................. 65
7.6 Compression pilots....................................................................................................................... 65
7.6.1 Project at limit states...................................................................................................... 65
7.6.2 General stability................................................................................................................. 66
7.6.3 Load Capacity................................................................................................................ 66
[Link] Generalities
[Link] Ultimate bearing capacity calculated from pile load tests ......... 67
[Link] Ultimate bearing capacity obtained from the results
from the field trials......................................................................................................... 69
[Link] Ultimate bearing capacity calculated from the piling formulas. 70
[Link] Ultimate bearing capacity obtained from the analysis of the wave equation..... 70
7.6.4 Foundation settlement by piles.................................................................................... 71
7.7 Traction pilots..................................................................................................................... 71
7.7.1 Generalidades.......................................................................................................................... 71
7.7.2 Ultimate tensile strength................................................................................................. 71
[Link] Generalities.......................................................................................................................... 71
[Link] Ultimate tensile resistance calculated from load tests on piles ............ 73
[Link] Ultimate tensile strength calculated from test results
of the land................................................................................................................................ 73
7.7.3 Vertical movement................................................................................................................ 73
7.8 Laterally loaded pilots................................................................. 74
7.8.1 Generalities
7.8.2 Ultimate resistance to lateral loads......................................................................... 74
[Link] Generalities.......................................................................................................................... 74
[Link] Ultimate resistance to lateral loads, obtained from tests
Load on piles................................................................................................................... 74
[Link] Ultimate resistance against lateral loads obtained from the results
of soil tests and pile resistance parameters................................ 75
ENV 1997-1:1994 10

7.8.3 Transversal displacement................................................................................................... 75

7.9 Structural project of piles............................................................... 75
7.10 Construction supervision.............................................................................................. 75

8 CONTAINMENT STRUCTURES .......................................................................................... 78

8.1 General 78
8.2 Limit states .................................................................................................................. 78
8.3 Actions, geometric data, and project situations...................................................... 79
8.3.1 Actions
[Link] Weight of the filling material................................................................................................... 79
[Link] Overloads ............................................................................................................................. 79
[Link] Weight of water ........................................................................................................................... 79
[Link] Wave force ..................................................................................................................... 79
[Link] Clamping forces
[Link] Collision forces.................................................................................................................. 80
[Link] Effect of temperature........................................................................................................ 80
8.3.2 Geometric data................................................................................................................... 80
[Link] Land surface............................................................................................................ 80
[Link] Water levels........................................................................................................................ 80
8.3.3 Project situations.......................................................................................................... 81
8.4 Project and construction considerations....................................................................... 81
8.5 Determination of earth pressures and water pressures ............................... 82
8.5.1 Project land pushes............................................................................................. 82
8.5.2 Values of soil thrust at rest.............................................................................. 83
8.5.3 Limit values of soil pressure..................................................................................... 84
8.5.4 Intermediate values of earth thrust.......................................................................... 84
8.5.5 Effects of compaction
8.5.6 Water pressures.................................................................................................................... 85
8.6 Project in a critical final state........................................................................................... 85
8.6.1 Generalities.......................................................................................................................... 85
8.6.2 Global Stability
8.6.3 Failure of gravity wall foundations................................................................... 86
8.6.4 Failure due to rotation of embedded walls in the ground...................................................... 86
8.6.5 Vertical failure of fixed walls ............................................................................... 87
8.6.6 Structural calculation of containment structures......................................................... 88
8.6.7 Failure due to anchor pulling out .............................................................................. 89
8.7 Service limit state .......................................................................................................... 90
8.7.1 90
8.7.2 Displacements...................................................................................................................... 90
8.7.3 Vibrations.............................................................................................................................. 90
8.7.4 Service limit states for structures ................................................................... 90
8.8 Anchors.................................................................................................................................... 91
8.8.1 Generalities
8.8.2 Anchorage project ............................................................................................................... 91
8.8.3 Constructive considerations
8.8.4 Anchor tests .............................................................................................................. 92
8.8.5 Suitability tests ............................................................................................................. 92
8.8.6 Reception essays.............................................................................................................. 93
8.8.7 Supervision of construction and instrumentation ............................................................. 94

9 EMBANKMENTS AND CUTTINGS...................................................................................... 95

9.1 Generalities.......................................................................................................................... 95
9.2 Limit States .......................................................................................................................... 95
9.3 Project actions and situations....................................................................................... 95
9.4 Project and Construction Considerations
 11 ENV 1997-1:1994

9.5 Calculation at ultimate limit state ....................................................................................... 96

9.5.1 Loss of global stability
9.5.2 Deformations................................................................................................................... 97
9.5.3 Surface erosion, internal erosion, and hydraulic underpressure...................................... 97
9.5.4 Rock slides.................................................................................................... 98
9.5.5 Rockfall................................................................................................................... 98
9.5.6 Reptations........................................................................................................................ 98
9.6 Project in a critical state of service
9.7 Instrumentation

ANNEXES

ANNEX A LIST OF CHECKS FOR SUPERVISION OF THE

CONSTRUCTION AND THE INSTRUMENTATION OF BEHAVIOR.. 100
A.1 Construction supervision.................................................................................. 100
A.1.1 General points that must be checked................................................................. 100
A.1.2 Water flow and interstitial pressures.......................................................................... 100
A.2 Instrumentation of behavior............................................................ 101

ANNEX B EXAMPLE OF ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR THE CALCULATION OF THE

LOAD BEARING CAPACITY ............................................................................ 102
B.1 Generalities.................................................................................................................... 102
B.2 Conditions without drainage ............................................................................................. 102
B.3 With drainage ....................................................................................................................... 103

APPENDIX C EXAMPLE OF SEMI-EMPIRICAL METHOD FOR ESTIMATION

ON LOAD BEARING CAPACITY............................................................................... 104

ANNEX D EXAMPLES OF METHODS FOR THE EVALUATION OF ENTRIES ............. 105

D.1 Tension - deformation method........................................................................................ 105
D.2 Adjusted Method of Elasticity.................................................................................. 105
D.3 Seats without drainage.......................................................................................................... 106
D.4 Seats caused by consolidation.............................................................................. 106
D.5 Seat behavior - time................................................................................ 106

ANNEX AND EXAMPLE OF METHOD TO OBTAIN THE POSSIBLE CAPACITY

IMPORTANT OF SURFACE FOUNDATIONS ON ROCK ..................... 107

ANNEX F EXAMPLE OF METHOD TO CALCULATE RESISTANCE TO

INDIVIDUAL OR GROUP PILE PULLING................................... 110

ANNEX G EXAMPLES OF PROCEDURES TO DETERMINE THE

LIMIT VALUES OF SOIL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS.... 112
ENV 1997-1:1994 12

0 PREFACE

0.1 Objectives of the Eurocodes

The Eurocodes for structures comprise a set of standards on structural and geotechnical design.
buildings and civil engineering works.

Its purpose is to serve as reference documents for the following purposes:

a) As a means to demonstrate the compliance of building and civil works with the requirements
essentials of the Construction Products Directive (CPD),

b) As a framework to deploy harmonized technical specifications for consumer products.

struction.

The Eurocodes address execution and control only to the extent necessary to indicate the quality of the
construction products and the level of execution necessary to comply with the hypotheses of the standards of
project.

(4) Until the set of harmonized technical specifications for the products is available and for the
test methods of its behavior, some of the structural Eurocodes address these aspects in
Informational annexes.

0.2 Background of the Eurocode program

The Commission of the European Communities (CEC) began the work of establishing a set of technical rules.
harmonized for the building and civil works project that would initially serve as an alternative to the
different application rules in the different Member States and that, ultimately, would replace them. These
Technical rules are known as 'Structural Eurocodes'.

(2) In 1990, after consulting with their respective Member States, the CCE transferred the work of development.
posterior, publication and update of the Structural Eurocodes to the European Committee for Standardization
(CEN), and the EFTA Secretariat agreed to support the work of CEN.

(3) The Technical Committee of the CEN, CEN/TC 250, is responsible for all Structural Eurocodes.

0.3 Eurocode Program

Work is being done on the following Eurocodes, each of which normally comprises several parts:
EN 1991 Eurocode 1 Basis of design and actions on structures.
EN 1992 Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures.
EN 1993 Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures.
EN 1994 Eurocode 4 Design of composite steel and concrete structures.
EN 1995 Eurocode 5 Design of timber structures.
EN 1996 Eurocode 6 Design of masonry structures.
EN 1997 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical Design.
EN 1998 Eurocode 8 Design provisions for the seismic resistance of structures.
EN 1999 Eurocode 9 Design of Aluminium Structures.

The CEN/TC 250 has formed different subcommittees for the various Eurocodes mentioned above.
 - 13 - ENV 1997-1:1994

(3) This Part 1 of the Eurocode structural for the geotechnical project, which had been completed and approved for its
Publication under the direction of the CCE is now published by the CEN as an Experimental European Standard.
(ENV), with an initial lifespan of three years.

This experimental standard aims at the practical experimental application in the construction project of
construction and civil engineering, within the scope of application defined in 1.1.2, and the submission of comments.

After approximately two years, the members of the CEN will be invited to submit formal comments that
They will be taken into account in the determination of future actions.

(6) Meanwhile, correspondence and comments on this experimental standard should be sent to the secretariat.
from the CEN/TC 250/SC 7 Subcommittee, at the following address:

NNI
[Link] 5059
NL-2600 GB Delft
The Netherlands

or the corresponding National Standardization Organization.

NATIONAL NOTE - The National Standardization Body in Spain:

AENOR
Genoa, 6
28004 MADRID
Phone: 914326000
Fax: 913104976

0.4 National Application Document

In light of the responsibilities of the authorities of member countries regarding security, health, and others
aspects considered as basic requirements in the DPC, certain safety coefficients have been assigned
included in this ENV are some indicative values, identifiable by brackets []. Authorities are expected to
each member country assigns definitive values to these coefficients.

Some of the basic regulations, including those that define the values of the shares to be held in
the account and the measures required for fire protection will not be available at the time when
this experimental standard is published. Therefore, it is anticipated that each Member State or its Body of
Normalization will publish a National Application Document (NAD) that provides definitive values for the
security elements, referencing basic regulations on the application of this experimental standard. This
The experimental standard should be used along with the valid National Application Document in the country where
the construction of the building or civil engineering work will take place.

0.5 Specific issues of this experimental standard

(1) The scope of the Eurocode 7 is defined in 1.1.1 and the scope of this Part of
Eurocode 7 is defined in 1.1.2. Other additional parts provided are indicated in 1.1.3; these will cover
technologies or additional applications will complement and supplement Part 1.

(2) When applying this experimental standard in practice, special attention must be paid to the initial hypotheses and to
the conditions given in 1.3.

The nine chapters of this experimental standard are supplemented by seven informative Annexes.
ENV 1997-1:1994 14

1 GENERALITIES

1.1 Scope of application

1.1.1 Scope of application of Eurocode 7

This experimental standard applies to the geotechnical aspects of the building construction project and
civil engineering. It is divided into several separate parts. See sections 1.1.2 and 1.1.3.

(2)P This experimental standard refers to the requirements for strength, stability, service, and durability of the
constructions. Other requirements, such as those related to thermal or sound insulation, are not
they consider.

(3)P This experimental standard will be used along with ENV 1991-1 'Basic Design', of Eurocode 1 'Basics of
Project and Actions on Structures,
establish the bases for the project and its verification, and set the guidelines for aspects related to safety
structural.

(4) This experimental standard establishes the rules for calculating actions arising from the ground, such as the
land pushes. The numerical values of shares on buildings and civil works, which must be taken into account
in account in the Project, are provided in ENV 1991, Eurocode 1, "Project Bases and Actions on
"Structures", which is applicable to different types of construction.

(5)P In this experimental standard, the execution of the work is addressed with the necessary detail to indicate the quality.
of the construction materials and the products that should be used, as well as the quality of execution of
the tasks required to meet the assumptions of the project rules. Generally, the rules
related to the quality of execution should be considered as minimum requirements, which can be
expanded for particular types of buildings or civil engineering works and for certain procedures of
construction.

(6)P This experimental standard does not cover the special requirements for seismic design. Eurocode 8,
Project recommendations for the seismic resistance of structures, provides additional rules
for seismic calculations, which complement or adapt the rules of this experimental standard.

1.1.2 Object of ENV 1997-1

This experimental standard provides the general foundations of the geotechnical aspects of the building project.
actions and works of civil engineering.

(2) The following chapters constitute ENV 1997-1, Eurocode 7, 'Geotechnical design':
Generalities.
2: Bases of the geotechnical project.
3: Geotechnical data.
4: Supervision of construction, control, and maintenance.
Fill, exhaustion, improvement and reinforcement of the ground.
6: Shallow foundations.
7: Foundations by piles.
8: Containment structures.
9: Embankments and slopes.

1.1.3 Other parts of Eurocode 7

(1)P This experimental standard will be completed with other later Parts, which will complement or adapt its rules.
to particular aspects of building or special civil engineering works, to special methods of
construction and other project aspects that may have practical importance of a general nature.
 15 ENV 1997-1:1994

1.2 Consultation standards

This experimental European standard incorporates, with dated or undated references, relationships to other standards. These
Referenced regulations are cited throughout the text in the appropriate place according to the following publication list. For
the dated references, the subsequent amendments or revisions of any of these publications will apply in this
experimental standards only when incorporated through amendments or revisions.

ISO 1000:1981 - SI Units and Recommendations for the Use of Their Multiples and Submultiples and Some Others
units.

ISO 3898:1987−Bases for the design of structures. Notation. General symbols.

1.3 Distinction between Principles and Rules of Application

(1) Depending on the nature of each of the clauses, this experimental regulation makes a distinction between
the Principles and the Rules of Application.

(2) The Principles include:

−general statements and definitions, for which there is no alternative;
as well as requirements and analytical models, for which no alternatives are allowed, unless
that it be specified clearly.

(3)P The Principles are preceded by the letter P.

The Application Rules are examples of generally recognized criteria that adhere to the Principles and
meet their requirements.

(5) It is allowed to use alternative criteria, different from the Application Rules given in this
Eurocode, as long as it is demonstrated that the alternative criteria used are in accordance with the
Principles with which they relate.

1.4 Hypothesis

(1) In the subsequent development, the following hypotheses are applied:

The necessary data for the project has been collected, recorded, and interpreted;

The structures are designed by qualified personnel with experience in the field;
There is adequate coordination between the personnel responsible for data collection, the Project, and the cons-
instruction

There will be adequate supervision and quality control, both in the factory and on site;
The execution will be carried out in accordance with the existing regulations related to the subject, by personnel who
have appropriate training and experience;
The construction materials and products will be used in accordance with the provisions established in this Eurocode or in
the specifications related to each material or product;

the structure will be properly maintained;

The structure will be used for the purpose for which it was designed.
ENV 1997-1:1994 16

1.5 Definitions

1.5.1 Common terms for all Eurocodes

(1) The terms used in common in all Eurocodes are defined in ENV 1991-1, "Basis of Design."

1.5.2 Special terms used in ENV 1997-1

(1)The following terms are used in ENV 1997-1 with the following meanings:

Comparable experience: Well-documented or clearly specified information related to the

land being studied in the Project, dealing with the same types of soil and rock for which it
wait for similar geotechnical behavior, and that refers to similar structures. It is considered to
special interest in information derived from the experience of the place.

−land: soil, rock or fill existing at the site before the execution of the works;

-Structure: the definition given in ENV 1991-1, "Project Bases", including the fillings is valid.
placed during the execution of the works.

1.6 Units of the International System (I.S.)

The units of the International System will be used according to ISO Standard 1000.

(2) The following units are recommended for geotechnical calculations:

force kN, MN

moment kN.m

density kg/m3Mg/m33)

−unit price KN/m3

-tension, pressure, and resistance KN/m2(Kpa)

rigidity MN/m2, (MPa)

permeability coefficient m/s, (m/year)

consolidation coefficient m2/s, (m2/year)

1.7 Common symbols for all Eurocodes

(1) The symbols commonly used in all Eurocodes are defined in ENV 1991-1, 'Project Bases'.

1.8 Symbols used in Eurocode 7

(1) The symbols commonly used in ENV 1997-1 are defined in the following sections. The rest of the
symbols used are defined in the location where they appear in the text. The notation of the symbols used is
based on the ISO 3898:1987 Standard.
 - 17 - ENV 1997-1:1994

1.8.1 Uppercase Latin characters

B width
D diameter
F axial or transverse load on piles
H force or horizontal action
K earth thrust coefficient
N bearing capacity coefficient
R vertical resistance (in force units) of a foundation element
V vertical force or action

1.8.2 Lowercase Latin characters

a adherence
c' cohesion in terms of effective stresses
cu shear resistance without drainage
i hydraulic gradient
k permeability
q pressure due to the weight of the land or loads
seat
u water pressure in the pores, interstitial pressure

1.8.3 Greek characters in lowercase

γ unit price
δ friction angle between ground and structure
σ total normal tension
σ' effective normal tension
τ shear stress, tangential stress
φ internal friction angle
φ' internal friction angle in effective stresses

1.8.4 Subindices
a active land push
a anchoring
b pile tip
c compression
d project value
k characteristic value
p passive earth push
s driver's boot
t traction
t total
tr transversal
w water
o Condition at rest or initial
ENV 1997-1:1994 18

2 GEOTECHNICAL PROJECT CONDITIONING FACTORS

2.1 Project Requirements

The structures must be designed in accordance with the general design principles given in ENV 1991-1.
Project Bases

In order to establish the minimum requirements regarding the extent and quality of geotechnical recognitions
Because of the calculations and controls of the construction, it is necessary to identify the complexity of each project.
along with the risks to lives and property. Specifically, they will be differentiated into:

−simple and lightweight structures and small earthworks, for which it is possible to ensure that they will be fulfilled
fundamental requirements based on experience and qualitative geotechnical investigations, with
negligible risk to property and life;

-other geotechnical structures.

(3) For projects of low geotechnical complexity and low risk, as defined above, they are
acceptable simplified project procedures.

The following factors should be taken into account in the determination of the geotechnical constraints of
Project:
nature and size of the structure and its elements, including any special requirements;
conditions related to its environment (neighboring structures, traffic, services, vegetation, chemical substances
dangerous, etc.)
- land conditions;
– situation of groundwater;
regional seismicity;
influence of the environment (hydrology, surface water, subsidence, seasonal variations of
humidity).

(5) In order to establish the requirements for the geotechnical project, three Geotechnical Categories must be defined: 1, 2
y 3.

The preliminary classification of a structure into a geotechnical category must be carried out prior to the
carrying out geotechnical assessments. This category can be redefined later. The category
it should be checked and potentially changed at each stage of the project and the process
constructive.

The different aspects of design in a project may need to be addressed according to different categories.
geotechnical. It is not necessary to treat the entire project according to the highest of these categories.

Higher category procedures could be used to justify more economical projects, or when
the designer considers them appropriate.

Geotechnical Category 1
This category only includes small and relatively simple structures, for which it is possible
ensure that the fundamental requirements will be met based on experience and geotechnical investigations
qualitative, resulting in a negligible risk for people and property.
 - 19 - ENV 1997-1:1994

Category 1 procedures will be sufficient only when the ground conditions are
known through sufficiently direct comparable experiences, so that they can be used the
routine methods in the foundations project and its construction.

Category 1 procedures will only be sufficient if there is no excavation below the water table or
if the verifiable local experience indicates that the proposed excavation below the water table will not present
problems.

The following are examples of structures or parts of structures that would belong to Geotechnical Category 1:
−warehouses of 1 or 2 stories and buildings intended for agriculture with a maximum project load of
250 kN and 100 kN/m columns in walls, conventionally founded on footings and piles;
-retaining walls and shoring of excavations, where the difference between the ground levels does not
exceeded 2 m;
small excavations for drainage works, housing of pipes, etc.

Geotechnical Category 2

This category includes the common types of structures and foundations without abnormal risks or conditions.
unusual or exceptionally difficult terrain or loads. Structures of Geotechnical Category 2
they require quantitative geotechnical data and analysis to ensure that the fundamental requirements are met,
Although routine methods can be used for field and laboratory tests, as well as for the project and
execution.

The following are examples of structures or parts of structures belonging to the Geotechnical Category 2:

Common types of:

shallow foundations;
reinforced concrete slab foundations;
pile foundations;
walls and other structures for soil or water containment or support;
excavations;
– bridge piers and struts;
– embankments and earthworks;
anchors and other fastening systems;
– tunnels in hard, unfractured rock, not subject to special conditions of watertightness or other requirements.

Geotechnical Category 3

This category includes structures or parts of structures that are not within the limits of the Categories.
Geotechnics 1 and 2.

Category 3 Geotechnical encompasses therefore very large or unusual structures, structures that involve
abnormal risks, or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or load conditions and structures in
high seismicity zones.

(6)P For each situation of the geotechnical calculation applied to the project, it must be verified that it has not been exceeded.
relevant limit state.
ENV 1997-1:1994 20

(7) These project requirements can be met through the following four methods:
the use of the calculations described in 2.4,
the adoption of prescriptive measures, as described in 2.5,
- experimental models and load tests, as described in 2.6,
- an observational method, as described in 2.7.

These four methods can be used in combination. In practice, experience will often indicate what type
The limit state will govern the project, which allows us to verify that none of the others occur.
limit states through a simplified check of them.

The interaction between the ground and the structure must be taken into account.

9 The compatibility of deformations of the materials involved in a limit state should be taken into account.
especially for those materials that are fragile or show loss of strength due to deformation. They are
examples of prestressed concrete, dense granular soils, cemented soils, and clays that
show low residual resistance. A detailed analysis may be necessary, taking into account the stiffness.
relative to the structure and the ground, in those cases where a combined breakage of parts could occur
structural and ground elements. Examples include foundation slabs, laterally loaded piles, and walls
flexible containment.

Buildings must be protected from the penetration of groundwater or the transmission of vapors or gases.
the interior surfaces.

When possible, the project results should be compared with a correlatable experience.

2.2 Project Background Information

(1) In a project, the prior information must include, in detail, the following aspects, if applicable:
the general suitability of the land on which the structure will be located;
the arrangement and classification of the different zones of soil, rock, and construction elements, that are
involved in the calculation model;
the alternations of hard and soft strata;
the tilting of the strata;
the faults, joints, and cracks;
mining operations, galleries or other underground structures;
the cavities formed by dissolution, such as shallow depressions, cracks filled with a material
soft and active dissolution processes;
the actions, their combinations and the cases of burden;
the nature of the environment in which the work will be placed, which includes:
the effects of undermining, erosion, or excavation that lead to changes in the surface geometry
of the land;
the effects of chemical corrosion;
the effects produced by climate actions;
the effects of the frost;
the variations in groundwater levels, including the effects of depletions, possible
flows, breakages of drainage systems, etc.
the presence of gases coming from the ground;
 21 ENV 1997-1:1994

-other effects produced by the passage of time and environmental conditions on resistance;
−subsidence due to mining or other causes;
the tolerance of the structure against deformations;
the effect of the new structure on pre-existing structures or services.

2.3 Durability

(1) In the project, internal and external environmental conditions must be assessed to evaluate its
influence in relation to the durability of construction and to allow for forecasts about protection
or about the adequate strength of materials.

(2) In the design, when considering the durability of the materials used on-site, it should be taken into account the
following aspects:
−for concrete: aggressive agents, such as acidic media or sulfate salts, in groundwater;
For steel: chemical attacks in those places where the foundation elements are buried
in sufficiently permeable ground to allow the percolation of groundwater and oxygen; the
corrosion of the faces of the stackable screens exposed to the action of free water, particularly in
the middle zone of the groundwater level; the pitting corrosion attack on steel embedded in cracked concrete
or porous, particularly in the case of rolled steel when the scales of the rolling, acting as
cathode, favor the electrolytic action, with the free surface of scale acting as anode;
for wood: fungi and aerobic bacteria in the presence of oxygen;
for synthetic materials: the effects of aging due to exposure to ultraviolet rays or
to degradation caused by ozone or to the combination of temperature and stress effects, and to the
side effects caused by chemical degradation.

2.4 Project method through geotechnical calculations

2.4.1 Introduction

(1) The project based on geotechnical calculations must comply with Chapter 9, 'Verification through the
partial coefficients method", from ENV 1991-1 of Eurocode 1, "Basis of Design". This method
requires
the calculation models;
the actions, which can be both the loads and the imposed displacements;
the properties of soils, rocks, and other materials;
the geometric data;
the limit values of deformation, crack opening, vibrations, etc.

(2) In geotechnics, the knowledge of the ground conditions depends on the extent and quality of the
geotechnical surveys carried out. This knowledge and the quality control of the execution of the
jobs are more important to meet the fundamental demands than the accuracy of models
calculation and the partial safety coefficients.

The calculation model must define the behavior of the ground in the limit state being considered.
ENV 1997-1:1994 22

(4) This methodology allows for easy verification of limit states that involve the formation of a mechanism.
of rupture in the ground. If this methodology is followed, to analyze limit states defined by deformations,
Such deformations must be calculated or estimated in some other way.

(5) Calculation models must consist of:

- an analysis method, often based on an analytical model that introduces simplifications;
−a correction procedure for the analysis results, to ensure that the model results of
calculation of the project, if necessary, are precise or in any case are on the side of safety.

(6) The modification of the analysis results must take the following factors into account:
the range of uncertainty of the results of the analysis method on which the calculation model is based
project
Any systematic error that is known or detected is associated with the analysis method.

(7)P When there is no reliable calculation model available for a specific limit state, the analysis of others
limit states must be carried out using factors that ensure that the limit state in question is sufficiently
improbable.

Whenever possible, the calculation model must be correlated with field observations from projects.
previous, trials in model or more reliable analysis.

(9) The calculation model could consist of an empirical relationship between the test results and the requirements.
of the project, used instead of an analytical model. In this case, the empirical relationship must be clearly
established for the land conditions corresponding to the studied project.

2.4.2 Actions in geotechnics applied to the project

(1) For any calculation, the values of the shares are known quantities. The shares are not unknowns of the
calculation model.

Before performing any calculations, the designer must choose the forces and imposed displacements that
they will be treated as actions in that calculation. Some imposed forces and displacements must be
considered as actions in certain calculations and not in others. Negative friction and earth thrust are
examples of this type of forces.

(3) For the case of the loads transmitted to the foundations by the structures, it may be necessary to carry out a
analysis of soil-structure interaction to determine the actions to be taken in the foundation project.

The following factors must be considered for their inclusion as actions in the geotechnical calculation:
the weights of the earth, the rocks, and the water;
the tensions on-site;
the pressures of free water;
the pressures of groundwater;
the filtration forces;
the dead loads, imposed loads, and environmental loads of the structures;
the overloads;
the docking forces;
the removal of loads or excavations;
the traffic loads;
 - 23 - ENV 1997-1:1994

the movements caused by mining;

the swelling and shrinkage caused by vegetation, climate, or changes in humidity;
the movements due to creeping or sliding of soil masses;
the movements due to degradation, decomposition, self-compaction, and dissolution;
the movements and accelerations generated by earthquakes, explosions, vibrations, and dynamic loads;
the effects of temperature, including swelling caused by frost;
the pushes and loads of the ice;
the prestressing or precompression loads transmitted by the anchors or in the tails.

The duration of actions must be taken into account in relation to the effects that time has on the
properties of the soil, especially in the drainage characteristics and in the compressibility of the soils of
fine grain.

The actions that are applied repeatedly and those of varying intensity must be identified for their
special consideration regarding deferred movements, soil liquefaction, changes in stiffness
of the land, etc.

Actions that are applied cyclically at high frequency must be identified in order to take them into account.
especially in relation to dynamic effects.

Special attention must be paid to the assessment of the safety of buried structures in which the
predominant forces are hydrostatic. This is due to the fact that the deformations, the fissures
and the variations in permeability, with an inherent risk of erosion, can lead to changes in the level
phreatic that could be of vital importance for safety.

(9) The following factors should be considered due to their influence on water pressures:
the level of the free water surface or the groundwater level;
the favorable or unfavorable effects of drainage, both natural and artificial, taking into account its
future maintenance
the contribution of water from rain, floods (flood), (breakage of pipelines), water leaks or others
elements;
the changes in water pressure due to the growth or removal of vegetation;

(10)P For limit states of severe consequences (generally ultimate limit states), the design values of the
water pressures and filtration forces will be the most unfavorable that can occur under circumstances
extremes. In the case of limit states with less severe consequences (generally limit states in
Service conditions), the project values will be the least favorable under normal conditions.

The risk of unfavorable water levels can be caused by changes in the catchment basin and possible
drainage failures (due to blockages or frost), etc.

Unless it can be demonstrated that the drainage system is adequate and that its maintenance is assured,
It will be necessary, as a rule, to assume that the groundwater level can reach the ground level in
extreme circumstances. In some cases, this may be considered a temporary action.

(12) The design must be verified for each of the three cases, A, B, and C, separately, as applicable.

(13) Cases A, B, and C have been introduced to ensure stability and adequate strength in the structure and
on the ground, according to Table 9.2 of ENV 1991-1, of Eurocode 1, "Design Bases".
ENV 1997-1:1994 24

(14)P The values of the partial safety factor coefficients for permanent and variable actions, given in the
Table 2.1 will generally be used to verify the ultimate limit states of common types of
structures and foundations in permanent and temporary situations. Higher values should be considered in
cases of abnormally high risk or exceptionally difficult terrain or loading conditions. They could be
use lower values for provisional structures or transitional situations, as long as it can be justified
after considering the possible consequences. In the case of accidental situations, all numerical values of
the partial coefficients of the shares will be taken equal to [1.0].

Table 2.1
Partial coefficients - ultimate limit states in permanent and transient situations

Actions Land properties

Case Permanent Variables
tanφ c' cu qu
Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable
Case A 1.00 0.95 [1.50] 1.1 [1.3] [1.2] 1.2
Case B 1.35 1.00 1.50 1.0 [1.0] 1.0 1.0
Case C 1.00 1.00 1.30 1.25 1.6 [1.4] [1.4]
1) Compressive strength of soil or rock.

(15) For the properties of the land, different partial coefficients should be used in cases A, B, and C; (see
section 2.4.3 and Table 2.1.

When it is clear that one of the three cases is the most critical for the project, it will not be necessary to carry out the
calculations of the other cases. However, different cases can be critical for different aspects of a
project.

In this experimental standard, Case A is only relevant for negative pressure problems, in which the forces
Hydrostatic forces are the main unfavorable action. The values given in Table 2.1 are only valid
for those situations. For underpressure problems, instead of setting higher values for the coefficients of
In many cases, it is more appropriate to use a structural solution (limitation devices
rise of the water table, for example), associated with values of the partial coefficients close to one, which
set higher values for the increase coefficients.

Case B is often critical in the project of the resistance of structural elements.

belonging to the foundations or retaining structures. In those cases where it is not involved
the resistance of structural materials, Case B is irrelevant.

Case C is generally critical in those cases, such as issues of slope stability, where not
the resistance of structural elements is involved. Case C is often critical in the
sizing of the structural elements belonging to foundations or retaining structures
and sometimes, in the resistance of structural elements. When the strength of the ground is not involved
In the verification, Case C is irrelevant.

The design resistances of structural materials and those of the ground may not be mobilized at the same time.
in each case.

In the structural calculation of elements such as foundations, piles, retaining walls, etc., a can be introduced
coefficient corresponding to the calculation model, γsdwhen necessary.

Permanent actions must include the weight of both structural and non-structural components, as well as
those actions caused by the terrain, the groundwater, and the free water.
 25 ENV 1997-1:1994

(17) In the calculation of earth pressures, for Case B, the partial coefficients given in Table 2.1 are applied to
the characteristic earth pressures. The characteristic earth pressures include water pressures.
characteristics along with the allowable stresses in relation to the properties of the soil and the loads
superficial characteristics.

All characteristic permanent earth pressures, on both sides of the wall, are multiplied by [1.35] if the
The total net action is unfavorable and by [1.00] if the total net action is favorable. Therefore, all the
Characteristic land pushes are treated as if they derive from a single source, as defined in the
ENV 1991-1.

In some situations, the application of partial coefficients to the characteristic earth pressures may
drive to project values that are unreasonable or even physically impossible. In these situations,
the partial coefficients for the actions given in Table 2.1 can be treated as coefficients of the
calculation model. Then they are applied directly to the effects of the action (e.g., structural forces
internal and bending moments) derived from the characteristic earth pressures.

In the calculation of the project earth pressures, for Case C, the partial coefficients given in the Table
2.1 applies to the characteristic ground resistance and the characteristic surface loads.

18(P) For the verification of the serviceability limit states, partial safety factors of value must be used.
unit for all variable and permanent actions, except in cases where specified otherwise.

The project values of the shares due to land and groundwater can also be deducted by others.
distinct methods of partial coefficients. The partial coefficients shown in Table 2.1
they indicate the level of security that is considered appropriate for common projects in most of the
circumstances. These should be used as a reference basis for the level of security required when not
the method of partial coefficients is used.

(20) When project values for calculations at the ultimate limit state are established directly, they must be
selected in such a way that the worst value is extremely difficult to cause such a threshold state.

The direct assignment of project values is particularly appropriate for actions or combinations of
actions in which the values obtained using Table 2.1 are clearly impossible.

2.4.3 Land properties

(1) The project values of the land properties, Xd, they must be evaluated directly or obtained from
the characteristic values, Xk, using the equation:

XdXk/γm (2.1)

where

γmit is the safety coefficient of the property corresponding to the land.

The selection of the characteristic values of the properties of soils and rocks must be based on the
results of the laboratory and field tests. The differences between them must be taken into account.
properties measured in the tests and those of the soil and rock that truly govern the behavior of the
construction, due to factors such as the following:
Presence of cracks, which can play different roles in the tests and in the geotechnical structure;
-effects of time;
the fragility or ductility of the tested soil and rock.

(3) A conversion factor should be applied when it is necessary to convert laboratory test data and
Field in values that may be assumed to represent the behavior of the soil and rock in the terrain.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 26 -

The selection of characteristic values of soil and rock properties must take into account the
following factors:
−geological and general information, such as data obtained from previous projects;
the variability of the values of the studied properties;
the extent of the area of the land that governs the behavior of the structure in the limit state
considered;
the influence of implementation on artificially placed or improved soils;
the effect of construction activities on land properties.

The characteristic value of the soil or rock parameters must be selected through an estimation.
prudent of the value that causes the appearance of the limit state.

(6) The extent of the area of the land that governs the behavior of a structure at the limit state,
it is usually much greater than the extent of the test area in a soil or rock, and consequently the
the main parameter is an average value of a certain surface or volume of the land. The characteristic value is
a prudent estimate of this average value.

The area of land involved may also depend on the behavior of the supported structure.
example, when considering a limit state of bearing capacity of a building founded on several
shoes, the determining parameter of behavior, if the building is unable to withstand a local failure, is
the average resistance of each individual area of the ground under the footings. However, if the building is rigid and
sufficiently resistant, the main governing parameter must be the average of the average values obtained
in the entire area of the land beneath the building or part of it.

Statistical methods can be employed in the selection of characteristic values of the properties of
land. These methods should allow for prior knowledge of correlatable experiences about the
properties of the land to consider, for example through Bayesian statistical methods.

If statistical methods are used, the characteristic value should be obtained in such a way that the probability
calculated so that a worse value controlling the appearance of the limit state does not exceed 5%.

(7)P Characteristic values can be lower or higher than the most probable values. For each
calculation must use the most unfavorable combination of lower and upper values for the parameters
independent.

(8)P The selection of characteristic values must take into account the uncertainties in the geometric data and in
the calculation model, unless they are incorporated directly or within the calculation model.

(9)P For the verification of the permanent and transient situations of the ultimate limit states, the values
numerical values of the partial coefficients of the land properties given in Table 2.1 for cases A, B and
They are generally appropriate when used with the partial factors of the shares.
common project situation cases. For accidental situations, all numerical values of the
Partial coefficients should be taken as [1,0].

(10) For ultimate limit states in which the soil resistance acts unfavorably, the value of γm
adopted must be less than [1,0].

It is necessary to take into account the degree of soil resistance mobilization in the limit state through the
adoption of project values that are less than the upper characteristic values divided by
factorsmless than [1,0].

(12)P The partial coefficients for the resistance of a pile or an anchor, determined based on the parameters
of soil resistance, to the pile driving formulas or to the load tests, or to the tests on
Anchors are given in chapters 7 and 8.
 27 ENV 1997-1:1994

(13)P For the limit states of service, all values of γmthey are equal to [1,0].

The project values of land properties can also be deduced using other methods.
different from the use of partial coefficients. The selected partial coefficients in Table 2.1
they indicate the level of security considered appropriate for common projects. They should be used as a
reference base of the required security level when the method of partial coefficients is not useful
gift.

(15) When the project values for the calculations of a limit state are determined directly, they must
to be selected in such a way that a more unfavorable value is extremely unlikely to lead to achieving
the limit state.

2.4.4 Project resistance of structural materials

(1) The design strength properties of structural materials and the design strength of the
Structural elements will be calculated according to ENV 1992 to 1996 and 1999.

2.4.5 Geometric data

The geometric data includes the level and slope of the land surface, the groundwater levels, the levels
from the contacts between the strata, the excavation levels, the shape of the foundation, etc.

(2)P In those cases where variations in geometric data are not significant, they should be taken into account
account in the selection of project values of the properties of materials or actions. In others
In such cases, it is generally advisable to take these uncertainties into account directly.

(3)P For limit states of serious consequences, the project values of the geometric data must represent
the most unfavorable values that may occur in practice.

2.4.6 Limit values of movements

(1) The limit value of a particular deformation is that for which it is possible for a limit state to occur.
last or service.

In the foundation project, the limit values of its movements must be established.

(3) The components of the foundation movements that must be considered include settlements, settlements.
relatives (or differentials), inclination, relative turns, relative rotations, horizontal displacements and
vibrations.

The project value of the limit movements must be agreed upon with the designer.
structure supported by the ground.

(5) In the selection of project value limits, the following must be taken into account.
points:
the confidence with which acceptable values of the movements can be specified;
the type of structure,
the type of construction material;
the type of foundation;
the type of terrain;
the mode of deformation;
the proposed use for the structure.

The differential settlements and the relative rotations of the foundations must be estimated to ensure that they do not
they will produce the appearance of an ultimate limit state or service state, such as unacceptable cracking or
dislocation of doors, in the supported structure.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 28 -

(7) The maximum allowable relative rotations for free frames, braced frames, and load-bearing walls or walls with-
brick continuous ones are unlikely to be the same, but they will probably be in a range between 1/2 000 and
1/300 to prevent a limit state of service in the structure. A maximum relative rotation of 1/500.
is acceptable for many structures. The value of the relative rotation that would cause a limit state would be
around 1/150.

For normal structures with isolated foundations, total settlements of up to 50 mm and differential settlements
clearances between pillars of up to 20 mm are often acceptable. Total and differential seatings
larger ones could be acceptable if the relative turns produced stay within acceptable limits and if the
total seats do not cause problems to the services tied to the structure or produce inclinations
inadmissible, etc.

The previous guidelines regarding limit seats apply to normal structures. They should not be applied to buildings.
or structures outside the ordinary or in which the loads are clearly non-uniformly distributed.

(8)P Differential seat calculations must take into account:

the random or systematic variations in the properties of the land;
the distribution of charges;
-the construction method;
the rigidity of the structure.

(9) For most types of terrain, including alluvial, silts, loess, fill, peat, and soils
residuals, the possibility that a component of the differential seat is due to should be considered
variation of the soil properties at the construction site.

2.5 Design through prescriptive measures

(1) In those situations where calculation models are not available or are unnecessary, the appearance
Limit states can be avoided through the use of prescriptive measures. These include details
conventional and generally conservative in the project, with a focus on specification and control of
materials, to the quality of execution, as well as to the protection and maintenance procedures.

(2) It is possible to project with prescriptive measures when the comparable experience, as it has been defined in
1.4.2(1)P, make project calculations unnecessary. It can also be used to ensure durability against
to the action of frost or to biological attack, for which direct calculations are not appropriate
generally.

2.6 Load tests and tests with experimental models

The results of load tests or in model can be used to justify a project, as long as they
consider the following aspects:
the differences between the conditions of the terrain in the test and in the actual construction;

the effects of time, especially if the duration of the trial is much less than the duration of the process
of the real construction load;
the effects of scale, especially if reduced models have been used. The effect of the levels of
tensions should be considered, along with the effects of particle size.

(2) The tests must be conducted with a sample of the actual construction or with full-scale or reduced-scale models.
 29 ENV 1997-1:1994

2.7 The observation method

(1) Due to the fact that predicting geotechnical behavior is often difficult, sometimes it is appropriate
use a method known as the 'observation method', in which the project is reviewed during the
construction. When this approach is used, the following requirements must be met before the start of the
construction
acceptable behavioral limits must be established;
The range of possible behaviors must be assessed and it must be demonstrated that there is a probability.
acceptable that the actual behavior is within acceptable limits;
A instrumentation program should be established to demonstrate that actual behavior is present.
within acceptable limits. The instrumentation must clearly record such behavior and with
sufficient advance, as well as at sufficiently short intervals that allow successful adoption of the
required contingency measures. The response time of the instruments and the procedures of
The analysis of the results must be sufficiently fast in relation to the possible evolution of the system;
A plan of action must be projected in case the instrumentation shows that the behavior-
Lying is beyond acceptable limits.

During construction, the instrumentation must be carried out as planned, with this being expanded.
or replaced in cases where necessary. The results of the instrumentation should be evaluated in the phases
appropriate measures and planned contingency actions should be applied if necessary.

2.8 The Geotechnical Project Report

(1) The hypotheses, the data, the calculations, and the results of the safety and service verification must be recorded.
in the Geotechnical Project Report.

(2) The level of detail in the Geotechnical Project Report will vary greatly depending on the type of project.
For simple projects, it may be sufficient for its length to match that of a simple sheet of paper. The
the report should normally include the following aspects, with references to the Research Report of
Land (see 3.4) and other documents that contain more details:
Description of the location and its surroundings;
description of the land conditions;
description of the proposed work, including the actions;
project values of soil and rock properties, including justification when appropriate
do;
references of applied codes and standards;
-references of the acceptable risk level;
- geotechnical calculations and plans;

a summary of those aspects that must be checked during construction or maintenance

required or of the instrumentation.

The Project Geotechnical Report must include a monitoring and instrumentation plan, when appropriate.
The report must clearly identify those aspects or elements that need to be verified.
during the construction or that require maintenance after this. When the required checks
They must be collected in an annex to the Report during construction.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 30 -

(4) In relation to supervision and instrumentation, the Project Geotechnical Report should establish:
the objective of each series of observations or measurements;

– the parts of the structure that will be instrumented and the stages in which the observations will be made;
the frequency with which the readings will be taken;
the way the results will be evaluated;
the range of values within which the results will be considered;
the period of time during which the instrumentation will continue to operate once finished
construction
the responsible parties for taking measurements and observations, interpreting the results obtained and
check and maintain the instruments.

The owner/client must be provided with an extract from the Project Geotechnical Report that contains the
supervision, instrumentation, and maintenance requirements of the complete structure.
 - 31 - ENV 1997-1:1994

3 GEOTECHNICAL DATA

3.1 Generalities

(1) A careful collection, recording and interpretation of geotechnical information must always be done.
information must include geology, morphology, seismicity, hydrology, and history of the site. Likewise,
Information regarding the variability of the terrain must be taken into account.

Geotechnical investigations must be planned taking into account the construction and the requirements of
behavior of the proposed structure. The scope of the geotechnical investigations must be reviewed
continuously as new information is obtained during the execution of the work.

(3) P Field investigations and routine laboratory tests must be conducted and reported accordingly.
with internationally recognized standards and recommendations. The differences with these standards and the
Additional requirements for the recognitions and tests must be included in the reports.

The sample collection, transport, and storage procedures, as well as their influence on the results.
of the essays, they must be considered in the interpretation of them.

3.2 Geotechnical Recognitions

3.2.1 Introduction

Geotechnical surveys must provide all data related to the terrain and groundwater.
in the work site and its surroundings, which are necessary for a correct description of the
essential properties of the land and for the reliable determination of the characteristic values of the parameters
of the land that will be used in the calculations of the project.

(2) The ground conditions that can influence the establishment of the geotechnical category of the structure
they should be determined as soon as possible, since the nature and extent of the investigations is
in relation to that geotechnical category.

For Geotechnical Category I, the following would apply:

As a minimum requirement, all project hypotheses must be verified no later than during the
supervision of the work. The recognition should include a visual inspection of the site as well
such as shallow test pits, penetration tests, or drilling with a helical auger.

Geotechnical investigations for Geotechnical Categories 2 and 3 would normally include the three phases.
next, which can be done overlapped:
– preliminary recognitions (see 3.2.2);
project recognitions (see 3.2.3);
– control recognitions (see 4.3).

3.2.2 Preliminary Investigations

(1) Preliminary investigations must be conducted for the following purposes:

ensure the overall suitability of the site;
– compare alternative sites, if applicable;
estimate the modifications that could be generated in the proposed work;
plan the project and control investigations, including the identification of the land area
that can have a significant influence on the behavior of the structure;
identify loan areas, if necessary.
ENV 1997-1:1994 32

(2) The following aspects must be considered for their inclusion in the preliminary research:
field recognition;
topography;
– hydrology, especially the distribution of interstitial pressures;
examination of nearby structures and excavations;
– geological and geotechnical maps and records;
other recognitions of nearby locations made previously;
aerial photographs;
ancient maps;
regional seismicity;
any other important information.

3.2.3 Project Acknowledgments

(1) Project recognitions must be made for the following purposes:
to obtain the required information to carry out an appropriate and economical construction project
definitive and provisional;
obtain the necessary information to define the construction method;
identify any difficulties that may arise during construction.

(2)P A project recognition must reliably identify the arrangement and properties of all that
area of land that influences the structure or will be affected by the proposed works.
(3) The parameters that affect the structure's ability to meet its performance criteria must
establish before the start of the final project.
(4) The following aspects must be considered for their inclusion in the project recognition of the land with
influence on the work:
geological stratigraphy;
resistant properties of the entire affected area;
deformational properties of all the affected land;
distribution of interstitial pressures in the ground profile;
permeability conditions;
possible instability of the subsoil;
soil compactability;
possible aggression of the land and groundwater;
possibility of land improvement;
susceptibility to frost.
In order to ensure that project investigations cover all ground formations, it must be
pay special attention to the following geological aspects:
cavities;
– alteration of rocks, soils or fill materials;
hydrogeological effects;
faults, diaclases, and other discontinuities;
soils and rock masses affected by creep processes;
– expansive or collapsible soils and rocks;
presence of landfills or anthropogenic materials.
 33 ENV 1997-1:1994

In order to identify all the geotechnical traits of the terrain, an effective combination of should be employed.
various usual research methods. These methods should include commercial trials generally.
available, carried out according to generally accepted or standardized procedures.

(7) A normal recognition should include on-site tests, surveys, and laboratory tests. When used
penetration tests and/or other indirect methods, it is often necessary to conduct surveys to identify the
land where these methods are being applied. If the geological features of the site are well
For acquaintances, surveys may be omitted.

(8)P Recognition must extend to at least those formations that are considered important in the
project and below which the land does not have a substantial influence on the behavior of the
structure.

The distance between the exploration points and the depth of it should be chosen based on the information.
existing about the geology of the area, the ground conditions, the size of the site and the type of
structure.

(10) For the recognitions that affect Geotechnical Category 2, the following would apply:
In the case of structures covering a large area, the exploration points should be positioned according to nodes of
a mesh. The distance between the points will be around 20–40 m. If the soil conditions are
uniforms, the surveys or tests can be partially replaced by penetration tests or borings
geophysicists.
For foundations by isolated or continuous footings, the depth of the explorations or drilling below
the anticipated foundation level would normally be between 1 and 3 times the width of the elements of
foundation. Greater depths must be reached at some exploration points to study the
settlements, as well as potential issues with groundwater.
In the case of concrete slab foundations, the depth of in-situ tests or boreholes must be
equal to or greater than the width of the foundation, unless the rocky substrate is at a lower
depth.
For fill areas and embankments, the minimum investigation depth must include all those
soil strata whose contribution to possible settlements is significant. The depth of investigation
it should be brought down to a level where the contribution to the seat is less than 10% of the total seat.
The distance between neighboring exploration points should normally be between 100-200 m.
For pile foundations, soundings, penetration tests, or other in-situ tests must be performed.
the way in which the ground conditions are explored to a depth below the tip of the pile that
ensure safety, which normally means 5 times the diameter of the pile shaft. However,
there are cases where substantially deeper investigations or surveys are needed. It is also required
that the depth of the research is greater than the shorter side of the rectangle that circumscribes the group
of piles that form the foundation at the level of the tip of the piles.

The conditions of pressure of the groundwater that act during the investigation must be established.
to know the extreme levels of any free water that may influence the groundwater pressure and
They must record the levels of free water during the research.

(12) For recognitions of Geotechnical Category 2, the following must be applied:

The investigation of interstitial pressures must normally include:
observations of water levels in wells and piezometers and their fluctuations over time;
an assessment of the hydrogeology of the site that includes artesian or perched water levels,
as well as variations due to tides.
In order to prevent siphoning in the excavations, interstitial pressures must be
investigate to a depth, below the excavation, at least equal to the depth of the
excavation below the water table. In the case that the upper soil layers have a weight
specific low, it will be required that the research reaches even greater depth.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 34 -

(13) It is necessary to determine the location and capacity of all water depletion sites or extraction wells in the
proximity of the site.

(14) In the case of very large or unusual structures, structures with abnormal risks, or load conditions or
unusual or exceptionally complicated terrain and structures in high seismicity areas, the extent of
Recognition must be at least sufficient to meet all the previously specified requirements.

(15) For recognitions related to Geotechnical Category 3, the following must be applied:

Additional recognitions of a more specialized nature will normally be necessary, and they must be
carry out whenever necessary.

In any case where specialized or unusual testing procedures are applied, the procedures
test samples and their interpretations must be documented. In addition, references should be provided for the
essays.

3.3 Evaluation of geotechnical parameters

3.3.1 Generalities

The properties of soil, rocks, and rock masses are quantified using geotechnical parameters.
that are used in project calculations. These are established from the results of field tests and
laboratory and other important data. They must be interpreted appropriately to the limit state that is
go to consider.

(2) In the following requirements regarding the evaluation of geotechnical parameters, only is made
reference to the most commonly used laboratory and field tests. Other tests can be used as long as they
has demonstrated its suitability through comparable experience.

(3)P In order to establish reliable values for the geotechnical parameters, the following points must be considered
tes:
many soil parameters are not constant, but depend on different factors such as the level
tensile, the mode of deformation, etc.;
When interpreting the results of the tests, it is necessary to consider the published information related to the
use of each type of test under appropriate ground conditions;
The testing programs must include a sufficient number of tests that provide data for the
obtaining and variation of the different parameters that are important in the project;
The value of each parameter must be compared with published data of importance, as well as with the experience.
local and general experience. It should also be considered, if relevant, the published correlations between the
different parameters;
whenever they are available, the results of large-scale field tests should be analyzed and
measurements in full-scale structures;
- whenever available, correlations between results of more than one type should be checked
of essay.

3.3.2 Characterization of the type of soil and rock

It is necessary to identify the character and basic components of the soil or rock before interpreting the results.
from other essays.

The material must be recognized visually and described according to a recognized nomenclature.
A geological assessment must be made.
 - 35 - ENV 1997-1:1994

3 In addition to the visual inspection mentioned above, the following properties can be used.
identification effects:

for soils:
grain size curve;
shape of the grains;
roughness of the surface of the grains;
relative density;
unit price;
natural humidity;
Atterberg limits;
- carbonate content;
organic matter content.

for rocks
mineralogy;
petrography;
humidity
unit price;
porosity;
speed of propagation of sound waves;
rapid absorption of water;
swelling;
water alterability index;
– simple compressive strength.

The resistance obtained in the simple compression tests allows for a classification of the rocks, but
Simpler testing procedures such as point load testing can also be used.

3.3.3 Unit weight

The unit weight must be determined with sufficient precision to establish the project values of the
actions that depend on him.

Natural or human-induced variations and stratification must be taken into account when
essays are used to determine specific weight.

(3) Knowing the type of soil and its grain size distribution, it is possible to estimate with sufficient accuracy the specific weight of the soil.
site of sands and gravels based on test results, such as penetration tests or observations
that indicate the resistance of the soil.

3.3.4 Relative density

The relative density expresses the degree of compactness of a cohesionless soil with respect to its conditions.
denser and looser, defined based on standardized laboratory procedures.
ENV 1997-1:1994 36

(2) A direct measurement of the relative density of a soil can be obtained by comparing measurements.
exact values of their in-situ specific weight with the values obtained in the laboratory of specific weight by
normalized reference tests. An indirect measure of the relative density of a soil can be obtained from
based on penetration tests.

3.3.5 Degree of compaction

The degree of compaction should be expressed as the ratio between the dry specific weight and the specific weight.
maximum dry density obtained from a standardized compaction test.

(2) The most commonly used compaction tests are the Standard Proctor test and the Proctor.
Modified, corresponding to different standardized compaction energies. The compaction test.
it also gives the optimal moisture, that is, the moisture of the soil in a state of maximum dry unit weight, for
a certain compaction energy.

3.3.6 Undrained shear strength of cohesive soils

When evaluating the undrained shear strength, cu, from saturated fine grain soils, the influence of
the following aspects and, therefore, must be taken into account:
differences between in-situ and test tension states;
– the alteration of samples, especially for laboratory tests conducted with samples obtained from
surveys;
the anisotropy of resistance, especially in low plasticity clays;
the fissures, especially in rigid clays. The test results can represent the resistance
of the fissures or of the intact clay, and either of the two can condition the actual behavior in
field. The sample size may be important;
The effects of speed. Tests conducted too quickly tend to yield resistances.
adults;
the effects of large deformations. Most clays show a loss of strength at
very large deformations and on already existing sliding surfaces;
the effects of time. The period during which soil will effectively be undrained depends on its
permeability, of the availability of free water and of the geometry of the situation;
the heterogeneity of the samples, such as inclusions of gravel or sand within a clay sample;
the degree of saturation;
the level of confidence in the theory used to obtain the undrained shear strength from the results
data from the tests, especially in the case of in-situ tests.

3.3.7 Shear strength parameters in terms of effective pressures for soils

When evaluating shear strength parameters in terms of effective stresses, c' and φ', the following must be considered
the following characteristics:
the tension level of the case considered,
the accuracy of the in-situ determination of specific weight,
the alteration during the sampling.

(2)P The values of d' and φ' can be considered constants only within the range of tensions for which they have
have been evaluated.

(3)P When the effective resistance parameters c' and φ' are obtained from undrained tests, with measurement of
The interstitial pressures, attention must be paid to ensure that the samples are completely saturated.
 37 ENV 1997-1:1994

(4) The soils generally show a slightly higher value of φ' when tested under conditions of
plane deformation when tested under triaxial conditions.

3.3.8 Soil deformability

(1) When evaluating the deformability of the soil, the following conditions must be considered:
- the drainage conditions;
the level of the average effective tension;
the level of imposed shear deformations or induced shear stresses, the latter
frequently normalized with respect to shear strength at break;
- the tensional and deformational history.

(2) These factors are the most important in controlling the deformability of soils. Other factors that
influence the soil deformation modulus and that can be taken into account are:
the direction of ground stresses concerning the orientation of the principal stresses
consolidation
the effects of time and the rate of deformation;
the size of the sample tested in relation to the size of the particles and the characteristics of the
macro factory of the soil.

It is often very difficult to obtain reliable measurements of the ground deformability from field tests or
from the laboratory. In particular, due to sample alterations and other effects, the measurements obtained from the
laboratory tests often underestimate the stiffness of the in-situ ground. Therefore, a recommendation is made for a
analysis of the observations on the behavior of previous constructions.

It is convenient on some occasions to assume a linear or logarithmic-normal relationship between the stresses and the
deformations within a limited range of changes in tensions. However, this should always be done with
Be careful, as the actual behavior of the terrain is generally and significantly non-linear.

3.3.9 Quality and properties of rocks and rock masses

(1) When evaluating the quality and properties of rocks and rock masses, it is necessary to distinguish between the
behavior of the rock material observed in samples and the behavior of rock masses much
larger ones that include structural discontinuities, such as stratification planes, joints, areas of
shears and cavities formed by dissolution. The following characteristics of the joints must be taken into account:
spacing;
orientation;
opening;
persistence (continuity);
- waterproofing;
roughness, including the effects of previous movements of the joints;
– filler.

(2)P Additionally, when assessing the properties of rocks and rock masses, the following must be taken into account
points, if they are important:
tensions in situ;
water pressures;
important variations of properties in different strata.
ENV 1997-1:1994 38

(3) The quality of the rock can be quantified using a Rock Quality Designation (RQD), which is an indicator
from the rocky massif from an engineering perspective.

The estimation of the properties of the rock as a whole, such as strength and deformability, is
you can obtain from the geomechanical classifications originally developed in relation to the
tunnel engineering.

The sensitivity of rocks to climate, to stress changes, etc. should be evaluated. Additionally, considerations should be made.
the consequences of chemical degradation on the behavior of foundations on rock.

(5) When evaluating the quality of rocks and rock masses, the following characteristics should be considered:
Some soft porous rocks degrade quickly into low-resistance soils, especially if they are
exposed to the effects of weathering;
Some rocks have high solubility indices due to groundwater, forming channels.
sinkholes, subsidence, that can manifest at the surface;
Upon being downloaded and exposed to air, certain rocks experience pronounced swelling due to the
absorption of water by clay minerals.

[Link] Uniaxial compressive strength and deformability of rock materials

(1) When evaluating the compressive strength and deformability of rock materials, it should be considered
to address the influence of the following aspects:
the orientation of the load axes with respect to the anisotropy of the sample, for example stratification planes
cancellation, pagination, etc.;

the method of sampling, and the way and environment in which the material has been preserved;
the number of samples tested;
the geometry of the tested samples;
the humidity and the degree of saturation at the time of conducting the test;
the duration of the test and the loading speed;
– the method for determining Young's modulus and the level or levels of axial stress for which it has been
determined;
the geometry of the tested samples.

(2) The resistance to simple compression and the deformability in simple compression have as their main objective
the classification and characterization of intact rock.

[Link] Shear strength of the joints

(1) When evaluating the shear strength of rock material joints, the influence of the
following aspects:
the orientation of the tested sample with respect to the rock mass and the assumed actions;
the orientation of the cutting essay;
the number of samples tested;
the size of the cutting area;
the pressure conditions of the interstitial water;
the possibility of a progressive failure that governs the behavior of the rock in the ground.
 39 ENV 1997-1:1994

(2) The cutting planes generally coincide with the weakness planes of the rock (joints, bedding planes).
tion, schistosity, exfoliation) or with the contact surfaces between the soil and the rock or between the rock and the
concrete. The shear strength measured at the joints is usually used for equilibrium analysis
limit of the rocky masses.

3.3.10 Permeability and consolidation parameters

When evaluating the parameters of permeability and consolidation, the following aspects should be considered:

the effect of the non-homogeneous conditions of the terrain;

the effect of soil anisotropy;

the effect of fractures or faults in the ground, especially in rocks;

the effect of stress changes under the proposed loads.

(2) The permeability measurements taken on small laboratory samples may not be representative of
the in-situ conditions. Therefore, whenever possible, in-situ tests that measure should be preferred.
properties of large volumes of land in an averaged form. However, one must take into account the
Possible changes in permeability due to increases in effective stresses on the in situ value.
Sometimes, permeability can be assessed based on the knowledge of the grain size of the soil and
of its distribution.

3.3.11 Parameters of resistance to static penetration

(1) When evaluating the values of the resistance at the tip of the cone, the resistance at the shaft, and possibly, the
interstitial pressures during penetration, the following aspects must be considered:

the design details of the cone and the friction of the shaft can significantly affect the results. For
Therefore, the type of cone used must be taken into account;

The results can only be interpreted with confidence once the terrain profile has been established.
Thus, on many occasions it is necessary to carry out surveys along with penetration tests;

The effects of groundwater and soil overload must be considered when interpreting the
results;

In non-homogeneous soils where the recorded results fluctuate significantly, it is necessary to take into account
count the penetration values that represent the significant part of the soil matrix for the project;

When they are available, the established correlations with the results must be taken into account.
other tests, such as density measurements and other types of penetration tests.

3.3.12 Number of blows of the standard penetration test and dynamic tests
(1) When evaluating the number of strokes, the following characteristics should be considered:

the type of essay;

– a detailed description of the execution of the test (lifting method, type of cone, weight of the hammer)
fall, fall height, diameter of the shoring and the rods, etc.

- the water conditions of the land;

the influence of land overloading;

the nature of the land, particularly when it contains coarse gravel or cobbles.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 40 -

3.3.13 Pressuremeter parameters

(1) When evaluating the values of the limit pressure and the pressure module, the following must be considered
aspects:
the type of equipment;
the procedure used to introduce the pressuremeter into the ground is the most important.

Curves that present a degree of disturbance greater than moderate should not be used.

In those places where the limit pressure is not reached during the test, it is possible to perform a ...
moderate and conservative extrapolation of the curve. In the trials where only the part is determined
at the beginning of the pressure curve, general correlations can be used conservatively or,
preferably, local correlations from the same location, to estimate the limit pressure from the
piezometric module.

3.3.14 Dilatometer Parameters

(1) When determining the values of the flat dilatometer, the installation process must be taken into account.

If resistance parameters are to be evaluated, penetration resistance must be taken into account.

The modules obtained from the dilatometer should normally be used as a basis for determining the modules in
confined soil conditions.

3.3.15 Compactability
(1) When evaluating the compactability of a fill material, the following aspects must be taken into account:
type of soil or rock;
the grain size curve;
the shape of the grains;
the non-homogeneity of the material;
the degree of saturation or the percentage of humidity;
the type of equipment that will be used.

(2) To obtain a direct measure of the compactability of a soil or rock fill, a test should be conducted.
test compaction essay, with the type of material to be used, the thickness of the fill layer and the type of
selected compaction equipment. The density obtained in that way relates to the laboratory values.
obtained through standardized compaction procedures, as well as with field values
obtained with the device and the control procedure chosen for the site (for example: tests of
penetration, dynamic compaction tests, plate load tests, settlement records.

3.4 Geotechnical Report

The results of the geotechnical investigation must be collected in a Geotechnical Soil Report, which will be
the basis of the Geotechnical Report of the Project described in 2.8.

(2) The Geotechnical Report shall normally consist of the following two parts:
the presentation of the available geotechnical information, which includes geological characteristics and data
important
the geotechnical evaluation of the information, in which the assumptions made for obtaining are indicated
the geotechnical parameters.

These parts can be combined into a single report or divided into several reports.
 - 41 - ENV 1997-1:1994

3.4.1 Presentation of geotechnical information

The presentation of geotechnical information must include an objective list of all fieldwork and
laboratory, and the documentation of the methods used to carry out the field investigations and the
laboratory tests.

(2) In addition to the aforementioned, the report must include the following information, if required:
the objective and scope of geotechnical investigations;
a brief description of the project for which the geotechnical report is being prepared, providing information about the
project location, its size and geometry, expected loads, structural elements, materials of
construction, etc.;
– a statement of the anticipated Geotechnical Category for the structure,
the dates on which the field and laboratory work was carried out;
the procedures used for sampling, its transport and preservation;
the field teams used;
topographic measurement data;
the names of all consultants and subcontractors;
– a recognition of the terrain of the general area of the project, especially noting:
the presence of groundwater;
the behavior of neighboring structures;
the defects and problems;
the visible areas in quarries and borrowing areas;
the areas of instability;
the difficulties during the excavation.
the history of the site;
the geology of the site;
the information from aerial photographs;
the local experience of the area;
the information about the seismicity of the area;
the presentation in tables of field and laboratory work, and the presentation of the observations of
field, carried out by the field operations supervision staff, during the explorations of the
subsoil
the data on water level fluctuations in the ground during the surveys
fieldwork and in the piezometers after the completion of such work;
a relationship of the survey data, including photographs of the witnesses, with descriptions of the
subsurface formations, based on field descriptions and the results of the tests of
laboratory
a compilation and presentation of the results of field and laboratory tests, in appendices.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 42 -

3.4.2 Evaluation of geotechnical information

The evaluation of geotechnical information must include the following:

−a review of field and laboratory work. It must be noted in cases where there is data
partial or limited. The cases in which the data are defective must be indicated and commented appropriately,
irrelevant, insufficient or imprecise. The methods of sample preparation must be taken into account,
its transportation and preservation, when interpreting the results of the tests. It must be carefully considered
any particularly adverse test result, to determine whether it is erroneous or represents a
real phenomenon that must be considered in the project;

an additional list of field and laboratory work proposals, if deemed necessary,

including comments justifying the need for such works. These proposals must be
accompanying a detailed program of the types of additional research to be carried out, making
special reference to the points that need to be clarified.

(2) In addition to what was previously mentioned, the evaluation of geotechnical data should include the following, if
would have importance

−tabulation and graphical presentation of the results of field and laboratory work in relation to the
project requirements, and, if deemed necessary, some histograms that illustrate the range of values of the
most important data and its distribution,

the determination of the depth of the water table and its seasonal fluctuations,

A profile or profiles of the subsoil, showing the differentiation of the various formations. It must be
include a detailed description of all formations, including their physical properties and their
Characteristics of compressibility and resistance. Additionally, the existing irregularities should be commented on.
such as holes and cavities,

A compilation and presentation of the range of values of the geotechnical data of each stratum.
The presentation should be done in a comprehensible way, allowing the selection of the parameters of the
most suitable land for the project.
 43 ENV 1997-1:1994

4 SUPERVISION OF CONSTRUCTION, INSTRUMENTATION AND MAINTENANCE

:

(1)P In order to ensure the safety and quality of a structure, the following must be carried out:
measures:
supervision of construction processes and implementation;
Instrumentation of the behavior of the structure during and after construction;
– maintenance of the structure in a proper manner.
(2)P The supervision of the execution process and the instrumentation of the structure's behavior during and
After the construction, they must be carried out according to the specifications outlined in the Report.
Geotechnical of the Project.

(3) The supervision of the execution process should encompass the following measures:
– verification of the validity of project hypotheses;
identification of the differences between the actual site conditions and those assumed in the project;
Verification that the construction is being carried out according to the project.
The instrumentation of the structure's behavior during and after construction should include the
following measures, when applicable:
– observations and measures to monitor the behavior of the structure and its surroundings during the cons-
instruction, in such a way that the need to take corrective measures is identified, alter the sequence of
construction, etc.;
observations and measures to monitor and evaluate the long-term behavior of the structure and its
surroundings.

The level and quality of supervision and instrumentation will be at least equal to those specified in the project.
they will be consistent with the selected values for the parameters and the project safety factors. The
project decisions influenced by the results of supervision and instrumentation will be
clearly identified.

(5) The inspection, control, and the necessary laboratory and field tests for supervision of the
construction and for the instrumentation of behavior must be programmed during the project stage.
In case of unexpected events, the scope and frequency of the data collection tasks of the instruction
nutrition must be increased.

In Annex A, there is a checklist for monitoring the construction and instrumentation of the
behavior.

4.2 Supervision
4.2.1 Supervision Program
The monitoring program included in the Geotechnical Report of the Project must establish the acceptable limits.
blessings for the results obtained in the supervision tasks.

(2) The supervision plan will specify the type, quality, and frequency of the supervision, which must be in relation to
with:
the degree of uncertainty of the project hypotheses;
the complexity of the ground conditions and the loads to be applied;
the potential risk of failure during construction;
the feasibility of project modifications or the implementation of corrective measures during the cons-
instruction.
ENV 1997-1:1994 44

4.2.2 Inspection and control

The construction work will be inspected visually and continuously, and the results of the inspection will
they will register.

(2) For Geotechnical Category 1, the monitoring program can be limited to a visual inspection, to a few
shallow quality controls and a qualitative evaluation of the behavior of the structure.

For Geotechnical Category 2, measurements of the properties of the land or of are generally required.
behavior of structures.

For Geotechnical Category 3, additional measures must be taken during each of the stages.
significant in construction.

The records that must be made must include the following aspects:
significant characteristics of the land and the groundwater;
sequence of the works;
- quality of the materials;
deviations from the original project;
construction plans actually executed;
– results of the measures and their interpretation;
observations of environmental conditions;
unexpected events.

(4) The records of the provisional works must also be collected. The work stoppages and the
conditions under which the work was restarted.

(5) The results of the inspection and control must be provided to the designer before decisions are made.
which can be the consequence of such results.

4.2.3 Project Evaluation

The adequacy of the construction procedures and the sequence of operations must be reviewed in light of
of the ground conditions that have been encountered, and the expected behavior of the structure must
compare with the observations made. The project will be evaluated based on the results of the inspection and
control. If necessary, the structure will be redesigned.

(2) The project evaluation should include a thorough review of the most unfavorable conditions that are
they have presented during the construction regarding:
the conditions of the land;
the conditions of the groundwater;
the actions on the structure;
the environmental impacts and changes, including landslides and rockfalls.

4.3 Checking the conditions of the land

4.3.1 Soils and rocks

The descriptions and geotechnical properties of the soils on which the foundations are established or located
Structures must be checked during construction.
 - 45 - ENV 1997-1:1994

2 For Geotechnical Category 1, the descriptions of soils and rocks must include:
site inspection;
determination of the types of soils and rocks within the influence zone of the structure;
– record of the descriptions of the soils and rocks found in the excavations.

For Geotechnical Category 2, the geotechnical properties of the soil or rock must also be checked.
that the structure will be anchored. In some cases, additional field research may be needed.
Representative samples can be taken and tested to determine their identification properties, thus
such as its resistance and deformability.

For Geotechnical Category 3, the additional requirements may include a greater number of investigations and
a detailed examination of the ground conditions or of the fill that could have consequences
important for the project.

Indirect data on geotechnical properties (for example, driven pile records) must be
compiled and used to improve the interpretation of the ground conditions.

The deviations between the actual type of land and its properties and the land assumed in the project must be
immediately communicated to the person responsible for the project.

It must be verified that the hypotheses used in the project are appropriate to the geotechnical characteristics.
of the land found.

4.3.2 Groundwater

The situation of the water table, interstitial pressures, and the chemical properties of water must be checked.
found during the excavation and compare them with those supposed in the project. Further studies will be needed
broad in those places where it is known or suspected that there are significant variations in the types of terrain
and its permeability.

(2) For Geotechnical Category 1, the controls are generally based on previously documented experiences in the
area or in indirect data.

For Geotechnical Categories 2 and 3, direct observations of the conditions are generally made.
groundwater, if these significantly affect the construction method or the behavior of the
structure.

The characteristics of the underground flow and the interstitial pressures can be obtained through piezometers.
that should preferably be installed before the start of the work. It may be necessary in some
cases install piezometers at large distances, as part of the instrumentation system.

If during construction there are changes in the interstitial pressures that could affect the behavior
Monitoring of the structure must be carried out until the construction is completed or until they have
dissipated reaching some safe values.

In the case of structures below the groundwater level that could float, the interstitial pressures must be
monitor until the weight of the structure is sufficient to eliminate that possibility.

Chemical analyses of the circulating water must be carried out when any part of the permanent works or
temporal workers could be affected by chemical attacks.

(3) It is necessary to check the effect that construction operations have (including processes such as
depletions of the water table, injections, and tunnel drilling) on the groundwater regime.
ENV 1997-1:1994 46

The deviations between the actual characteristics of the groundwater and those assumed in the project must be
immediately communicated to the person responsible for the project.

It must be verified that the hypotheses used in the project correspond to the characteristics of the water.
underground found.

4.4 Verification of the construction

On-site operations will be verified to ensure compliance with the planned construction method.
the project and established in the Geotechnical Report of the Project.

(2) Usually, for Geotechnical Category 1, a scheme is not included in the Geotechnical Report of the Project.
construction form. The sequence of construction operations is normally decided by the
constructor.

For Geotechnical Categories 2 and 3, the Geotechnical Project Report may provide the sequence of the
construction operations contemplated in the project. Alternatively, the Geotechnical Report of
The project may establish that the sequence of construction operations is decided by the builder.

The deviations between the construction methods carried out and those anticipated in the project and established.
In the Geotechnical Report of the Project, they must be considered explicitly and rationally, and they must be immediate.
that are properly communicated to the person responsible for the project.

It must be verified that the hypotheses used in the project are appropriate for the sequence of operations of
construction that is being carried out.

4.5 Instrumentation

The objectives of instrumentation are:

– verify the validity of the predictions about the behavior of the structure, made during the
project
to ensure that the behavior of the structure will continue to be as required once it has been completed.

The inspection and necessary measures for the instrumentation of the complete structure behavior
They must be specified and communicated to the owner/client.

The instrumentation program will be carried out in accordance with the Geotechnical Report of the Project.

(4) The records of the actual behavior of structures are important to have databases on
comparable experiences.

The measures may include the following:

deformations of the ground affected by the structure;
stock values;
values of the contact voltage between the ground and the structure;
– interstitial pressures and their variation over time;
tensions and deformations (vertical and horizontal movements, rotations and distortions) of the
elements of the structure.

Qualitative observations, including the typology, should be added to the results of the measurements.
architectural.
 47 ENV 1997-1:1994

The duration of the instrumentation period after construction can be modified as a result of the
observations made during construction. For those structures that may have an impact
unfavorable regarding a significant part of the physical environment of the surroundings, or for those others
whose breakage may pose an abnormal risk to people or property, the instrumentation may be
necessary for more than ten years after construction or throughout its entire life.

The results obtained from the instrumentation operations must always be evaluated and interpreted, and this
it should normally be done in a quantitative way.

(6) For Geotechnical Category 1, the assessment of the structure's behavior can be simple, qualitative and
be based on a visual inspection.

For Geotechnical Category 2, the evaluation of the structure's behavior can be based on measurements of
the movements of selected points of the structure.

For Geotechnical Category 3, the evaluation of the structure's behavior should normally be based on
in the measurement of displacements and in the analysis of them, taking into account the sequence of the
construction operations.

For those structures that may have an adverse effect on land or water conditions
phreatic, when designing the instrumentation program, the possibility of leaks or
alterations in the water flow regime, especially when there are fine-grained soils.

(8) Examples of this type of structures are:

water retention structures;
structures to control leaks;
tunnels;
large underground structures;
deep foundations;
embankments and earth retention structures;
land improvements.

4.6 Maintenance

The necessary maintenance to ensure the safety and service conditions of the structure must be
be specified and communicated to the owner/client.

(2) The maintenance specifications should include information about:

the critical parts of the structure that require regular inspection;
the frequency of the inspection.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 48 -

5 FILLINGS, EXHAUSTIONS, AND IMPROVEMENT AND STRENGTHENING OF THE GROUND

5.1 Generalities
The provisions of this chapter apply when suitable land conditions are achieved.
by means of
placement of soil or granular material;
lowering of the groundwater level;
land treatment;
ground reinforcement.

(2) The situations in which soil or granular material is placed for construction purposes include:
fill under foundations and slabs;
fill in excavations and earth retaining structures;
– landfills in general, including hydraulic fills, waste deposits or topographical modifications;
embankments for dikes and communication routes.

The lowering of the groundwater level in the land can be temporary or permanent.

The land that is treated to improve its properties can be natural or artificially filled. The improvement
The land can be temporary or permanent.

(3) The project procedures for geotechnical actions that may include the use of fillings,
Lowering of the water table, improvement and strengthening are discussed in chapters 6 to 9.

5.2 Fundamental Requirements

(1) The fundamental requirements that must be met are that the fill or the drained, improved ground must...
reinforced, be able to withstand the actions caused by loads, water infiltrations, vibrations,
the temperature, the rain, etc.

The land on which the fill is placed must also meet the fundamental requirements.

5.3 Construction of a landfill

5.3.1 Principles
The adequacy of a filling for the proposed purposes will be based on the possibilities of good management of the material.
and in the achievement of appropriate engineering properties after compaction.

(2) Transport and placement must be considered in the project phase.

5.3.2 Selection of fill material

(1) The criteria for classifying soil as suitable for use as fill will be based on obtaining
a resistance, stiffness, and adequate permeability, once it has been compacted. These criteria must
take into account the purpose of the fill and the requirements of the structures that are to be built on it.

(2) Among the suitable fill materials are most natural granular materials, well
graduates, and certain waste products, such as selected slag material and fly ash.
Some manufactured materials, such as certain lightweight aggregates, can also be used in
certain circumstances. Some cohesive materials may be suitable, but require careful attention
special.
 49 ENV 1997-1:1994

When selecting a filling material, the following aspects must be taken into account:
granulometry;
resistance under load (friability);
compactability;
plasticity;
organic matter content;
chemical aggressiveness;
contaminating effects;
- solubility;
susceptibility to volume change (expansive clays and collapsible materials);
effect of frost;
resistance to weather actions;
effect of excavation, transportation, and implementation;
possibility of cementation occurring after its installation at the site (for example: blast furnace slag
high).

(4) If the existing materials are not suitable for use as fill material in their natural state, you may
it is necessary to adopt one of the following procedures:
adjust the humidity;
mix with cement, with lime or with other materials;
to crush, to sift or to wash;
protect with appropriate materials;
use draining layers.

When the selected material contains potentially aggressive or contaminating chemicals, it

they must take appropriate precautions to prevent such substances from attacking the structures or
services, or contaminate the groundwater. These materials will be used in large quantities only in
permanently instrumented places.

In case of doubt, tests should be conducted to ensure that the filling material is suitable for the
objectives that are intended. The type, number, and frequency of the tests will be determined according to the type and the
heterogeneity of the material and the nature of the project.

(7) In Geotechnical Category 1, visual inspection of the material will often be sufficient.

The filling material must not contain significant amounts of any foreign substances, such as snow, ice.
the crowd.

5.3.3 Selection of the filling placement procedures and their compaction

Criteria for compaction will be established for each area, for each layer, and for each material, according to its
function and way of working.

The procedures for the construction and compaction of the fill will be selected in such a way that it is ensured
the stability of the fill throughout the entire construction process and that the underlying natural ground is not affected
negatively affected.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 50 -

(3)P The selection of the compaction procedures for the fills will depend on the compaction criteria and
from the following points:
the origin and nature of the material;
the method of construction;
the humidity of the construction site and its possible variations;
the initial and final thickness of the layer;
the rain and the air temperature;
the uniformity of compaction.

(4) In order to develop an appropriate compaction procedure, a real test should be conducted with the
material and the compaction machinery that is intended to be used. This allows for the determination of the
compaction procedure to be followed (layer thickness, number of passes, techniques
adequate means of transport, amount of water that should be added, and placement of the material). It can also be
use to establish the control criteria.

(5)P When there is a possibility of rain during the installation of cohesive fill material, the surface of the
Fill should be prepared at all stages of the process to ensure adequate drainage.

Frozen, expansive, or soluble soils should not be used as fill material.

(7) The placement of material at temperatures below the freezing point will require heating.
filler material and the protection of the filler surface against freezing.

If fill is to be placed around foundations, a compaction procedure must be selected.

so that the subsequent subsidence around the foundations and below the slabs does not cause damage.

5.3.4 Filling Verification

The compaction work must be verified through inspection or testing to ensure that the
nature of the fill material, placement moisture, and compaction procedures are of
agreement with the established.

(2) For certain combinations of materials and compaction procedures, it may not be necessary to
conducting tests after compaction. In particular, the tests can be replaced by the
verification that the compaction has been carried out according to the procedures inferred from
real-scale tests or derived from comparable experiences.

The compaction tests must use one of the following methods:

– measurement of dry density, and if required by the project, measurement of moisture;
measurement of certain properties, such as penetration resistance, modulus of rigidity, etc. In
cohesive soils, these measures may not be useful to determine if the compaction has been correct.

The fillings on which foundations will be built will be carried out with suitable materials (see
5.3.2.(1)P), in which an appropriate density must be ensured, with an average density equal to 100%
Proctor (weight of 2.5 kg and drop height of 0.3 m) and with a minimum value in one batch of 97% of the density
Proctor. It is necessary to prevent the risk of collapse and excessive differential settlement.

With fill materials like stone-filled or those containing a large amount of coarse particles, the den- cannot be used.
Proctor test as a compaction test. The verification of compaction can be carried out by:
Verification that the compaction has been carried out according to the procedures deduced from
essays or comparable experiences;
 51 ENV 1997-1:1994

the verification that the additional seating caused by an extra pass of the machinery
compaction is below a predetermined value;
seismic methods.

In those cases where overcompaction is not acceptable, an upper limit must be specified for the
compaction.

(4) Overcompaction can have the following unwanted effects:

the development of sliding zones and high stiffness in dikes and embankments;
elevated earth pushes on buried structures and earth retention
breakage of aggregates composed of materials such as soft rocks, slag, volcanic sands, etc.
employees as light fillers.

5.4 Depletion or lowering of the water table

(1) Any system for removing water from the land or lowering the water table must be carried out based on
in the results of a geotechnical investigation.

(2) Water can be removed from the land by gravity drainage, by pumping from wells, through well-points.
or drainage wells, or by electro-osmosis. The adopted method will depend on:
the conditions in which the land and the groundwater are found;
The characteristics of the project: for example, depth of the excavation and width of the lowering of the
water table.

A part of the groundwater lowering system may be a recharge well system, located at
a certain distance from the excavation.

(3) The groundwater level lowering project must meet the following conditions:
– in the case of excavations, the effect of the lowering of the groundwater level must maintain the stability of the walls
from the excavation throughout the process and must avoid excessive lifting or breaking of the base,
due, for example, to water pressures under a less permeable layer;
The adopted project must not cause excessive settlements or damage to nearby structures;
The adopted project should not cause excessive soil drag due to base infiltrations or
on the sides of the excavation;
– except in the cases of well-graded materials, which can act by themselves as filters, it should be
place appropriate filters around the drainage points to ensure that no occurs
significant transport of material with the pumped water;
The water extracted from an excavation must be drained away from the excavation area;
The lowering plan must be projected and executed to maintain water levels and pressures.
project interstitials, with no significant fluctuations;
there must be a sufficient pumping capacity margin and there must be a backup equipment for
facilitate maintenance or alleviate a case of breakdown;
When the water table is allowed to return to its original level, care must be taken to prevent problems.
such as the collapse of soils that have a sensitive structure, like sands for example
loose;
The adopted device will not allow for excessive transport of contaminated water to the excavation.
tion;
the adopted device will not lead to excessive water extraction in a water catchment area
for consumption.
ENV 1997-1:1994 52

The effectiveness of the lowering will be verified through measurements of the groundwater level, water pressures and
Land movements, if necessary. The collected data will be reviewed and interpreted frequently.
to determine the effects of the lowering on the ground conditions and on the behavior of the
structures under construction and those in the environment.

(5) If the pumping operations are to be carried out for an extended period of time, the water
The groundwater must be analyzed to detect the presence of dissolved salts and gases that could produce
corrosion of the filters or blockages in them and in the pipes due to precipitation of salts. The action
Bacterial growth can also be a problem, as it can cause deposits that clog the well.
long-lasting reductions.

5.5 Ground improvement and reinforcement

(1) Before proceeding with any method of ground improvement or reinforcement, an investigation must be carried out.
geotechnics to obtain an adequate understanding of the initial conditions of the ground.

The ground improvement method for a particular situation should be chosen taking into account the following
factors:
the thickness and properties of the existing ground strata or fill materials;
the magnitude of water pressures in the different strata;
the nature, size, and position of the structures that will be supported on the ground;
the prevention of damage to nearby structures or services;
whether the land improvement is temporary or permanent;
In terms of anticipated deformations, the relationship between the ground improvement method and the sequence of
construction;
the effects on the environment, including pollution from toxic materials or changes in the
water table;
the long-term effects regarding the deterioration of materials.

(3) In many cases, earth improvement and reinforcement works should be classified under the Geotechnical Category.
nica 3.

The effectiveness of the land improvement in relation to the acceptance criteria will be verified by the...
termination of changes in the properties or conditions of the land due to improvement methods.
 - 53 - ENV 1997-1:1994

6 SURFACE FOUNDATIONS

6.1 Generalities
The provisions of this chapter apply to shallow foundations that include footings.
isolated, continuous footings and foundation slabs. Some of the arrangements can also be applied to
deep foundations such as boxes.

Limit states
(1) A list of the limit states that must be taken into account should be prepared. The following will be considered.
limit states:
loss of general stability;
failure due to load-bearing capacity;
slip failure;
combined failure in the terrain and in the structure;
structural failure due to movements of the foundation;
excessive seats;
excessive lifts;
unacceptable vibrations.

6.3 Project actions and situations

(1) When selecting actions for the calculation of limit states, the actions that appear must be considered.
in section 2.4.2.

(2) When the stiffness of the structure is significant, a ground-structure interaction analysis may be necessary.
structure to determine the distribution of shares.

(3) The project situations will be selected according to the principles established in section 2.2.

(4) When selecting project situations for shallow foundations, it is especially important
determine the depth of the water table.

6.4 Project and Construction Considerations

When choosing the depth of a shallow foundation, the following points must be considered:
to reach a layer of adequate bearing capacity;
the depth above which the shrinkage and swelling of clay soils, due to the
seasonal changes or to trees and shrubs, can produce noticeable movements;
the depth above which damage can occur due to frost action;
the depth of the groundwater level of the land and the problems that may arise if the excavation of the
The foundation must be done below that depth;
the possible ground movements and the reduction of the bearing layer's resistance due to infiltration
actions, climate effects, or due to construction operations;
the effects of the excavations necessary for construction on foundations and structures
close;
the future excavations to accommodate services that are close to the foundation;
the high or low temperatures transmitted from the building;
- the possibility of undermining.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 54 -

In addition to meeting all the behavior requirements, the width of the foundation must be projected.
taking into account practical considerations related to the economy of excavations, the establishment of
tolerances, the workspace requirements and the dimensions of the wall or column to be supported by the
foundation.

(3) When designing a shallow foundation, one of the following design methods must be used:
A direct method, in which separate analyses are conducted for each limit state, using
calculation models and project values for actions and land parameters. When checking a
ultimate limit state, the calculation will model the contemplated failure mechanism as approximately as
It is possible. When checking a service limit state, a deformation analysis should be used.
Assume a certain bearing capacity, estimated empirically using comparable experiences and the
results of laboratory and field observations or measurements, and chosen taking into account the loads of
service limit state, so that the requirements of all relevant limit states are met.

The calculation models for the project in the ultimate and service limit states of the superficial foundations
Soil resistance is given in 6.5 and 6.6. The resistance that can be assumed for the foundation project
superficial on rock occurs at 6.7.

6.5 Project at ultimate limit states

General stability

The failures due to a loss of overall stability will be checked, in particular, for the foundations.
who are in the following situations:
near or on an incline, a natural slope or an embankment;
near an excavation or a retaining wall;
near a river, a canal, a lake, a dam, or the coastline;
near an area of mining work or buried structures.

For such situations, it will be demonstrated, using the principles described in chapter 9, that a failure of
The stability of the ground mass supporting the foundation is sufficiently unlikely.

6.5.2 Bearing capacity failure

[Link] Generalities

To demonstrate that a foundation will support the project loads with an adequate safety margin.
in the event of a bearing capacity failure, the following inequality must be satisfied for all load cases
of ultimate limit state and for all load combinations:

Vd ≤Rd (6.1)
where

Vdit is the ultimate limit state project load, perpendicular to the foundation base, which includes the
weight of the same and of any filling material. In drained conditions, the water pressures are
will generally be included as actions in the calculation of Vd.

RdIt is the bearing capacity of the foundation project against perpendicular loads, taking into account
it accounts for the effect of any inclined or eccentric [Link] will be calculated using the project values
of the corresponding parameters, chosen in accordance with 2.4.3 and 3.3.
 - 55 - ENV 1997-1:1994

(2) When the water pressures around the foundation are hydrostatic, the calculation of Vdit can be
simplify using the submerged weights of the elements of the structure that are below the level
phreatic

[Link] Analytical method

(1) In the analytical evaluation of the vertical load-bearing capacity of the project, R dof a shallow foundation
they must consider both long-term and short-term situations, especially in fine-grained soils, where
Interstitial pressure changes can cause changes in shear strength.

(2) Annex B provides an example of an analytical method for calculating bearing capacity.

(3)P When the soil or rock mass beneath the foundation presents a defined structural model of layers or
discontinuities in general, the assumed failure mechanism and the selected shear strength must have
consider the structural characteristics of the land.

(4)P When calculating the bearing capacity of a foundation design on very stratified deposits
Once established, the project values of the land parameters for each of the layers must be determined.

5 When there is a resistant formation below a weak formation, the bearing capacity can be
calculate using the cutoff parameters of the weak formation.

[Link] Semi-empirical method

(1) The bearing capacity of a shallow foundation project can be estimated semi-empirically based on
the results of in situ tests, taking into account comparable experiences.

(2) Annex C provides an example of the semi-empirical method for estimating bearing capacity.

6.5.3 Slip failure

(1)P When the load is not perpendicular to the foundation base, the foundations must be checked against the
sliding.

(2)P To ensure against sliding on a horizontal base, the following inequality must be satisfied:

Hd≤Sd+Epd (6.2)

where

Hd it is the horizontal component of the project load, which includes the active project thrust of the soils,

Sd it is the shear resistance of the project between the foundation base and the ground,

Epd it is the passive thrust of the project of the lands located on the foundation side that can be mobilized with the
displacement corresponding to the considered limit state and which is maintained throughout the life of the
structure.

(3) The values of SdyEpdthey should be related to the scale of the anticipated movement at the limit state
last considered. For large movements, the possible importance of behavior should be taken into account.
resilient "post-peak" of the ground.

When the base is inclined, a condition similar to that of inequality (6.5) must be applied.

(5) For foundations in clayey soils within the area of seasonal movements, it must be taken into account
the possibility that the clay could separate from the vertical faces of the foundation.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 56 -

It must be considered that the soil located in front of the foundation may be removed by the
erosion or due to human activity.

In situations where there is drainage, the project shear strength, Sdit should be calculated using the
next equation:

Sd=V'dtgδd (6.3)

where

V'dit is the effective project load, perpendicular to the foundation base;

δdIt is the angle of friction of the project at the base of the foundation.

8 The angle of friction of the project δdIt can be assumed equal to the angle of shear resistance φ'dfor the
in situ concrete foundations equal to 2/3 of φ'dfor smooth prefabricated foundations. It should be
to despise any effective cohesion.

In situations where there is no drainage, the design shear strength, Sdit should generally be limited by
the following expression:

Sd=A'cu (6.4)

where

A' is the effective area of the base, just like in [Link];

cuit is the undrained shear strength.

It is possible for water or air to reach the contact surface between the foundation and a layer of clay or not.
draining, the following check must be carried out:

Sd≤0.4Vd 6.5

Requirement (6.5) can only be bypassed if the suction prevents the separation between the foundation and the
land in those areas where there are no positive load pressures.

6.5.4 Loads with large eccentricities

Special precautions must be taken when the eccentricity of the load exceeds 1/3 of the width of a
the rectangular footing is 0.6 times the radius of a circular footing.

These precautions include:

– a careful review of the project values of the actions, according to 2.4.2;

project the position of the foundation's end taking into account possible deviations in the works.

(2) Unless special care is taken during the works, possible differences of up to must be considered.
0.10 m.

The previous project value, conservative for the situation at the extreme of the foundation, should be used in the
checks of load-bearing capacity.
 57 ENV 1997-1:1994

6.5.5 Structural failure due to foundation movements

(1) The vertical and horizontal differential movements of the foundations of a structure will be considered,
under the project loads of the ultimate limit state, and the ground deformation parameters, to ensure
that such movements do not produce a final limit state in the supported structure.

(2) The second method described in 6.4.(3)P can be adopted using a design bearing capacity for the
that the displacements do not cause a limit state in the structure.

(3) In areas that may swell, the differential uplift that can occur should be assessed, and the
Foundations and the structure must be designed to withstand it or accommodate it.

6.6 Project in a state of service limit

(1) The movements of the foundation caused by the superstructure will be considered both in terms of
displacement of the complete foundation, as well as differential displacements of the different parts of the
same.

The project loads for the service limit state will be used when calculating movements of the
foundation for comparison with the service criteria.

The possible range of horizontal and vertical movements must be evaluated and compared with the values.
limit of the movements indicated in 2.4.5.

The movements caused by actions on the foundation, such as those indicated, must be considered.
in 2.4.2.

The methods that can be used to calculate the vertical movements (settlements) caused by the loads
about the foundation is given in 6.6.1.

(6) The seat calculations should not be considered exact. They only indicate an approximate value.

6.6.1 Entries

(1) The seating calculations include both instant and deferred seating.

(2) For the calculation of settlements in saturated soils, the following three components must be considered:

seat without drainage, due to deformation by cutting at constant volume,o;

consolidation seat1;

yielding seat2.

Special care must be taken with certain soils, such as organic soils or susceptible clays, in
those whose seats can be extended almost indefinitely due to the phenomenon of creep or consolidation
secondary school.

The depth to which compressible soil layers should be considered depends on the size and
shape of the foundation, of the variation of soil deformability with depth and of the spacing
of the foundation elements.

Normally, this depth should be taken as that at which the effective vertical stress due to the
the foundation load reaches 20% of the effective stress due to the weight of the soil.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 58 -

For many cases, this depth can be roughly estimated as 1 to 2 times the width of the
foundation, but it can be reduced for wide slabs with light load. This does not apply to very soft soils.
two.

Any possible additional settlement caused by the self-compaction of the ground should be evaluated.

(4) The following points should be considered:

– in fill and collapsible soils, the possible effects produced by their own weight, flooding, and vibration
action;
in sands formed by weak grains, the effects of tension changes.

(5) Linear and nonlinear models will be adopted, when appropriate, for the deformability of the
land.

(6) Annex D provides examples of various methods for assessing the entries.

(7) The differential entries and the relative turns must be evaluated, taking into account both the distribution of the
loads such as the possible variability of the terrain, to ensure that a limit state does not occur
service.

(8) The differential settlements calculated without taking into account the rigidity of the structure tend to be overestimated.
Two. An analysis of the soil-structure interaction can be used to justify lower values of
the differential seats.

Differential settlements caused by ground variability must be taken into account, unless these are
prevented by the rigidity of the structure. For shallow foundations on natural ground, the magnitude
The gap in said seating can normally be up to 10 mm, although it generally does not exceed 50% of the
total seat calculated.

The rotation of a foundation loaded eccentrically should be estimated, assuming a linear distribution.
of tensions, and calculating the settlement of the corners of the foundation, using the stress distribution in
the ground under each corner and the settlement calculation methods described above.

6.6.2 Vibration Analysis

The foundations of structures subjected to vibrations or vibratory loads must be designed to
ensure that excessive seating or intolerable levels of vibration do not occur.

(2) Precautions should be taken to ensure that resonance is not provoked between the load frequency.
vibratory and a critical frequency of the ground-foundation system, and to ensure that liquefaction does not occur
fraction of the soil.

The vibrations caused by earthquakes must be taken into account according to the Standard ENV 1998–1.

6.7 Foundations on rock: additional project considerations

(1) In the project of shallow foundations on rock, the following aspects will be taken into account:
the deformability and resistance of the rock mass and the permissible settlement of the supported structure;
the presence of any weak layer, dissolution phenomena, faults, etc., beneath the foundation;
the presence of stratification plans or other discontinuities and their characteristics (fill, continuity,
opening, spacing)
the state of weathering, decomposition, and fracturing of the rock;
the alteration of the natural state of the rock, caused by construction activities such as work
subterranean areas, embankments, etc., that are near the foundation.
 - 59 - ENV 1997-1:1994

(2) Shallow foundations on rock can usually be designed using the capacity method.
important supposed, described in 6.4.(3)P.

In the case of igneous, gneissic, limestone, and sandstone rocks that are intact and resistant, the capacity
The supposed important is limited by the compressive strength of the foundation concrete.

Annex E presents an example of a method for obtaining the assumed bearing capacity of foundations.
superficial in rock.

The seat of a foundation can be evaluated based on comparable experiences using classifications.
geomechanics (see section 3.3.9).

6.8 Structural project of shallow foundations

Surface foundations must be checked against structural failure, in accordance with section 2.4.

For rigid foundations, the stresses transmitted to the ground by the load can be assumed to be distributed.
linearly. More detailed soil-structure interaction analyses can be used to justify a project.
more economical, following the principles of 2.1(8)P.

For flexible foundations, the distribution of contact stress can be obtained through modeling.
from the foundation as a beam or slab on a deformable continuous medium or on a series of springs with
the appropriate rigidity and resistance.

(3) The service state of a foundation slab and a continuous footing must be verified by assuming the load.
of the service limit state and a distribution of pressures transmitted to the ground corresponding to the deformation
foundation and ground formation.

(4) It can usually be assumed that there is a linear distribution of pressures due to the load.

For project situations that involve the action of concentrated loads on a foundation slab-
and/or continuous footing, the forces and bending moments in the structure can be obtained from a
ground reaction model, using linear elasticity. The reaction modules must be evaluated
through a seat analysis and taking into account an adequate estimate of the pressure distribution
transmitted to the ground. The modules must be adjusted in such a way that the calculated pressures do not exceed
the values that can be assumed in a linear behavior.

The total and differential seats of the structure as a whole must be calculated according to the
Section 6.6.1. For this analysis, elastic spring models are usually not appropriate.

When the soil-structure interaction has a dominant effect, more precise methods should be used, such as
like the finite element method.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 60 -

7 PILE FOUNDATIONS

7.1 Generalities

(1) The provisions of this chapter apply to end-bearing piles, floating piles, piles
subjected to traction and transversely loaded piles, which will be placed by driving, static thrust, to
rotation or by drilling with or without injection.

7.2 Limit States

(1) A list of the limit states to consider will be prepared. The following limit states must be considered:
loss of overall stability;
– failure of the bearing capacity of the pile foundation;
uplift or insufficient tensile resistance of the pile foundation;
– failure of the ground due to transverse loads;
structural failure of a pile under compression, tension, bending, buckling, or shear;
combined failure of the ground and the pile;
combined failure of the ground and the structure;
excessive seats;
excessive lifting;
unacceptable vibrations.

7.3 Project actions and situations

7.3.1 General Overview

(1) In the calculations of the limit states, the actions that appear in section 2.4.2 must be considered.

Project situations should be obtained in accordance with the principles established in section 2.2.

(3) A soil-structure interaction analysis may be necessary to determine the actions on the structure.
what should be considered in the pile foundation project. In the interaction analysis it can be
It is necessary to consider both the high characteristic values and the low ones of the deformation parameters.

7.3.2 Actions due to ground movement

[Link] Generalities

The ground where the piles are to be installed may be subject to movements caused by the effect of the
consolidation, swelling, adjacent loads, soil creep, landslides or earthquakes. These
phenomena affect the piles causing negative friction, uplift, tension, transverse loads and
movements. For these situations, the project values of the resistance and stiffness of the surrounding ground
They should normally be the highest.

To carry out the project, one of the following two methods must be used:
The movement of the ground is treated as an action. In this case, an interaction analysis is carried out.
to determine the forces, displacements, and deformations in the pile.
An upper limit of the force that the ground can transmit is introduced as an action of the project.
pilot. For the evaluation of this force, the resistance of the terrain and the origin of the load will be taken into account.
represented by the weight or compression of the ground that moves or by the magnitude of the actions that
they intervene.
 61 ENV 1997-1:1994

[Link] Negative friction

If the project calculations are carried out considering downward drag forces or negative friction
Like an action, its value will be the maximum that can be developed due to the relative position of the land.
to the pilot.

(2) For the calculation of the maximum forces caused by negative friction, resistance will be taken into account.
at the cut of the ground along the shaft of the pile, the depth of the compressible soil, the weight of the soil and the
overloads around each pile that produce the settlement.

For a group of piles, an upper limit of the forces caused by friction can be calculated.
negative due to the overload caused by the seat taking into account the changes in water pressure,
due to a decline in the water table, consolidation, or pile driving.

(3)P When it is expected that the settlement of the ground, after the placement of the piles, will be small, it can be
carry out an economic project treating the land seat as an action and conducting an analysis of
interaction. The project values of the land seat will be obtained taking into account the densities and
compressibilities of the different materials, according to section 2.4.3.

(4) The interaction calculations should take into account the relative displacement of the pile with respect to the ground.
surrounding that settles, the shear resistance of the soil along the shaft of the pile, the weight of the soil and the
Expected overload around each pile, which are the cause of negative friction.

[Link] Lifting

(1) To consider the effect of lift, or the upward forces that can be generated along the
The shaft of the pile should generally treat ground movement as an action.

(2) The expansion or uplift of the land can be the result of discharge, excavation, action of the
frost or adjacent pile sinking. They can also be due to an increase in soil moisture,
as a consequence of tree felling, a cessation of water extraction from aquifers, preventing the
evaporation (due to new construction) or due to accidents.

The uplift can occur during construction, before the piles come into load, and can
to lead to an unacceptable movement or structural failure of the piles.

[Link] Transverse load

The lateral movements of the ground exert lateral loads on the pile foundations.
These transverse loads must be taken into account if one of the following situations occurs or one
combination of several:
different loads on each side of a foundation by piles;
different levels of excavation on each side of a pile foundation;
- a pile foundation placed at the edge of an embankment;
a pile foundation built on a slope affected by creeping processes;
– inclined piles on settling ground;
– pilots in a seismic zone.

(2) Transverse loads on a pile foundation should normally be evaluated considering the
piles like beams situated within a mass of deformable soil.
When the horizontal deformations of the upper layers of a soft soil are large and the piles
they are very spaced apart, the resulting transverse load depends on the shear strengths of those soil layers
soft
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 62 -

7.4 Project Methods and Considerations

7.4.1 Project Methods

(1) The project should be approached with one of the following methods:
– results of static load tests, for which it has been demonstrated, through calculations or others
means that are consistent with other related experiences;
– empirical or analytical calculation methods, whose validity has been demonstrated through static load testing
in comparable situations;
results of dynamic load tests, whose validity has been demonstrated by static load tests
in comparable situations.

2 The project values of the parameters used in the calculations should generally be in accordance with the
section 3.3, but the results of load tests can also be considered when selecting them
parameter values.

Static load testing can be carried out on test piles, conducted before the completion of the
project, or on piles that are part of the foundation.

Sometimes it is acceptable to use the observed behavior of an existing pile foundation in

instead of conducting load tests, whenever this course of action is supported by the results of
recognition of the terrain and the tests.

Pile foundations for structures classified in Geotechnical Category 1 can be designed.

using comparable experience, without the need for load tests or calculations, as long as the type of
pilot and the terrain conditions are within the experience zone, that the terrain conditions are
check and have the installation of the piles supervised according to the principles of chapter 4.

7.4.2 Project Considerations

(1) The behavior of individual piles and pile groups must be considered, as well as the rigidity and
resistance of the structure that encases the piles.

When selecting the calculation methods and the values of the parameters and using the results of the tests
Regarding load, the duration and variation over time of the loads must be considered.

Future plans for land overload placement or removal or possible should be taken into account.
changes in the land water regime, both in the calculations and in the use of the results of the
load tests.

In the selection of the type of pile, including the quality of the pile material and the installation method, one
they will take into account:

the ground conditions at the site, including the presence or possibility of boulders
or hard covers on the ground;
the tensions generated in the piles during their installation;
the possibility of preserving and verifying the integrity of the pile that is going to be installed;

the effect of the method and the installation sequence of a pile on those that have already been placed or on the
adjacent structures or services;
the tolerances with which the piles can be installed properly;
the harmful effects of chemicals present in the soil.
 - 63 - ENV 1997-1:1994

(5) When considering the aspects mentioned above, it is advisable to pay attention to the following points:
the spacing between piles in a group;
the movements or vibrations of the adjacent structures due to the installation of the piles;
the type of mallet or vibrator used;
the dynamic tensions in the pile during its driving;
– for those types of drilled piles in which a fluid is used inside the drilling,
need to maintain the fluid pressure at a certain level, to ensure that the drilling does not
collapse and that the hydraulic rupture of the base does not occur;
the cleaning of the base and occasionally of the excavated wall, especially when using bentonite,
to eliminate the remolded materials;
the local instability of the drilling during concreting operations, as it can cause a
inclusion of soil in the shaft of the pile;
the entry of soil or water into the section of the cast-in-situ concrete piles;
the alteration of concrete before it sets due to water flow in the ground;
the effect of the suction of water from the concrete by layers of unsaturated sand located around the pile;
the delay produced by the chemical elements of the soil or the effect of the movement of the water in the land
about the fresh concrete of the poured piles if they are not permanently cased;
the soil compaction due to the driving of the displacement piles;
the ground disturbances caused by the excavation of the drilled piles.

7.5 Load tests on piles

7.5.1 Generalities

(1) P Pile load tests should be carried out in the following situations:
when using a type of pile or installation method different from comparable experiences
available and that has not been tested on soils or under comparable load conditions;
– when a piloting system is used that goes beyond the experience of the personnel who will carry out the work;
when the piles are going to be subjected to a load for which theory and experience do not provide
sufficient confidence in the project. The testing procedure should therefore provide a load
similar to that assumed in the project;
when the observations made during the installation process indicate that the behavior of the
The pilot deviates quite significantly and unfavorably from the assumption based on the in-situ investigation or from the
experience, and when the field investigations do not clarify the reasons for such deviation.

(2) Load tests on piles can be used for:

establish whether the construction method is suitable;
determine the response of a representative pile and the surrounding ground to the load, both in
terms of seating as limit load;
check the behavior of the individual piles and assess that of the pile group.

In those cases where the effectiveness of load tests is questionable due to difficulties in modeling.
The load variations (for example, cyclic loads) it is advisable to use very prudent design values.
teeth for the properties of materials.
ENV 1997-1:1994 64

(3) If a load test is performed on a pile, it should usually be located where it is believed that the conditions exist.
of the most adverse terrain. If this is not possible, a certain margin of correction will be allowed when determining the
characteristic value of load-bearing capacity.

If load tests are carried out on two or more test piles, the locations of the tests must be
representative of the pilot testing site, and one of the test piles should be placed where it is believed that
there are the most adverse ground conditions.

An appropriate time should be allowed to pass between the installation of the test pile and the start of the
load test to ensure that the pile material has acquired the required strength and that the pressures
Interstitials have returned to their initial values.

(5) In some cases, it may be necessary to record the interstitial pressures caused by the installation of the
pilots and their subsequent dissipation, to make an appropriate decision about the start of the load test.

7.5.2 Static Load Tests

[Link] Loading process

(1) The development of the pile load test, particularly regarding the number of load steps, the
duration of them and the application of the load cycles will be such that it allows drawing conclusions about the
deformational behavior, creep, and recoverable deformation of the pile foundation from
the measurements taken on the tested pile. In test piles, the load will be such that it allows extraction
conclusions on the ultimate breaking load.

(2) Static load tests should be carried out in accordance with the procedure recommended by the
ISSMFE Subcommittee on Laboratory and Field Testing, "Axial Load Testing on Piles, Method
"Suggested", published in the "ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal", in June 1985, on pages 79 to 90.

Devices for the determination of forces, stresses, deformations, or displacements should

calibrate before conducting the test.

The direction of the applied force in a compression or tension pile test should coincide with the axis.
longitudinal of the pile.

In general, load tests on piles conducted with the purpose of designing a pile foundation to
traction should be carried until breakage. The extrapolation of the load-displacement graph obtained from the
Tensile pile tests should normally not be conducted, especially in the case of transient loads.
very high.

[Link] Test Drivers

The number of test piles needed to verify the project should be selected based on the si-
the following aspects:
the conditions of the land and its variability throughout the site;
the geotechnical category of the structure;
the previously documented data on the behavior of the same type of pile in ground conditions
similar
the total number and types of piles existing in the project.

The ground conditions at the testing site must be thoroughly investigated. The depth of the
surveys or field tests will be enough to determine the nature of the terrain both around and
below the tip of the pile. It must include all the strata that can significantly contribute to
deformational behavior of the pile, at least up to a depth of 5 times the diameter, below
the tip of the pile, unless sound rock or very hard soil is found at a shallower depth.
 - 65 - ENV 1997-1:1994

(3)P The method used for the installation of the test piles will be thoroughly documented, in accordance with
section 7.10.

[Link] Service drivers

The number of load tests on service piles should be selected based on the recorded data.
during the installation.

(2) The selection of test and service piles may be prescribed in the contract documents. This
Prescription may refer to the results of the records made during the installation of the piles.

The load applied to the test and service piles must be at least equal to the design load used.
in each case, in the foundation project.

7.5.3 Dynamic load tests

The results of the dynamic load tests can be used for projections, provided that it has been
conducted an appropriate site investigation and that the method has been calibrated in relation to
static load tests on the same type of piles, of similar length and cross-section, and in some
equivalent ground conditions.

The results of the dynamic load tests should always be considered in relation to one another.

(3) Dynamic load tests can be used as an indicator of the resistance of the piles and for
detect defective piles.

7.5.4 Load Test Report

(1) A report will be made of all load tests. This report will include:
a description of the site;
the conditions of the land, referring to the research conducted;
the type of pile;
– a description of the charging and measuring devices, and the reaction system;
the calibration documents of the load cells, the jacks, and the comparators;
the records of the installation of the piles;
a photographic document of the pile and its location;
the results of the tests, in numerical form;
– the seat-time graphs for each applied load, when a loading procedure has been followed by
steps
the load-seat behavior measured;
the justification of the reasons for making any deviation from the previous recommendations.

7.6 Compression pilots

7.6.1 Project in limit states

(1) The project must demonstrate that the following classes of limit states are sufficiently improbable:
– ultimate limit state of failure due to overall stability;
– ultimate limit state of bearing capacity failure of the pile foundation;
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 66 -

ultimate limit state due to collapse or severe damage of the supported structure, caused by movements of
piloting
service limit states in the supported structure due to the movements of the piles.
(2) The overall stability should be checked in accordance with section 7.6.2. Normally, the project must ...
consider the safety margin regarding failure due to bearing capacity, which is the state in which the
drivers move indefinitely on the terrain with negligible increase in resistance. This is
developed in section 7.6.3.
The seat of the piles is considered in 7.6.4. For those piles that require large movements.
to reach its ultimate load-bearing capacity, limit states can occur in supported structures
before the entire resistance of the piles is mobilized. In these cases, the method used in 7.6.3 for the
the obtaining of the characteristic and design values should also be used for the entire load curve-
seat and with the same numerical factors.

7.6.2 General Stability

(1) The failure due to the loss of overall stability of the foundations with piles must be considered.
compression.

(2) When there is a possibility of instability, failure surfaces that pass below should be considered.
the piles or those that intersect them.

(3)P The clauses of section 6.5.1 regarding the general stability of shallow foundations are also
of application to foundations that have compression piles.

7.6.3 Bearing Capacity

[Link] Generalities
(1) To demonstrate that the foundation will support the project loads with an adequate safety margin, one
must meet the following inequality for all ultimate limit state load cases and all
load combinations:
Fcd≤Rcd 7.1
where
Fcdit is the axial compression load of the project, at ultimate limit state;
Rcdit is the sum of all the components of the bearing capacity of the project, in the ultimate limit state, of the
foundation by piles against axial loads, taking into account the effect of any inclined load or
eccentric.

(2) In principlecdshould include the weight of the pile and Rcdshould include the weight of the lands above the
Foundation. However, these two components can be eliminated if they approximately cancel each other out.
They may not be annulled when:
negative friction is significant;
the soil is very light;
– or the pile extends above the surface of the ground.

(3)P For pile group, two failure mechanisms must be considered:

failure due to the bearing capacity of the piles individually;
failure due to the load-bearing capacity of the piles and the soil contained between them, acting as a block.

The project bearing capacity should be taken as the lower value of these two.
 67 ENV 1997-1:1994

(4) Generally, the load-bearing capacity of a group of piles acting as a block can be calculated by treating
the block as a simple large-diameter pile. When the piles are used to reduce the settlements of a
Slab, its resistance corresponding to creep load can be used to analyze service states of
the structure.

(5) The assessment of the ultimate bearing capacity of individual piles must take into account the possible
adverse effects of adjacent piles.

If the stratum on which the piles rest is above a soft layer, it must be taken into account.
effect of this layer on the bearing capacity of the foundation.

(7) When determining the bearing capacity of a pile group project, the type of must be taken into account.
structure that encases the piles.

(8) If the piles support a flexible structure, it should be assumed that the bearing capacity of the weakest pile
governs the appearance of a limit state.

If the piles support a rigid structure, the capacity of the structure should be utilized to
redistribute the load among the piles. A limiting state will occur only if there is a significant number of
drivers that fail jointly; therefore, it is not necessary to consider the failure modes that involve
a single pilot.

Special attention should be paid to the possible failure of the edge piles, caused by inclined loads or
eccentrics that come from the supported structure.

[Link] Ultimate bearing capacity calculated from load tests on piles

The way in which the load tests are conducted must be in accordance with section 7.5 and must
specify in the project report.

The test piles to be tested must be installed in the same way as the service piles, which will form the
foundation, and will be founded on the same stratum.

(3) If the diameter of the test piles differs from the diameter of the service piles, the following must be taken into account
possible behavioral differences between piles of different diameters when evaluating bearing capacity that
it is going to be adopted.

In the case of very large diameter piles, it is not often practical to carry out load tests.
in full-scale test piles. Load tests on smaller piles can always be considered
what:
the relationship between the diameter of the test pile and that of the service pile is not less than 0.5;
the smaller diameter test piles are manufactured and installed in the same way as the piles
used in the foundation;
The test pile is instrumented in such a way that the resistances at the tip and along the shaft can be
obtain independently from the measurements.

This method should be used with caution with driven open-ended tubular piles, due to the
influence of the diameter on the mobilization of the resistance by the tip of the soil plug in the pile.

(4) In the case of a pile foundation subjected to negative friction, the ultimate resistance must be corrected.
of the pilot or the mobilized for the verification criterion of the ultimate limit state, according to the results of the
load tests, subtracting from the forces measured at the pile head, the resistance due to lateral friction,
positive, that has been measured in the compressible stratum or maximum according to project criteria.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 68 -

(5) During the load test, a positive lateral friction will develop along the entire length of the pile.
what should be taken into account according to section [Link]. The maximum load assigned to the piles of
service must be greater than the sum of the external project load plus twice the negative friction.

(6)P When the ultimate characteristic bearing capacity is obtainedckstarting from the values of Rcmmeasured in one or
various load tests of piles should take into account the variability of the terrain and the variable effect of the
installation of the piles. At a minimum, both conditions a) and b) from Table 7.1 must be met using the
equation:
Rck=Rcm/ξ (7.2)

Table 7.1
Factors for obtaining Rck

Number of load tests 1 2 >2

a) Factor ξ on the average value of Rcm 1.5 1.35 1.3

b) Factor ξ on the lower value of Rcm [1.5] [1.25] 1.1

7 The systematic and random components of the variations in the terrain should be distinguished in the interpretation.
assessment of the load tests of piles. The systematic components of the variation can be taken into account.
of the land considering different zones of homogeneous conditions or a trend of the conditions of
land based on the location, within the construction site. The records of the must be verified.
installation of the test pile or piles and any deviation from the conditions must be taken into account
execution standards. This variation should be partially addressed by a proper selection of the piles.
test.

(8)P To obtain the ultimate bearing capacity of the project, the characteristic value, Rckit should be subdivided into the
resistance components by the tip, Rbk, and of resistance by the trunk, R,sk, in such a way that:

Rck =Rbk+Rsk (7.3)

(9) The relationship between these components should be obtained from the results of the load test, when they have been
measures of those components have been taken, or it should be estimated using the methods from section [Link].

(10)P The load-bearing capacity of the project, R cd, it should be obtained from the following expression:

RcdRbk/γb+Rsk/γs 7.4

where

γbyγThey are taken from Table 7.2.

Table 7.2
Values of γb,γs yγt

Partial coefficients γb γs γt
Sunk pilots 1.3 [1.3] 1.3
Perforated pilots [1.6] [1.3] 1.5
CFA piles (continuous helical screw) 1.45 [1.3] [1.4]
 69 ENV 1997-1:1994

Typically, load tests only provide the curves that relate the pile load to the settlement.
and the time with the seat, without distinguishing between resistance by the tip and by the shaft. Therefore, it is common not
to apply the partial coefficients when assessing the project value of the resistance by the tip and by the shaft.
Instead, a partial coefficient can be applied to the ultimate characteristic resistance of the pile, Rck, that
corresponds to the values γtdata in Table 7.2.

[Link] Ultimate bearing capacity obtained from the results of field tests

The project bearing capacity of a pile, Rcdit will be calculated as follows:

Rcd=Rbd+Rsd (7.5)

where

Rbdit is the resistance per project tip;

Rsdit is the resistance by project shaft.

(2)PRbdyRsdthey must be obtained from:

Rbd =Rbk/γb
y
Rsd=Rsk/γs (7.6)

where

Rbk =bk·Ab

y Rsk= ∑ qskiAyes 7.7

i=1

where the following symbols have been used:

RbkyRsk characteristic values of resistances by the tip and by the shaft;

A nominal area of the base of the pile;

Ayes nominal area of the lateral surface of the pile in the soil layer;

qbk characteristic value of the resistance per unit area of the base;

qsick characteristic value of the resistance per unit area of the trunk in the capai.

(3)P The values of 'γby γThey should be taken from Table 7.2.

The characteristic valuesbkyqsickthey must be obtained from the calculation rules based on correlations
established between the results of static load tests and the results of field tests or
laboratory. These correlations must be corrected so that the ultimate bearing capacity using the
characteristic valuesbkyqsikdo not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity, used to establish the correlation,
divided by [1.5], on average.

The calculation rules must be established based on comparable experiences, as defined in the
Section 1.4.2.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 70 -

(6) To evaluate the validity of a calculation rule, the following elements should be considered:
type of soil, including grain size, mineralogy, angularity, density, preconsolidation, compressibility
dad and permeability;
installation of the pile, including excavation or driving method (or other installation method), length,
diameter and material;
testing method.

One must consider the resistance of an area of the ground above and below the tip of the pile.
calculate the resistance by the tip of a pile.

(8) The area of the ground that influences the resistance by the tip covers several diameters above and below.
the tip of the pile. In the project, the existence of any weak layer in this area should be taken into account, since
which can have a great influence on the resistance at the tip.

If the soft ground is found at a depth below the tip less than 4 times the diameter of the
Pilot, the possibility of a failure mechanism due to punching should be considered.

(9) For driven tubular piles, with open ends, or for box piles, with openings greater than 500 mm in
any direction, without special devices inside the tube or drawer to induce blockages, the resistance
at the tip it must be limited to the smaller of the values of:
the shear resistance between the ground plug and the inner face of the tube or box;
the resistance at the tip obtained using the cross-sectional area of the tip.

If piles with enlargements at the tip are placed, the possible adverse effects must be taken into account.
widening in the resistance at the tip and by the shaft of the piles.

[Link] Ultimate bearing capacity calculated from the pile driving formulas

(1) If pile driving formulas are used to evaluate the ultimate bearing capacity of individual piles at
compression in a foundation, the validity of the formulas must have been demonstrated through evidence
previous experimental good behavior or through static load tests conducted on the
same type of pile, of similar length and cross-section, and in similar ground conditions.

The pile driving formulas will only be used if the soil stratification has been previously
determined.

(3) In the project, the number of piles that need to be re-driven must be specified. If the re-driving of piles results in
lower results, these should be used as a basis for determining the ultimate bearing capacity. If
The retake provides higher results, these can be taken into account.

(4) The re-sinking should generally be carried out in loamy soils, unless comparable local experience suggests otherwise.
it has shown that it is unnecessary.

[Link] Ultimate bearing capacity obtained from the analysis of the wave equation

(1) If the wave equation analysis is used to evaluate the ultimate bearing capacity of individual piles at
compression, the validity of the analysis must have been demonstrated through previous behavioral evidence
acceptable in static load tests, carried out on the same type of pile, of similar length and section
transversal, and under similar ground conditions. The energy level used during the load test
the dynamic must be high enough to allow for an appropriate interpretation of the capacity of the
pilot in a sufficiently high state of deformation.

The parameters used as data in the analysis of the wave equation may be subject to
modification when dynamic tests are conducted on test piles.
 71 ENV 1997-1:1994

(3) Dynamic tests on piles can provide a broader view of the actual performance of the hammer and
of the dynamic parameters of the terrain.

(4)P Normally, the analysis of the wave equation will only be used if the stratification of the ground has been
determined through surveys and field tests.

7.6.4 Settlement of foundation by piles

The seats for the conditions of the ultimate limit states and of service must be evaluated and compared with the
relevant limit values of the movements, given in section 2.4.5.

(2) In cases where a limit state may appear in the supported structure, before it mobilizes
completely the ultimate bearing capacity of the piles, the procedures in section 7.6.3 for the
the determination of the characteristic and design values must also be applied to the entire load-settlement curve,
with the same numerical factors and the same treatment of negative friction.

(3) The evaluation of the entries must include the following components:
the seat of an isolated pile;
the additional seat due to the group effect.

The analysis of entries must include an estimation of the differential entries that may occur.

7.7 Traction pilots

7.7.1 Generalities

The traction pile project must be consistent with the design standards provided in section 7.6.
these are applicable. This section presents the specific rules for the foundations project
that include traction piles.

7.7.2 Ultimate tensile strength

[Link] Generalities

(1) To demonstrate that the foundation will support the project loads with an adequate safety margin.
to the tensile fracture, the following inequality must be met for all load cases and all combinations
loading conditions, at ultimate limit state:

Ftd<=Rtd 7.8

where

Ftdit is the axial tension load of the project, in the ultimate limit state;

Rtdit is the project tensile strength, in ultimate limit state, of the pile foundation.

(2) For tension piles, two failure mechanisms must be considered:

extraction of the piles from the ground mass;
lifting of the land block that contains the piles.

3 For isolated tension piles or for groups of tension piles, failure can occur due to extraction of a
cone of ground, especially in the case of piles with a widened tip or embedded in rock.
ENV 1997-1:1994 72

(4)P To demonstrate that the safety margin against the breakage of piles under tension due to uplift is adequate.
of the soil block that contains the piles, as illustrated in figure 7.1, the following must be met
inequality for all load cases and all load combinations, in ultimate limit state:

Ftd≤Wd (U2d-U1d) +Fd (7.9)

where

Ftd it is the project traction that acts on the group of piles;

Wd it is the project weight of the soil block (including water) and the piles;

Fd It is the shear resistance of the project of the lateral sides of the soil block;

U1dit is the project force, directed downward, due to the water pressure on the top of the
foundation by piles;

U2dit is the project force, directed outward, due to the water pressure that acts on the base of the block-
how much ground.

Fig. 7.1−Failure by uplift of a group of piles subjected to tension

(5) Normally, the block effect will govern the tensile strength of the project if the distance between the piles is
equal to or less than the square root of the product of the length of the pile by its diameter.

The group effect, which can reduce the effective vertical stresses in the soil and thus the resistance due to the
The shafts of the individual piles of the group must be considered when evaluating the tensile strength of a group.
of pilots.

The serious adverse effect of cyclical loads and load reversals on the
tensile strength.

(8) Comparable experience based on pile load tests should be used to evaluate this effect.
 - 73 - ENV 1997-1:1994

[Link] Ultimate tensile strength calculated from load tests on piles

(1) Load tests on piles to determine the ultimate tensile [Link] an isolated pilot
They will be carried out in accordance with section 7.5 and taking into account the clauses of section [Link].

(2)P When obtaining the ultimate characteristic tensile strength, Rtk, based on the values of Rtmmeasured in one or in
various load tests, the variability of the terrain and the variability of the effect must be taken into account
installation of the piles. At a minimum, both conditions a) and b) from Table 7.3 must be met using the
equation:

Rtk=Rtm/ξ (7.10)

Table 7.3
Factors for obtaining Rtk

Number of load tests 1 2 >2

a) Factor ξ over the mean value of Rtm 1.5 [1.35] 1.3

b) Factor ξ on the lower value of Rtm [1.5] 1.25 [1.1]

(3) Normally, when loading traction piles, more than one pile should be tested. In the case that there is
A very large number of tension piles should be tested at least 2%.

The parts of the tested pile or piles installation must be verified, and any should be taken into account.
deviation from the normal execution conditions in the interpretation of the load test results
the pilots.

(4)P The ultimate tensile strength, Rtdmust be obtained from:

Rtd=Rtk/γm (7.11)

where

γm[1.6]

(5)P For pile groups, the interaction effect must be considered when calculating the tensile resistance.
based on the results of the load tests on individual piles.

[Link] Ultimate tensile strength calculated from the results of ground tests

The calculation methods based on test results will only be used when they have been
checked through load tests on similar piles, of similar length and cross-section, and in
similar ground conditions.

The project value of the ultimate tensile resistance of a single pile or a group of piles, obtained at
Based on the soil's resistant parameters, the evaluation must consider the shear strength between the pile and
the soil in the layers that contribute to the tensile strength of the pile.

(3) Annex F provides an example of a calculation model for the tensile strength of an individual pile or a group.
of pilots.

7.7.3 Vertical movement

Vertical movements for the ultimate limit state and serviceability conditions must be evaluated and
compare with the relevant limit values of the movements.
ENV 1997-1:1994 74

(2) This evaluation must follow the general principles of section 7.6.4. In general, the verification of the resistance
the last tension to traction ensures that vertical movements will not cause damage to the structure and that they will not
it will not produce any service limit state. However, in some situations, criteria may arise.
very severe for the service limit state and therefore a separate check is required for the
displacements.

7.8 Side-loaded pilots

7.8.1 Generalities

(1) The project of piles subjected to lateral loads must be consistent with the design rules given in the
section 7.6, when these are applicable. This section presents the specific design rules
foundations with piles subjected to lateral load.

7.8.2 Ultimate resistance to lateral loads

[Link] Generalities

(1) To demonstrate that a pile will support the project lateral loads with an adequate safety margin.
In the event of breaking, the following inequality must be fulfilled for all loading cases and all combinations.
load conditions; in ultimate limit state:

Ftrd<=Rtrd (7.12)

where

Ftrdit is the lateral load of the project, in the ultimate limit state;

Rtrdit is the project resistance in the limit state against lateral loads, taking into account the effect of
any axial load of compression or tension.

(2) One of the following rupture mechanisms must be considered:

- for short piles, rotation or translation as a rigid body;
for long slender piles, flexural failure of a pile, accompanied by local failure and displacement of the
soil around the top of the pile.

The group effect must be considered when evaluating the resistance of laterally loaded piles.

(4) A transverse load applied to a group of piles can result in a combination of compression and tension.
and transverse forces applied to the individual piles.

[Link] Ultimate resistance to lateral loads, obtained from load tests on piles

(1) The horizontal displacement tests of the pile head must be carried out in accordance with the
section 7.5 and taking into account the clauses of section [Link], when applicable.

(2) Contrary to what happens with the testing procedure described in section 7.5, it is normally
unnecessary to load until breakage. The magnitude and line of action of the test load must simulate the loads of
pile project.

(3) A tolerance for the variability of the terrain should be allowed, particularly in the upper meters of the
pilot, when choosing the number of piles to be tested and calculating the project lateral resistance from
from the results of the load tests.
 75 ENV 1997-1:1994

(4) The installation reports for the test pile or piles must be verified, and any relevant factors must be taken into account.
deviation from the normal execution conditions in the interpretation of the load test results
the piles. In the groups of piles, the effect of interaction and the immobility of the
head when calculating the transverse resistance from the results of load tests on piles
individual essays.

[Link] Ultimate resistance against lateral loads obtained from the results of soil tests and
the resistance parameters of the pile
The transverse resistance of a pile or a group of piles must be calculated using a set
compatible with bending moments, shear forces, ground reactions, and displacements.

The analysis of a laterally loaded pile must include the possibility of structural failure of the pile in the
land, in the area below its surface, according to section 7.9.

3 The calculation of the resistance to lateral loads of a long and slender pile can be carried out using
the theory of the beam loaded at one end and supported by a deformable medium, characterized by a coefficient
reaction horizontal.

The rotational degree of freedom of the piles at the connection with the structure must be taken into account when evaluating the
transverse resistance of said piles.

7.8.3 Transversal Displacement

(1) The assessment of the transverse displacement of the top of a pile foundation must consider
count:
the rigidity of the ground and its variation with the stress level;
the flexural rigidity of individual piles;
the rigidity at the moment of the piles in the connection with the structure;
the group effect;
the effect of alternative or cyclic loads.

7.9 Structural project of piles

The pilots must be verified against structural failure, according to section 2.4.

The structure of the piles must be designed to adapt to all the situations that the piles are subjected to.
subjected, both during construction, including transportation and driving when required, as well as during the
use. The piles subjected to tension must be designed to withstand the full tensile force.
along its entire length, if necessary.

The structural project must consider the construction tolerances specified for the type of pile.
components of the actions and the behavior of the foundation.

The slender piles that cross water or thick deposits of very soft soil must be checked for buckling.

(5) Buckling failure is unlikely to occur in piles fully embedded in the ground.

According to established practice, buckling must be checked in piles in soil layers with strength.
characteristic without drainage less than 15 kPa.

7.10 Construction supervision

A pile installation plan must be the basis for construction work.
ENV 1997-1:1994 76

(2) The plan should provide the following project information:

– the type of pile, with designation if it is standardized, or Technical Approval otherwise;

the position and inclination of each pile, and the tolerances in position;

the cross-section of the pile;

the length of the pile;

the number of piles;

the load capacity required for each pile;

the level of the tip of the pile (with respect to a fixed base within or near the work site) or the
required penetration resistance;

- the installation sequence;

the known obstacles;

any other limitation on the activities of the piloting installation.

It is necessary to implement the placement of all the piles and to make records of the site of the work.
from the placement of the piles. For each pile, a report signed by the supervisor must be available.
work and by the pile driver.

(4) The installation report for each pile should include the following, when appropriate:

the type of pile and the installation equipment;

the number of the pile;

the cross-section, the length, and the reinforcement of the pile (for concrete piles);

the date and time of the placement (including interruptions in construction);

the type of concrete, the volume of concrete used, and the placement method for the concrete piles
two in-situ;

the specific weight, the pH, the Marsh viscosity index, and the fines content of bentonite slurries
(when used);

the pumping pressures of the slurry or concrete, internal and external diameters, pitch of the screw and
penetration per turn (for continuous helical drilled piles or other injection piles);

For driven piles, the values of the resistance to driving measures, such as weight and drop height
or the energy of the mallet, the frequency of the blows, and the number of blows to penetrate at least the last ones
0.25 m;

the starting power of the vibrators (when used);

the torque applied to the drilling motor (when used);

for extraction piles, the strata found in the excavation and the conditions of the tip, if the
the behavior of the tip is critical;

the obstructions encountered during the pile installation operations;

the deviations of position and direction, and the actual installation level.
 - 77 - ENV 1997-1:1994

The documents must be kept for at least a period of five years after the completion of the work.
Plans of the works actually executed should be collected after the completion of the piloting and kept alongside the
construction documents.

(6) If the on-site observations or the inspection of the parts reveal uncertainties regarding the quality of the
installed drivers, further investigations must be conducted to determine the conditions of the
drivers during construction and if corrective measures are necessary. These investigations must include or
the re-testing or integrity tests of the piles, in combination with tests of the ground adjacent to the
suspicious piles, and static load tests on the piles.

Tests must be conducted to examine the integrity of the piles whose quality is sensitive to the process.
placement dimensions, if the procedures cannot be reliably controlled.

(8) Dynamic tests with small deformations can be used to make a global assessment of the piles.
that could have serious defects or that could have caused a significant loss of strength in the
soil during construction. Since defects such as insufficient concrete quality or a thickness
insufficient concrete coating, which affects the long-term behavior of the pile,
they generally cannot be detected through dynamic tests, they may be necessary for monitoring
from construction other tests such as sonic tests, vibration tests, or core extraction.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 78 -

8 CONTAINMENT STRUCTURES

8.1 General
The provisions of this chapter apply to structures that serve for the containment of land, material
similar to water. It is understood that the material is contained if it is held at an angle greater than which
I would naturally adopt if the structure were not present. Containment structures include all kinds
of walls and support systems, in which structural elements are combined with soil or rock.

(2) When considering the containment structure project, it may be appropriate to distinguish between the three types.
main following of containment structures:
Gravity walls are walls made of stone or solid or reinforced concrete, which have a base footing with
either without a heel or claw. The own weight of the wall, sometimes including stabilizing soil or rock masses, plays
a significant role in supporting the contained material. Among the examples of such walls are
they include gravity concrete walls, of constant or variable thickness, concrete walls
assembly on footings, the walls of buttresses, etc;
The embedded retaining walls in the ground are relatively thin, made of steel, reinforced concrete, or wood.
held by anchors, struts and/or passive earth thrust. The flexural strength of such structures plays
a significant role in supporting the contained material, while the role of the weight of it
structure is insignificant. Examples of such structures include: the stack tables screens of
cantilever steel, anchored or with steel or concrete anchors sheet piles, walls
screen, etc;
Mixed containment structures include elements of the two previous types. There is a great variety.
Such walls. Examples include 'cofferdams', structures of earth reinforced with tendons,
geotextiles or injections, structures with multiple rows of ground anchors or soil nailing, etc.

8.2 Limit states

(1) A list of the limit states that must be considered should be included. At a minimum, the following states
limits must be considered for all types of containment structures:
loss of global stability;
breakage of a structural element, such as a wall, an anchor, a brace, or a shoring board, or a failure in
the connection between these elements;
combined rupture of the ground and a structural element;
movements of the containment structure that could cause collapse or affect appearance or use
efficient of the structure, of the nearby structures or of the services that rely on it;
water loss due to filtration, unacceptable, through or beneath the wall;
unacceptable transport of soil grains through or beneath the wall;
unacceptable changes in the water flow of the land.

(2)P Additionally, the following limit states must be considered for gravity retaining structures and for
the mixed containment structures:
failure of the bearing capacity of the soil beneath the foundation;
– sliding failure along the base of the wall;
fall due to wall overturning.

and for the embedded retaining structures:

failure due to rotation or translation of the wall, or parts of it;
- failure due to loss of vertical equilibrium of the wall.
 - 79 - ENV 1997-1:1994

For all types of containment structures, the possible combinations of states must be considered.
aforementioned limit.

(4) In the gravity containment structures project, the same type of pro- is often found.
problems encountered in the project of shallow foundations and embankments and excavations. When considering
the limit states for gravity retaining structures must therefore apply the principles of
Chapter 6, when appropriate. Special care must be taken to account for capacity failure.
important of the ground below the base of the wall, under loads with large eccentricities and inclinations;
see section 6.5.4.

8.3 Actions, geometric data, and project situations

8.3.1 Actions

(1) When selecting actions for the calculation of limit states, the actions that appear must be considered.
in section 2.4.2.

[Link] Weight of the filler material

The project values of the unit weight of the fill material must be estimated based on the knowledge of the
available materials for filling. The Geotechnical Project Report must specify the
checks that must be carried out during the construction process to verify that the actual values of
The field is not worse than the assumptions in the project.

[Link] Overloads

The determination of project values for overloads must take into account the presence on or near
from the surface of the ground of nearby buildings, parked or moving vehicles, cranes, granular material
stored, goods, containers, etc.

(2) Special attention must be paid to the effect of repeated overloads, such as those that occur in the
rails of the cranes located on a dock wall. The pressures induced by such loads can exceed
significantly due to the permanent load or to the result of a static application of a load of
equal magnitude.

[Link] Weight of water

The project values of the unit weight of water must reflect whether the water is fresh, saline, or loaded with
chemical products or pollutants to such an extent that it makes a modification of the values necessary
normal.

(2) Local conditions, such as salinity and silt content, can substantially influence weight.
water unit.

[Link] Wave forces

(1) The project values of wave action and wave impact forces should be selected based on
local data available for the existing climatic and hydraulic conditions at the site of the
structure.

[Link] Fastening Forces

The components of the forces caused by the prestressing operations must be considered as
actions. Project values must be selected considering the effect of overvoltage of the
anchors and the effect of anchor relaxation.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 80 -

[Link] Collision Forces

The determination of project values for impact loads must take into account the absorbed energy.
through the containment system.

(2) For lateral impacts on retaining walls, it is usually necessary to consider increased stiffness.
that shows the ground contained when resisting an impact on the wall face. In addition, it should be investigated the
liquefaction risk, due to lateral impact on embedded walls.

The impact load of an iceberg when colliding with a containment structure must be calculated.
considering the compressive strength of ice and the thickness of the iceberg. When calculating the strength of the
Ice compression must take into account its salinity and homogeneity.

[Link] Effect of temperature

(1) When designing a containment structure, the effect of abnormal differences must be taken into account.
temperature, in time and space.

(2) The effects of temperature changes must be considered especially when determining the loads on braces.
and punctual.

The effects of fire are addressed in the sections dedicated to fire, in the Eurocodes related to the different
materials.

The project values of the forces acting on a containment structure, caused by a layer
of ice that covers a sheet of water, must be calculated taking into account:
the initial temperature of the ice before melting begins;
the rate at which the temperature increases;
the thickness of the ice.

Special precautions must be taken, such as selecting the appropriate filling material, a system
of drainage or insulation, to prevent the formation of ice lenses in the ground behind the
retaining structures.

8.3.2 Geometric Data

The project values of the geometric data must be obtained according to the principles established in
section 2.4.5.

[Link] Surface of the land

The project values of the geometric data concerning the fill located behind the structure of
containment must take into account the variation of the values of real fields. Project values must
also take into account the planned excavation or the possible erosion in front of the containment structure.

(2) When the stability of a retaining wall depends on the passive pressure of the ground located in front of it
structure, the ground level in passive reaction must be lowered in the ultimate limit state calculations
amount equal to ∆aFor a cantilever wall, ∆ait must be equal to [10%] of its height, and for an anchored wall or
supported,∆ait must be equal to [10%] of the height below the lowest support, with ∆alimited to a maximum of
0.5 m.

[Link] Water levels

The selection of project values from the geometric data that determine the regime of free water and the
Groundwater regime should be established based on the available local data, for the conditions
hydraulic and hydrogeological conditions existing at the site of the containment structure.
 81 ENV 1997-1:1994

The effect of permeability variations on the filtration regime must also be taken into account.
of groundwater. The possibility of adverse water pressure conditions due to
presence of hanging or artesian water levels.

8.3.3 Project Situations

(1) In the containment structures project, the following points must be considered:
the variation of soil properties over time and in space;
the variations of water levels and interstitial pressure over time;
the variation of actions and the way they are combined;
the excavation, undermining, or erosion in front of the retaining structure;
the predictable effect of future structures and overloads;
the backfill of the containment structure;
the ground movements due to subsidence, frost, etc.

(2) In maritime structures, the forces due to ice and waves do not need to be applied simultaneously.
again at the same point.

8.4 Project and Construction Considerations

(1) In the project, the ultimate and service limit states must be considered, using one of the methods
mentioned in section 2.1.

(2) The complexity of the interaction between the ground and the containment structure makes it difficult, at times, to
to project a containment structure in detail, before the actual execution begins. In these cases it is
it is appropriate to use the observational method for the containment structures project.

In many soil retention structures, a critical limit state occurs when the wall displaces.
sufficient to cause damage to nearby structures or services. Although the collapse of the wall can
Not being imminent, the degree of damage caused in this way may considerably exceed a threshold state of
service in the supported structure. However, the project methods and the required safety factors
for this code for the project, the ultimate limit states are usually sufficient to prevent
the appearance of this type of limit state, as long as the soils involved are at least firm or
moderately dense and that the methods and sequences of construction are appropriate. However, it
requires special care with some deposits of very overconsolidated clay, where the horizontal stresses
horizontal at rest can induce substantial movements over a wide area around the
excavations.

The project of the containment structures must take into account the following points, when applicable:
the effects of the construction of the wall, including:
the arrangement of temporary supports on the sides of the excavation;
the changes in in-situ stresses and the resulting ground movements caused by construction
from the wall;

the disturbance of the ground due to piling or drilling operations;

the execution of accesses for construction;
the required water impermeability level, in the finished wall;
the possibility that in the construction of the wall a layer of low permeability is reached and therefore
form a barrier against the water. The resulting equilibrium level of the ground water should be assessed;
the possibility of making anchors in the adjacent lands;
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 82 -

the possibility of excavation between the supports of the retaining walls;

the capacity of the wall to support vertical load;
the ductility of structural components;
the access for the maintenance of the wall itself and any measures for drainage;
the appearance and durability of the wall and the anchors;
For the highlighted table, the need for a sufficiently rigid section to be able to be driven down to the.
project penetration, without loss of unions;
the stability of the drillings and excavations for the screen panels while they are open;
for the filling, the nature of the materials available and the means used to compact it in the area
next to the wall, in accordance with section 5.3.

(4) Whenever possible, the retaining walls should be designed in such a way that the structure warns of
danger (for example, when approaching a final limit state) through visible signals. The project must avoid the
appearance of a brittle fracture, for example a sudden collapse, without any suspicious preliminary deformations.

If the safety and service of the project depend on the satisfactory performance of the drainage, it must be
consider the consequences of a drainage system failure, taking into account the damage to life
structure and the cost of the repair. One of the following conditions must be applied (or a combination of
they) :
a maintenance program for the drainage system must be specified, and the project must allow for a
access for that purpose;
it must be demonstrated both by comparable experiences and by an assessment of the influential water that the
the drainage system will operate properly without maintenance.

(6) The filtration amounts, pressures, and potential chemical content of the flowing water must be considered.

8.5 Determination of earth pressures and water pressures

8.5.1 Project earth pushes

The determination of the project earth pressures must take into account the shape and quantity of the movement.
lying and deformation that is acceptable and that may occur in the containment structure, in the state
considered limit.

(2) As for the next part, the term "earth thrust" will also indicate the thrusts due to soft rocks and
weathered and will include the pressures of the ground water.

The forces exerted by the materials stored in silos must be calculated according to ENV 1991-4.
Eurocode 1, Actions on silos.

The calculations of the magnitudes and directions of the project earth pressures must take into account:
the loads on the ground surface and the slope of the ground surface;
the inclination of the wall with respect to the vertical;
the water levels and the filtration forces in the ground;
the magnitude and direction of the wall's movement relative to the ground;
the balance, both horizontal and vertical, of the containment structure;
the shear resistance and the unit weight of the soil;
the rigidity of the wall and the support system
the roughness of the wall.
 - 83 - ENV 1997-1:1994

(4) The proportion of friction and adhesion of the wall mobilized is a function of:
the soil resistance parameters;
the friction properties of the contact surface between the ground and the wall;
the direction of the wall movements with respect to the ground and the magnitude of the relative ground movement
wall
the capacity of the wall to withstand the vertical forces produced by the friction and adhesion of the wall.

The tangential tension that can be mobilized at the ground-wall contact surface is limited by the
parameters of the contact surface ground-wall, "δ" and "a". For a completely smooth wall, δ = 0 and a = 0,
and for a completely rough one, δ = φy a = c.

On a screen of steel or concrete stacking, containing sand or granular material, normally

it can be assumed that δ = kφy a = 0, where 'φ', due to the perturbations in the ground-contact surface
wall, should not exceed the critical state friction angle of the ground, and 'k' should not exceed
value of 2/3 for precast concrete or metal shoring, while a value of 1 can be assumed for
concrete poured directly. In a metal sheet piling in clays, under undrained conditions, it must
assume normally δ = 0 and a = 0 immediately after the driving. The regeneration of the friction can
to take place after a certain period of time.

The magnitudes and the directions of the earth pressure project must be calculated according to the
specifications given in Table 2.1, using the project values of the ground parameters
appropriate for the considered ultimate limit state.

(6) The value of the earth push project at a ultimate limit state is generally different from its value in a
service limit state. These two values are determined from two fundamentally different calculations.
Therefore, when expressed as an action, land pushing may not be characterized by a single value.
characteristic.

(7) In the case of rock mass containment structures, the calculations of soil pressure must take into account
count the effect of the discontinuities, paying particular attention to their orientation, opening, roughness, and to the
mechanical characteristics of any filler material that might exist.

(8)P In the case of containment structures for soils with swelling issues, the calculations of the thrust of
lands must take into account the swelling potential of the soil.

(9) The swelling pressures produced by cohesive soils depend on plasticity, moisture of
placement and the hydraulic conditions of the surroundings.

8.5.2 Values of soil uplift in rest

(1)P When there is no relative movement between the wall and the ground, the earth pressure must be calculated in its
state of tensions at rest. The determination of the state at rest must take into account the tension history
of the land.

(2) The resting conditions will normally exist in the ground located behind a containment structure.
when the movement of the structure is less than 5.10-4.H, for normally consolidated soils.

For a horizontal land surface, the coefficient Koof thrust at rest, which expresses the relationship between the
effective horizontal and vertical tensions (i.e., the weight of the soils), can be determined by:
Ko = (1 - sinφ') .oc R (8.1)
where
Rocindicate the reason for overconsolidation. The formula should not be used for extremely high values.
deRoc.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 84 -

If the ground rises from the wall at an angle β ≤ φ' with respect to the horizontal, the effective pressure
horizontal can
ho be related to the effective vertical stress through the factor K which is equal
oβ to:

Koβ =K(1+sinβ)
o (8.2)

The direction of the earth thrust can be assumed, then, to be parallel to the ground surface.

8.5.3 Limit values of earth pressure

(1) The limit values of earth pressure are the active or passive pressures that occur when the resistance
the land cut is fully mobilized and there is no impediment to the necessary type and magnitude of
ground or wall movement.

Annex G provides several examples of procedures to calculate the limiting values of earth pressure.

(2)P When there are codal, anchor or similar elements that impose kinematic conditions on the structure,
the limit values tend to a single distribution of possible earth pressures and not necessarily the most
adverse (or economic).

(3) It must be demonstrated that there is vertical equilibrium for the assumed thrust distribution. Otherwise, the
friction parameters of the wall need to be reduced on one side of the wall.

8.5.4 Intermediate values of earth pressure

Intermediate values of earth pressure occur when the movements of the wall are insufficient.
to mobilize the limit values. The determination of the intermediate values of soil pressure must take into account
consider the magnitude of the wall movement and its direction in relation to the ground.

(2) The movement necessary for the development of an active limit state in a non-cohesive soil, with a
medium compactness, at a minimum is of the following order of magnitude:
rotation over the crown of the wall 0.002 .H
rotation around the foot of the wall 0.005 .H
translation movement 0.001 .H

where

This is the height of the wall.

The intermediate values of earth pressure can be calculated using empirical rules, methods of
spring constants, finite element methods, etc.

8.5.5 Effects of compaction

An increase in earth thrust occurs if the back of the wall is filled in layers and the filling is
compact. The determination of additional earth pressure must take into account the procedure of
compaction.

(2) The instrumentation indicates that the additional thrust depends on the applied energy, the thickness of the layers.
compacted, and the number of passes of the compaction unit. However, the compaction is reduced
when the next layer is placed and compacted. When the backfill is completed, the excess thrust
act normally on the top of the wall.

Adequate compaction methods must be applied during execution, with the goal of avoiding
excessive land pushes that can lead to excessive movements for the structure.
 85 ENV 1997-1:1994

8.5.6 Water pressures

(1) The determination of design water pressures must take into account the water levels above the
land and the water table.

When checking the ultimate and service limit states, the water pressures must be taken into account in the...
combinations of actions, in accordance with sections 2.4.2 and 8.4(5)P.

(3)P For structures that contain soils of medium or low permeability (silts and clays), it should be assumed that the
water pressures acting behind the wall correspond to a groundwater level that is assumed to be located at a
level no lower than the top of the material with the lowest permeability, unless a system is installed
reliable drainage or that infiltration is prevented.

(4) When sudden changes in the level of free water may occur, both the situation should be examined.
stable that occurs immediately after the change in the groundwater level, such as the stable situation.

(5)P When no special drainage measures are taken or precautions are taken to prevent infiltration,
The possible effects of water-filled tensile or shrinkage cracks should be considered.

(6) Under these circumstances, when cohesive soils are present, the total project pressure should not be less than,
Normally, the water pressure increases hydrostatically from zero at the surface of the ground.

8.6 Limit State Ultimate Calculation

8.6.1 Generalities

The project of the containment structures must be checked at the ultimate limit state using the actions
of the project and the project situations appropriate to that state, as specified in section 8.3.

All relevant limit states must be considered.

(3) At a minimum, the limit states of the types shown in figures 8.1 to 8.6 should be considered for the
most commonly used containment structures.

The calculations of the ultimate limit states must establish that equilibrium can be achieved using the...
actions and project resistances, as specified in sections 2.4.2 and 2.4.3. It must be considered
the compatibility of deformations of the materials involved in the calculation, when assigning values to the resistances
of the project.

The maximum or minimum values of the ground resistance should be used in the project, whichever is greater.
unfavorable.

(6) Calculation methods can be used that redistribute earth pressures based on displacements and
the relative stiffnesses between the ground and the structural elements.

For fine-grained soils, both short-term and long-term behavior must be considered.

(8) For walls that support differential water pressures, the safety against failure due to must be checked.
hydraulic instability (erosion).

8.6.2 Global Stability

(1) The principles of Section 9 should be used to demonstrate that a global stability failure will not occur.
that the corresponding deformations are sufficiently small.
ENV 1997-1:1994 86

Fig. 8.1−Examples of ultimate limit states for the global stability of retaining structures

(2) At a minimum, the limit states of the types shown in Figure 8.1 must be considered, having
it tells about progressive breaking and liquefaction.

8.6.3 Failure of gravity wall foundations

(1) The principles of chapter 6 should be used to demonstrate that a foundation failure is sufficient
improbable and that the corresponding deformations will be small. Both the capacity must be considered
important as the sliding.

Fig. 8.2−Examples of limit situations of foundation failures of gravity walls

(2) At a minimum, the limit states of the types shown in Figure 8.2 must be considered.

8.6.4 Failure due to rotation of walls embedded in the ground

(1) It must be demonstrated through equilibrium calculations that the walls embedded in the ground are sufficient
penetration into the ground to prevent failure due to rotation.
 87 ENV 1997-1:1994

Fig. 8.3−Examples of limit situations for failure due to rotation of the embedded walls in the ground

(2) At a minimum, the limit states of the types shown in Figure 8.3 must be considered.

The magnitude and direction of the project tangential tension between the ground and the wall must be consistent with the
relative vertical displacements that may occur in project situations.

8.6.5 Vertical failure of embedded walls

(1) It must be demonstrated that vertical equilibrium can be achieved using the soil project resistances and the
vertical project forces on the wall.

Fig. 8.4−Example of limit situation for the vertical failure of a fixed wall

(2) At a minimum, a limiting situation of the type shown in Figure 8.4 must be considered.

(3)P When the movement of the wall downward is considered, the values of pro- should be used in this calculation.
higher projects for the prestressing forces, such as those introduced by the anchors to the ground, that have
a vertical component downward.

The magnitude and direction of the tangential project tension between the ground and the wall must be consistent with the
failure check due to rotation.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 88 -

(5) The vertical and rotational balances should be checked, using the same project values of the tension.
tangential about the wall.

If the wall acts as the foundation of a structure, the vertical equilibrium must be checked using the
principles of chapter 7.

8.6.6 Structural calculation of containment structures

Containment structures, including supporting structural elements such as shoring and

Anchors must be checked against structural failure, in accordance with section 2.4.2.

It must be demonstrated that equilibrium can be achieved without exceeding the project resistance of the wall and of the
supporting structural elements, such as braces and anchors.

Fig. 8.5−Examples of limit situations for the structural failure of containment structures
 89 ENV 1997-1:1994

(2) At a minimum, the limit states of the types shown in Figure 8.5 should be considered.

(3) For each ultimate limit state, it must be demonstrated that the required resistances can be mobilized in the
land and in the structure, with compatible deformations.

In structural elements, it is advisable to consider the reduction of resistance with deformation.

due to effects such as cracking of unreinforced sections, large rotations in plastic hinges or
local buckling of steel sections, according to the Eurocodes related to each material. In the
land, it should also consider the loss of resistance due to soil dilatancy
dense granules and the formation of polished surfaces in clays.

The effects of project actions (moments, internal forces, etc.) on the elements of structures
Containment will be calculated based on the project earth pressures and the project resistances.
of the ground, and multiplied by a model factor γsd. The project resistance of the structural element
The containment will be calculated based on the Eurocode corresponding to the material from which it is made.

(5)P For each ultimate limit state, it must be demonstrated that the forces can move in the ground and the structure.
with compatible deformations.

8.6.7 Failure due to the pulling out of the anchors

It must be demonstrated that equilibrium can be achieved without the anchors being pulled out.
land.

Fig. 8.6−Examples of limit situation for anchor failure due to pullout

(2) The injected anchors should be designed according to section 8.8. At a minimum, they should be
consider the limit states of the types that appear in Figure 8.6 (a,b,c).

For anchor plates, the failure mode shown in Figure 8.6 (d) should be considered. The calculations of the
The capacity of the anchors against pulling out should be based on the resistance to passive thrust, without having
consider the friction of the wall 'δ'.

When the anchors are closely spaced, forming parallel or overlapping sets, the consideration should be
interaction between the anchors and the possible failure of the entire group.
ENV 1997-1:1994 90

8.7 Service limit state

8.7.1 Generalities

(1) The containment structure project must be verified against serviceability limit states, using
the appropriate project situations, as specified in section 8.3.

8.7.2 Displacements

The limitation of the allowed displacement values for the walls and the ground adjacent to them
it should be established according to section 2.4.5, taking into account the tolerances of the displacements
the structures and the services that support them.

It is essential to always make a prudent estimation of the distortion and displacement of the walls.
tension, as well as on the effects on the structures and services they support, based on experience
comparable. This estimate must include the effects of the wall construction. It will be verified that the
Estimated displacements do not exceed the limit values.

If a prudent initial estimate of the displacements exceeds the limit values, the project must be
justify through a more detailed investigation, including calculations of displacements.

If the estimated displacements exceed 50% of the limit values, an investigation must be carried out.
more detailed, including displacement calculations, in the following situations:
when nearby structures and services are particularly sensitive to displacements;
when the walls serve as containment for more than 6 m of low plasticity soil or 3 m of high plasticity soil
plasticity
when the wall is in contact with soft clays, whether along its height or below its base;
when there is no well-established comparable experience.

The displacement calculations must take into account the stiffness of the ground and of the structural elements.
and the construction sequence.

(6) The supposed behavior of materials in displacement calculations should be calibrated through
comparable experiences, with the same calculation model. If a linear behavior is assumed, the stiffness
adopted for the land and the structural elements should be appropriate for the degree of deformation
calculated. Alternatively, complete stress-strain models for the materials can be adopted.

8.7.3 Vibrations

The provisions of section 6.6.2 also apply to containment structures.

8.7.4 Service limit states for structures

The earth pressures of the project, for the verification of the service limit states of the elements
Structural values must be obtained using the characteristic values of all soil parameters.

(2) The assessment of the project earth pressures should take into account the initial stresses, the stiffness and
ground resistance and the stiffness of structural elements.

The earth pressures from the project should be obtained taking into account the permissible deformation of the
structure in its service limit state. These values will not necessarily be the limit values, active or
passive.
 - 91 - ENV 1997-1:1994

8.8 Anchors

8.8.1 Generalities

(1) This section deals with any type of anchoring used to support a containment structure through the
transmission of a tensile force to a soil or rock formation with sufficient load-bearing capacity.

(2) These anchors include:

the installations composed of an anchor head, a free anchor length, and a length of
fixed anchorage, established through injection;
the installations consisting of an anchor head and a fixed anchor length, but without a length
anchor-free (bolts);
the installations consisting of an anchor head, a free length of anchor, and an anchor of
reinforced concrete or steel;
the facilities consisting of a rotating anchor and an anchor head.

The ground anchors can be used as temporary or permanent elements of a structure.

containment.

8.8.2 Anchoring Project

(1) The anchoring project must take into account all possible circumstances during its foreseeable life.
corrosion and creep of permanent anchors will be considered.

Preferably, anchoring systems should be used for which experiences have been documented.
favorable in the long term, regarding its behavior and durability.

The recognition of the terrain prior to the project and the execution of the anchors must extend to the
terrain formations outside the construction site if the tensile forces are to be transferred there.

The anchors that will be in use for more than two years must be designed as permanent anchors.

(4)P To check an anchor against the ultimate limit states, three failure scenarios must be analyzed:
the failure of the anchorage head or of the armor or tendon of the anchorage, in terms of material strength,
or the failure in the contact surfaces between the materials that make up the anchor;
the failure of the anchorage in the tendon-injected material or injected material-ground joint; the resistance of
project extraction must exceed the project load of the anchoring;
the global stability failure of the structure, including the anchors, according to the principles given in
section 8.6.

(5) The pull-out resistance, for a given project situation, depends on the geometry of the anchor, but
The transfer of voltage to the surrounding ground is influenced by the execution technique.

This is applicable, particularly, to injected anchors, where the procedure is important and, in
minor measurement, the chosen drilling technique and the cleaning method.

The tendons and steel bars used for the anchors must be designed according to the principles of the
Standard ENV 1993-1, Eurocode 3, Design of steel structures.

(7) The minimum length of free anchorage should be about 5 m.

ENV 1997-1:1994 92

8.8.3 Constructive considerations

The connection between the tendon and the wall must be able to adjust to the movements that occur during the
service.

Permanent anchors must be protected against corrosion along the entire length of the tendon and of the
anchor head. Environmental conditions during the useful life of the anchor must be taken into account.

(3) The following criteria are considered indicative levels above which they are necessary.
special precautions against water's aggressiveness towards concrete or hardened cement grout:
pH values less than 5.5,
carbon dioxide (CO2) more than 40 mg/l
ammonium (NH4) > 30 mg/l,
magnesium more than 1,000 mg/l
sulfate (SO4) more than 200 mg/l
hardness less than 30 mg CaO/l.

In addition to corrosion protection, mechanical protection is typically required for anchors.

permanent, to avoid damage to the corrosion protection during transportation, installation, and tensioning.

8.8.4 Anchor Tests

The load capacity of an anchor must be evaluated based on test results and experience.
local. The following load tests can be carried out on-site on the anchors:
suitability tests;
reception essays.

Suitability tests must be carried out before the main contract, or on selected anchors that
they are acting during the course of the construction, in order to assess the suitability of the anchoring system,
to provide the necessary anchorage resistance under the specific soil conditions. These tests
they also provide criteria for acceptance tests.

(3)P The reception tests must be conducted to demonstrate that each of the installed anchors has
capacity to support the load assumed in the project.

(4)P The method used for the installation of the anchors, subjected to in-situ suitability tests, must be
fully document, in accordance with section 8.8.7.

Between the moment of the installation of an anchor and the start of a load test, it should be allowed that
the necessary time passes to ensure that the required quality has been achieved in the joint of the
contact surface tendon-grout (or, when applicable, grout-coating) and grout-ground.

It must be verified that all equipment and measuring devices used for anchor testing are sensi-
detailed, precise, and in perfect working condition.

8.8.5 Suitability Tests

(1) At least one suitability test must be carried out for each different soil condition and
constructive method, unless there is comparable experience.

(2) In large anchoring projects, the number of suitability tests for each ground condition should
be at least 1% of the temporary anchors, when the failure has few serious consequences, and at least the
2% in the case of permanent or temporary anchors where the consequences of failure are serious.
 93 ENV 1997-1:1994

(3)P The duration of the tests must be sufficient to ensure that the fluctuations of the prestressing or of the creep
they stabilize within tolerable limits.

(4)P When the characteristic ultimate anchor resistances, R, are obtained,akfrom the valuesRI ammeasured in
one or more suitability tests, a certain tolerance should be allowed for the variability of the terrain and the effect
from the installation of the anchors. At a minimum, the two conditions a) and b) of Table 8.1 must be met
using the equation:

Rak=RI am/ξ (8.3)

Table 8.1
Conversion factors to obtain Rak

Number of suitability tests 1 2 >2

a) on the average value of RI am 1.5 1.35 [1.3]

b) about the lower value of Ram [1.5] 1.25 [1.1]

The resistance of the anchor, Raobtained from the suitability tests, must be equal to the lesser of the loads
corresponding to the three breakage situations mentioned in point 8.8.2(4)P and the limit load of
fluency.

(5) The systematic and random components of terrain variations must be distinguished in interpretation
from the suitability tests.

The systematic components of terrain variability can be determined by considering different zones.
of homogeneous conditions or the trend shown by the ground conditions in relation to its position
on site. Subsequently, the data regarding the installation of the anchors must be verified, and it must be reported
any deviation from the normal execution conditions. These variations should be covered in
part through a correct selection of suitability tests.

(6) Project resistance, Ra, it must be obtained from:

Ra=Rak/γm (8.4)
where

γm[1.25] for temporary anchors and γm[1.50] for permanent anchors.

The project resistance is then compared with the highest project load at the ultimate limit state that
go to support the anchoring.

(7)P The procedure for the suitability tests, particularly regarding the number of load stages, the
the duration of those stages and the application of load cycles must be such that conclusions can be drawn about
the resistance of the anchor, the yield limit load, and the apparent free length of the tendon.

8.8.6 Acceptance tests

All injected anchors must be subjected to a reception test before they are in use and before the
commissioning procedure.

The reception tests must be carried out according to standardized procedures and acceptance criteria.
ion, which are obtained from the results of the suitability tests, with the aim of providing each anchorage
the capacity to withstand the maximum limit state load.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 94 -

The testing procedure must confirm the apparent length of the free tendon and that the force relaxation
The service anchoring will be acceptably small.

(4) The load of the reception test can be used to pre-load the anchor, with the idea of minimizing relaxation.
future of the anchoring force.

8.8.7 Supervision of construction and instrumentation

There should be an installation program for the anchors at the construction site, which includes the
technical specifications relating to the anchoring system that will be used.

(2) An anchor installation program may contain the following information, depending on the case:
– the type of anchorage, with its designation if it is standardized by the European Technical Approval;

the number of anchors;

the position and orientation of each anchor and the tolerances in its position;
the anchoring length;
the date and time of installation of each anchor;
For the injected anchors: material, pressure, grout volume, injection length, duration of the
injection;
the required load capacity in the anchors;
the installation of the chosen corrosion protection;
installation technique (drilling, placement, making the joints and tensioning);
- known difficulties;
any other difficulties in anchoring operations.

It is necessary to monitor the installation of all anchors, as well as to make reports on the site and as needed.
The anchors are installed. A signed part for each anchor must be kept.

If the inspection reveals uncertainties regarding the quality of the installed anchors, they must be carried out.
additional investigations to determine the conditions under which the anchors have been executed.

The parts must be kept after the completion of the work. Construction plans must be established.
once the anchors are finished, with their actual arrangement, and keep them together with the cons- documents
Instructions. Certificates of all materials and their most relevant properties must also be attached.
 95 ENV 1997-1:1994

9 EMBANKMENTS AND EXCAVATIONS

9.1 Generalities

The provisions of this chapter apply to embankments and excavations, but not to dikes and dams.

The placement and compaction of fills are discussed in chapter 5, and the retaining structures that
The stabilizations of the clearings are addressed in chapter 8.

9.2 Limit States

(1) For embankments and excavations to meet the fundamental requirements regarding stability, to the
limited deformations, durability, and limitation of damage to nearby structures and services must be
consider the following limit states:
loss of global stability or load capacity;
failure due to internal erosion;
failure due to surface erosion or undermining;
failure due to hydraulic origin subpressures;
deformations (including those due to creep) of the embankment, excavation or of its foundations, that
cause damage to adjacent structures, roads, or services;
rockfalls;
deformations of the embankment or excavation, including those due to creep, that cause a loss of
service
surface erosion.

9.3 Project actions and situations

When selecting the actions for the calculation of the limit states, the list from point 2.4.2(4)P must be considered.

The effects of the following processes must be considered:

the construction processes, such as excavations at the foot of the clearing or the placement of an embankment, the
effects of vibrations caused by rock blasting, installation of piles, etc.;
– the effects of the structures that are expected to be placed on or near the embankment or the cut
subsequent to its completion;
the effect of a new clearing on existing works;
the effect of any previous or continuous movement of the existing earthworks;
the effects of water flow on the crown, waves or rain on the embankments or on the crowns
from the embankments (erosion);
the effects of temperature on the slopes of embankments (retractions);
the activities of animals that cause obstruction of the drains or leave holes in the ground.

The project free water level at the front of the clearing and the project groundwater level must be chosen at
based on the available hydrological data to obtain the most unfavorable conditions that may occur
in the project situation that is being considered. The possibility of drain failure must be considered,
filters or seals.

(4) For embankments in contact with water, the most unfavorable hydraulic conditions are usually leaks.
permanent from the highest possible water level and the rapid drop of the retained water level.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 96 -

When obtaining the projected interstitial pressure distributions, the possible range must be taken into account.
anisotropy and variability of the soil.

9.4 Project and construction considerations

The embankments and excavations must be designed taking into account the experiences in slopes and excavations.
carried out on similar lands.

(2) The embankments built on soft cohesive soils are usually built in increments of
height. The thickness of those layers and the speed of construction must be determined during the project to
prevent stability loss of the excavations or of the bearing capacity of the foundations during the
construction. The consolidation time can only be calculated approximately. Therefore, the percentage of
the consolidation of the soft soil layers must be checked during construction by measuring
seats. It may also be necessary to measure the interstitial pressures for the placement of the
the next layer should be done when the excess water pressure is below a safe value, which should
establish in the project report. The results of the seat measurements should be used as evidence
This procedure. If vertical drains are placed to accelerate consolidation, and therefore the
construction, special care must be taken regarding the location of the pressure measuring devices
interstitials. They must be placed in the center of the vertical drain mesh. The method of must be used
observation described in section 2.7.

Surfaces of excavation that are exposed to significant erosion must be protected.

(4) The cuttings should be sealed or planted, or artificially protected. In cuttings with berms, it can be
a drainage system is necessary in the sidewalks themselves. Generally, trees or shrubs should not be planted in
embankments adjacent to watercourses or bodies of water.

9.5 Calculation in ultimate limit state

9.5.1 Loss of global stability

When analyzing the stability of an embankment or a cut slope (soil or rock), all factors must be considered.
the possible failure configurations.

(2) The mass of soil or rock defined by the failure surface is normally considered a rigid body.
or like several rigid bodies moving simultaneously. Alternatively, stability can be
check by finding a statically admissible stress field or using the finite element technique
breaks. The breaking surfaces or the contact surfaces between rigid bodies can present a large
variety of shapes, including flat surfaces, circular ones, or other more complicated shapes.

When the ground or the embankment material is relatively homogeneous and isotropic in its properties
resistant, it will normally be sufficient to assume circular rupture surfaces.

For slopes in stratified soils with considerable variations in shear strength, attention must be paid
special attention to the layers with lower shear resistance. This may require analyzing breakage surfaces not
circulars.

In dislocated materials, including hard rocks and some soils, the shape of the fracture surfaces depends
of the discontinuities and can also penetrate intact materials. This may require analyzing wedges in three
dimensions.

(3)P The equilibrium of the mass bounded by any possible rupture surface must be verified when there has been
assigned the project values to the actions and to the shear strength parameters of the soil, in accordance with
with sections 2.4.2. and 2.4.3.
 - 97 - ENV 1997-1:1994

(4) In soils and in soft rocks that do not show a marked anisotropy in their resistant parameters, it is possible to
use the slice method. The method must check the global moment and vertical stability of the
sliding mass. If the horizontal equilibrium is not checked, the forces between slices must be assumed
horizontal.

A conservative analysis can be carried out using the calculated earth pressures on embankments.
agreement with chapter 8 and the bearing capacity of the foundation based on chapter 6.

(5) In stability calculations for embankments and cuts, Case A of 2.4 can be omitted.
generally.

(6) When there is an abnormal uncertainty about the soil density, it is not necessary to distinguish between loads.
favorable and unfavorable gravitational forces in the calculation of the stability of the slopes.

9.5.2 Deformations

(1) The project must justify that the deformation of the embankment or the cut under the actions of the project does not
will cause serious structural damage to the structures, transport networks, or services located on or near the
embankment or of the earthworks.

The deformation of the embankment itself must be considered along with that of the ground located beneath.

(3) The seat of an embankment situated on a compressible soil foundation can be calculated using the
principles of section 6.6.1. Special attention must be paid to the seat-time relationship which includes both
primary consolidation as secondary. Attention should also be paid to the possibility that they may arise.
differential seats.

Because the currently available numerical and analytical methods generally do not provide
reliable predictions of the deformations prior to the failure of an excavation, it is possible to prevent the appearance of the
ultimate limit states by:
– the limitation of the mobilized shear resistance;
the observation of movements and eventual action for their control, when necessary.

9.5.3 Surface erosion, internal erosion, and hydraulic underpressure

(1) If it is possible that there is a water leak, temporary or permanent, the project must ensure that the break does not
It will be caused by surface erosion, internal erosion, or hydraulic subpressure.

(2) The measures most commonly used to ensure that surface or internal erosion does not occur and
Hydraulic subpressure are:
control of leaks;
protective filters;
Avoid the use of dispersive clays without the protection of appropriate filters;
surface coating;
inverted filters;
relief wells;
reduction of the hydraulic gradient.

In addition, observations can be made of the groundwater level and the level of filtrations to verify that the
the dismantling is behaving as expected.
ENV 1997-1:1994 98

9.5.4 Rockslides

It is necessary to consider the risk of rock mass sliding. Rock sliding can be planar or
rotational, depending on the structure of the rock mass.

(2) Rock mass slides can be avoided by providing stable slopes, anchors, bolts, and drainage.
superficial and internal, etc.

9.5.5 Rockfall

In rocks, the risk of rock falls caused by overturning, wedge sliding, or breaking must be considered.
from the land slabs.

(2) Rock falls can be prevented using techniques such as anchors, bolts, or shotcrete. In this way
alternative, it is possible to allow rockfalls to occur and limit the damage by using devices that
intercept the falling rocks.

9.5.6 Repetitions

The risk of landslide displacements due to creeping must be taken into account.

(2) It is generally difficult to predict crawling movements and the best prevention is to avoid the use.
selection of areas susceptible to suffering it.

9.6 Project in limit state of service

The project must demonstrate that the deformation of the embankment or the excavation under the actions of the project does not
it will cause a loss of service conditions in the structures, transport networks or services located
about the embankment or the cut.

(2) The application of rule 9.5.2(3) for the calculation of the seats of an embankment on a layer of soil com-
presible can also be used in this case. The experimental embankments can be useful for predicting the
behavior of embankments when it is necessary to avoid reaching the limit states of service.

The compression of the fill due to its own weight or foundation loads must be small as long as
the filling is well compacted and the foundation loads are light. The possibility of should be considered
deformations due to changes in water conditions in the terrain. Special attention must be paid to
the long-term consolidation settlements, due to changes in humidity of the filling or the ground located
below it.

9.7 Instrumentation
(1) The embankments and excavations must be instrumented using appropriate equipment as long as:
it is not possible to demonstrate through calculations or prescriptions that all limit states
those contemplated in section 9.2 cannot be produced;
– or the hypotheses made in the calculations are not based on adequate and reliable data.

2 Instrumentation should follow the principles of Section 4.

Instrumentation should be used when data is needed on:

the levels of groundwater or interstitial pressures in and beneath an embankment or cut, in order to
carry out or verify an analysis on effective pressures;
the lateral and vertical movements of a soil or rock mass, to predict future deformations;
 99 ENV 1997-1:1994

the depth and shape of the rupture surface of a developed landslide, in order to obtain the
soil resistance parameters required for the correction works project;
the movement indicators, to warn of imminent dangers. In such cases, it may be appropriate
the use of a remote digital reading system for instrumentation or an alarm system.

The construction of embankments on soft soils with low permeability must be instrumented and monitored.
by means of measurements of interstitial pressure in the soft layers and in the fill seats.

Instrumentation should normally be used in embankments classified within Geotechnical Category 3.

ENV 1997-1:1994 - 100 -

ANNEX A (Informative)

CHECKLIST FOR CONSTRUCTION SUPERVISION

AND THE INSTRUMENTATION OF BEHAVIOR

The following list includes the most important aspects that should be considered when supervising construction or ...
to instrument the behavior of a finished structure. The relative importance of the different aspects varies from
from one project to another. The list is not exhaustive. Some points refer to specific aspects of engineering.
Geotechnics or specific types of works have been mentioned in the chapters of this code.

A.1 Construction supervision

A.1.1 General points that must be checked

1. Verification of the land conditions and the general location and arrangement of the structure.

2. The flow of water in the soil and the regime of interstitial pressures; the effects of depletion operations.
lie about the water table; the effectiveness of the measures taken to control the flow of water; the processes
of internal erosion and siphoning; the chemical composition of the groundwater; the corrosion potential.

3. The movements, fluidity, and stability of the excavation walls and the base; the support systems
provisional; the effects on nearby buildings and services; the measures of land pushes
about the containment structures; the measurements of the variations in the interstitial pressures resulting from the
excavation or loading processes.

4. The safety of workers with due consideration to geotechnical limit states.

A.1.2 Water flow and interstitial pressures

The adaptation of the system to ensure control of the interstitial pressures in all aquifers where a
excess pressure can affect the stability of the slopes or the base of the excavation, including the
artesian pressures in an aquifer located below the excavation; removal of water coming from the
lowering systems; the depression of the water table throughout the entire excavation to prevent siphoning-
naming, tubing and alterations of the formation, due to construction equipment; the deviation and
removal of rainwater or other surface waters.

2. An efficient and effective operation of the lowering system throughout the entire construction period,
taking into account the incrustations in the filters of the wells, the chocking of wells or sinks,
abrasion of the pumps and the clogging of the suction elements.

3. The lowering control to prevent alterations in the structures and adjacent areas; the observations of
the piezometric levels; if necessary, the effectiveness, operation, and maintenance of the systems
of water refill.

4. The seats of the adjacent areas and structures.

5. The effectiveness of perforated sub-horizontal drains.

 101 ENV 1997-1:1994

A.2 Instrumentation of behavior

1. The foundations of buildings and other structures, at established time intervals, including the effects
due to the vibrations and the meta-stable soils.

The seat observations must refer to stable bases.

2. Lateral displacements; distortions, especially those related to fill and

storage of materials; the earth containment structures, such as buildings or large tanks;
the channels; the deep excavations.

3. The piezometric levels below the buildings or in adjacent areas, especially if they have been
deep drains or permanent drainage systems have been installed or if deep basements have been built.

4. Deflections or displacements of the containment structures, taking into account: the normal loads of
filling; the effects of storing materials, fillings, or other surface loads; the pressures of
water.

5. Flow measurements in the drains.

6. Special problems.

Structures at high temperatures, such as boilers, hot pipelines, etc.; soil desiccation
clayey or silty; temperature instrumentation; movements.

Structures with low temperatures, such as cryogenic facilities or refrigeration areas: instructions-
temperature maintenance; ground freezing; swelling due to frost effect; displacements;
effects of the subsequent thaw.

7. Stagnation.
ENV 1997-1:1994 102

ANNEX B (Informative)

EXAMPLE OF ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR CALCULATING BEARING CAPACITY

B.1 Generalities
Approximate expressions for the project load-bearing capacity can be used, obtained from the theory of the
plasticity and experimental results. The following factors must be taken into account:
the soil resistance, generally represented by the design values decuc' yφ';
the eccentricity and inclination of project loads;
the shape, depth, and slope of the foundation;
the slope of the ground surface;
the water pressures and hydraulic gradients;
the variability of the terrain, especially the stratification.

In addition to the symbols mentioned in sections 1.7 and 1.8, the following are used:

δ friction angle of the project at the base, as defined in section 6.5.3;

q total project pressure due to the weight of the ground, at the level of the foundation base;

q' effective project pressure due to the weight of the ground, at the level of the foundation base;

γ' effective weight of the soil project below the foundation level, reduced to γ' = γ - γw(1 +i) when
there is a hydraulic gradient;

B' effective width of the foundation project;

The effective length of the foundation project;

A' = B'L' effective project area of the foundation, defined as the foundation base or, in case of loads
eccentric, the reduced area of the foundation, whose center of gravity coincides with the point of
application of the resultant of the loads;

s,i project values of the dimensionless factors for the shape of the foundation and the slope of the
load, respectively; the subscripts c, q, and γ indicate the influence due to cohesion, to the overloads.
and the weight of the soil; these coefficients are only valid when the cutoff parameters are
independent of the direction.

B.2 Conditions without drainage

The project bearing capacity is calculated by:

R / A ' = ( 2 + π ) cU s Ci C
+q (B.1)

with the following values of the dimensionless factors for:

the form of the foundation:

sc = 1 + 0.2 (B'/L') for a rectangular foundation;

sc 1.2 for a square or circular foundation.

 - 103 - ENV 1997-1:1994

the tilt of the load, caused by a horizontal load H:

i=0.5
c (1+1−H/A'c) u

B.3 With drainage

The bearing capacity of the project is calculated by:

R/A' = c' · Ncc·ic+q' ·Nq·sq ·iq+ 0.5 · γ' · B' · Nγ ·Nγ ·sγ ·iγ (B.2)

with the following values of the dimensionless factors for:

the load-bearing capacity:

tan φ '
Nq= eπ tan2(45 + φ' / 2)

Ncq1) cotφ'

Nγ = 2 (Nq1) tanφ' when δ ≥ φ'/2 (rough base)

the shape of the foundation:

sq= 1 + (B'/L') sinφ' for a rectangular foundation;

sq= 1 + sinφ' for a square or circular foundation.

γ = 1 - 0.3 (B'/L') for a rectangular foundation;

sγ 0.7 for a square or circular foundation.

sc= (sq·Nq- 1) / (Nq - 1) for a square, circular, or rectangular foundation.

the inclination of the load, originated by a horizontal load H, parallel to L':

Iq=iγ = 1 -H/ (V+A'c' cotφ')

ic = (iq·Nq- 1) / (Nq- 1)

the inclination of the load, caused by a horizontal load, H parallel to B':

iq= (1 - 0.7H / (V + A' · c' cotφ'))3

iγ (1 - H / (V + A' · c' cot φ'))3

Ic(iq·Nq- 1) / (Nq1)

Additional influences of embedment depth, as well as inclination, should also be considered.

foundation base and surface of the land.
ENV 1997-1:1994 104

ANNEX C (Informative)

EXAMPLE OF SEMI-EMPIRICAL METHOD FOR THE ESTIMATION OF BEARING CAPACITY

To estimate semi-empirically the bearing capacity of a foundation design on soil, one can
use in-situ tests, such as the pressure meter test. When using the pressure meter, the bearing capacity of a
Foundation subjected to vertical load is related to the soil's bearing capacity through a linear function:

R/A' = q + k p1* (C.1)

in which the following symbols are used:

A' the effective foundation area of the project, as defined in Annex B;

q the total project tension due to the weight of the earth surcharge, at the base level of the foundation;

k the bearing capacity factor, with numerical values in the range of 0.8 to 3, depending on the type of soil, the
embedding depth and the shape of the foundation;

p1* *
the equivalent net limit pressure of the project; the net limit pressure p1 it is defined in a pressuremeter test
like the difference (pl-po), between the limit pressure, pl, and the push of lands to rest, poat the level of the essay;o
it can be determined from the static thrust coefficient Koof the values of the effective voltage due to the
weight of the soil overburden, q', and of the interstitial pressure, u, using the expression: po=Koq'+u.
 105 ENV 1997-1:1994

ANNEX D (Informative)

EXAMPLES OF METHODS FOR THE EVALUATION OF ENTRIES

D.1 Tension-Strain Method

The total settlement of a foundation on cohesive and non-cohesive soils can be evaluated using the method of
calculation of tension-strain, in the following way:

calculation of the stress distribution in the ground due to the load from the foundation; this can be
obtaining based on the theories of elasticity, generally assuming homogeneous and isotropic soil and a
linear distribution of contact pressure;

calculation of soil deformation due to stresses, based on values of the modulus of rigidity or others
tension-strain relationships determined from laboratory tests (preferably calibrated with
field trials) or field trials;

integration of vertical deformations to obtain settlements; to use the stress-strain method

they must select a sufficient number of points within the ground located beneath the foundation and calculate the
stresses and deformations at those points.

D.2 Adjusted Elasticity Method

The total settlement of a foundation on cohesive and non-cohesive soils can be evaluated using the theory of
elasticity and an equation of the form:

s = p.B.f / Em (D.1)

in which the following symbols have been used:

p contact pressure at the service limit state, linearly distributed, at the base of the foundation, which for
normally consolidated cohesive soils should reduce the weight of excavated soil above the
base; the effects of hydrostatic pressures should also be taken into account;

Em Young's modulus, under drainage conditions of the deformable layer, in the case of drained conditions. If not
Useful results of measured seats in similar nearby structures are available for evaluation., himself
can be estimated from laboratory tests or field tests;

f coefficient whose value depends on the shape and dimensions of the foundation area, the variation of the rigidity
with depth, the thickness of the compressible layer, the Poisson's ratio, the pressure distribution of
contact and the point for which the seats are calculated;

B width of the foundation.

The adjusted elasticity method should only be used if the stresses in the ground are such that no
a significant fluidity and if the stress-strain behavior of the ground can be considered linear. It must be
take special care when using the adjusted elasticity method in the case of non-homogeneous terrain.
ENV 1997-1:1994 106

D.3 Seats without drainage

The short-term components of the foundation settlement, which occurs without drainage, can be calculated.
using the tension-deformation method or the adjusted elasticity method. The values adopted for the
stiffness constants (such as Em) and the Poisson's coefficient should represent, in this case, the behavior
without drainage.

D.4 Entries caused by consolidation

To calculate the entry caused by consolidation, a unidimensional deformation under conditions can be assumed.
constrained by the ground and, therefore, the consolidation test curve can be used. The sum of the settlements of the
states without drainage and consolidation generally produce an overestimation of the total seat, and can be applied
empirical corrections.

D.5 Seat behavior - time

In cohesive soils, the rate of settlement of consolidation before the completion of primary consolidation is
you can estimate approximately using consolidation parameters obtained from a compression test. Without
embargo, the speed of the consolidation seat should preferably be obtained using the values of the
permeability obtained from in-situ tests, according to 3.3.10.
 - 107 - ENV 1997-1:1994

ANNEX E (Informative)

EXAMPLE OF METHOD TO OBTAIN THE POSSIBLE BEARING CAPACITY

ON SURFACE FOUNDATIONS IN ROCK

For weak and fractured rocks, with closed joints, including those with porosity less than 35%, the capacity
The supposed importance can be obtained from figure E.1. This is based on the classification provided in Table E.1, with the
hypothesis that the structure can tolerate settlements equal to 0.5% of the width of the foundation. The values of the
The assumed bearing capacity for other seats can be obtained by direct proportion. For weak rocks and
fractured, with open or filled joints, reduced assumed bearing capacity values should be used.

Table E.1
Classification of weak and fractured rocks

Group Rock type

1 Pure limestones and dolomites

Low porosity carbonate sandstones

2 Igneas

Oolitic and marly limestones

Well-cemented sandstones

hardened carbonate limestones

Metamorphic rocks, including slates and

schists (cleavage/plane foliation)

3 Very marly limestones

Slightly cemented sandstones

Slates and schists (wavy cleavage/foliation)

4 Uncemented limestones and mudstones

ENV 1997-1:1994 108

Fig. E.1−Assumed bearing capacity for square footings on rock (for settlements less than 0.5% of
width of the footing). The four groups of rocks are defined in Table E.1.
The assumed bearing capacity in the striped areas will be estimated later.
from the inspection and/or conduct of tests on the rocks
 - 109 - ENV 1997-1:1994

For clays with porosity greater than 35%, the bearing capacity values can be obtained from Table E.2.

Table E.2
Classification and possible bearing capacity for high porosity clays

Possible capacity
Degree Brief description supposedly important
(kPa)

Remolded chalk, without structure, containing pieces of chalk

intact.
V 125 to 250
Dry crete above the water table

Small-sized weathered blocks of Crete

partially, with stratification and fissuring. Separate joints
IV 250 to 500
from 10 mm to 60 mm, open up to 20 mm, and filled with chalk
softly shaped and with fragments

Create in blocks, without meteorizing. Joints separated by 60 mm to

III 200 mm, open up to 3 mm and sometimes filled with frag- 500 to 750
mentos

Crete in blocks, of medium hardness (weak). Separate joints.

II 750 to 1,000
more than 200 mm and closed

I Same as grade II, but hard (moderately weak) and fragile. 1,000 to 1,500
ENV 1997-1:1994 110

ANNEX F (Informative)

EXAMPLE OF A METHOD TO CALCULATE RESISTANCE

INDIVIDUAL OR GROUP PILE PULLING

The following calculation model, shown in Figure F.1, can be used to check the resistance to
traction of an individual pile or a group of piles. The following symbols are used, in addition to the
specified in 1.6. and 1.7:

Ft : tensile load on each pile;

Ft(z) : Pullout in a pile at depth

qs resistance along the project shaft to the depths;

u(z) : project interstitial pressure at the depth;

p : perimeter of the pile;

eq : spacing between piles, assuming a regular arrangement of them, or equivalent spacing,

for the piles not arranged regularly.

Fig. F.1−Model for testing the tensile strength of an individual pile or a group of piles
 111 ENV 1997-1:1994

The project is satisfactory if a distribution of tensions, F, can be found.t(z), that satisfies the following
requirements:

At the top of the pile, (z= 0): Ft(0) =Ft

- At the base of the pile, (z= L): Ft(L) = 0

For grouped piles, at any depth z, Ft(z) is limited by the weight of the ground above the
depths

F(z)
t ≤ F−t Io zγdz−u(z)s e2q (F.1)

The shear forces acting on the perimeter of the group must be taken into account.

- At any depth, the gradient of Ft(z) is limited by the resistance of the shaft:

dF(z)
t dF(z)
t
=− ≤p q(z)
s (F.2)
dz dz

In homogeneous terrains, the resistant soil block always extends below the depth of the foundation.
of the pilot.

– While calculatingsIt
should be taken into account that it depends on the effective vertical stresses in the ground between the
piles. These tensions are negatively affected by the tensile load of the pileFt.

The value ofq(z) may be smaller for tension piles than for compression, and this effect should be taken into account.
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 112 -

ANNEX G (Informative)

EXAMPLES OF PROCEDURES TO DETERMINE THE LIMIT VALUES

FROM THE EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS

Three thrust coefficients are defined, Kγ for the weight of the ground as defined for the unit weights γ, Kqfor
the surface vertical loads q, and Kcfor the cohesion of the land, all of them depending on the angle of
shear resistance of the soil.

At any point, at a distance below the outer face of the wall (or vertical depth cosθ) from the
surface of the land, the components of the total stress are σ (normal) and τ (tangential), with τ positive when the
the ground tension on the wall is directed towards the top:

In drained conditions and unsaturated soils:

oI
σ = σ'= Kγ . z γdz +K . q'+.q' Kc c (G.1)

τ = σ' tanδ + a (G.2)

in which

σ' it is the effective tension, normal to the wall, at a depth z;

δ it is the angle of shear resistance between the ground and the wall;

a' it is the effective adhesion of the wall.

In drained conditions and in saturated soils, an approximate formulation is as follows:

σ = σ'+ uz (G.3)

u − uo
I
σ'= Kγ ( z γdz − z
o cosθ
) + Kq q'+'K cc (G.3)

τ = σ' tanδ + ' a (G.2)

in which

q' it is the effective tension of the earth overload;

uz it is the interstitial pressure on the failure surface, at a depth ([Link]) below the top
θ
from the wall;

uo the interstitial pressure for z= 0;

σ' it is the effective stress, normal to the wall, at a depth z;

δ it is the angle of shear resistance between the ground and the wall;

a' it is the effective adherence between the ground and the wall.
 - 113 - ENV 1997-1:1994

In undrained conditions:

σ=K Iz
γu o
gdZ + K what
q+Kc I see you (G.6)

τ=au (G.7)

in which

Kγu=Kwhat= 1, when the wall is vertical and the ground surface is horizontal;

q It is the total tension of the overload (including water pressure);

auit is the undrained adhesion between the ground and the wall.

In stratified soils, the coefficient K can usually be determined by the angle of shear resistance at
that depth, regardless of the values at other depths.

In active state, the active tensile stresses should never be considered as actions on the structures of
containment.

There are no explicit formulas for the coefficients of earth pressures for general cases. Below
Two procedures are given to determine the coefficients of earth pressures.

Diagrams for vertical walls

For vertical walls, the values from Figures G.1, G.2, G.3, and G.4 can be taken.

Fig. G.1−Coefficient of active earth pressure Fig. G.2−Coefficient of passive earth pressure
(horizontal component) for surface (horizontal component) for surface
of the ground, at the back, horizontal of the land, at the back, horizontal
ENV 1997-1:1994 114

Fig. G.3−Active earth pressure coefficients (horizontal component) for the general case
of inclined fill and with friction on the back of the wall
 - 115 - ENV 1997-1:1994

Fig. G.4−Passive earth pressure coefficients (horizontal component) for the general case
of inclined filling and with friction on the back of the wall
ENV 1997-1:1994 - 116 -

Numerical procedure

The following procedure, which includes certain safety considerations, can be used in any
case.

The procedure is established for passive pushes, in which case the resistance parameters (represented in the
the following are considered positive: φ, c, δ, a.

The following symbols are used, in addition to those specified in 1.6 and 1.7, see Figure G.5:

tangle from the ground surface, directed outward from the wall, with the tangent of the sliding line.
lie that contains the mass of soil that moves, pointing towards the exterior of the surface of the land;

mwangle from the normal to the wall to the tangent to the outer slip line, positive when the tangent
points up behind the wall;

β: angle from the horizontal to the ground surface, positive when the ground surface rises from
the wall

θ: angle between the vertical and the direction of the wall, positive when the wall is inclined forward;

v: tangential rotation along the outer sliding line, positive when the mass of soil above
this sliding line has a convex shape;

a general uniform load per unit area of the actual surface;

a uniform vertical load, per unit area in a horizontal projection.

The contact surface parameters δ must be chosen so that:

a/c = tanδ / tanφ

The boundary condition on the surface of the ground involves aβ.owhat is the angle of incidence of a charge
superficial equivalent. Based on this concept, the angle is defined from the vectorial sum of two terms, see
Figure G.5:

One, the surface load, uniformly distributed per unit area, which is not necessarily vertical.

Another, the component [Link]φ, acting as a normal load.

The angle βo it is positive when the tangential component points towards the wall, while the component
Normal heads towards the terrain. Sic = 0 and the surface load is vertical or zero, it generally happens that for states
assets, βo=β.
 - 117 - ENV 1997-1:1994

Fig. G.5−Definitions related to surface overload, the geometry of the sliding line, etc.

The angletit is determined by the boundary conditions on the surface of the ground:

senβ o
cos(2m+φ+β
t )= o− (G.8)
senφ o

The boundary condition on the wall determineswby means of:

senda
cos(2m+φ+
w δ)= (G.8)
senφ

The anglewit is negative for passive states (φ > 0) if the ratio senδ/senφ is sufficiently large, such as
it is supposed in figure G.5.

The total tangential rotation around the outer sliding line of the moving soil mass, see
Figure G.5 is determined by the angle that is calculated using the expression:

v=mt+β-mw -θ (G.10)

The coefficient Kn for normal load on the surface (that is, the normal earth pressure on the wall due to a
The normal unit pressure on the surface is determined by the following expression, in which v must be in radians:

1 + centφ 2 meters
w +φ
n exp (2vtanφ) (G.11)
1 - sin(φ)sin(2m +t φ)

The coefficient for a vertical load on the surface (force per unit of projected horizontal area) is:

Kq=Kn. cos2β (G.12)

and the coefficient for the cohesion term is:

Kc= (Kn-1) . cotφ (G.13)

ENV 1997-1:1994 - 118 -

An approximate expression for the weight of the soil is:

K=Kcos
γ n . cos
β ( - β) φ (G.14)

This expression is on the side of safety. While the error is not important in the case of active pushing, it can
be considerable for the passive pushes with positive values of β.

For φ = 0, the following boundary values are used:

p a
-sinβcosβ;
t cos2m= w
c c

Kq= cos2;K=
β 2 + sin
ν 2m + sin
t 2m; w

(in radians), while for Kγ A better approximation, when φ = 0, is:

you βare beautiful

w
Kγ = cos φ + (G.15)
senm t

For active pushes, the same algorithm is used, but with the following changes:

The resistance parameters, φ, c, δya, are introduced as negative values. The angle of incidence of the load
surface equivalento=β, due to the approximation used for Kγ.

For both active and passive thrust, the method considers the angle of convexity as positive:

ν≥0

If this condition is not met (not even approximately), for example for a smooth wall with a surface of
sufficiently sloped land when β and φ have different signs, it may be necessary to consider other methods.
This may also be the case when irregular surface loads are considered.
 119 UNE-ENV 1997-1

NATIONAL ANNEX

PROPOSAL FOR NATIONAL APPLICATION DOCUMENT (DNA)

TO BE USED WITH THE EUROPEAN EXPERIMENTAL STANDARD
ENV 1997-1:1994 EUROCODE 7: GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN
PART 1: GENERAL RULES

INDEX

Page

0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 120

1 OBJECT OF THE D.N.A...................................................................................................................... 121

2 SCOPE OF APPLICATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL STANDARD ENV 1997-1

(EUROCÓDICO 7. PART 1: GENERAL RULES) ........................................................ 122

3 SAFETY FACTORS..................................................................................................... 123

4 REFERENCE STANDARD............................................................................................... 124

UNE-ENV 1997-1 120

0 INTRODUCTION

This National Application Document Proposal has been drafted by the SC-7 Technical Subcommittee of
AEN/CTN 140 EUROCODES STRUCTURAL and contains the basic concepts about the possibility of use
from the Experimental Standard ENV 1997-1.

A text of this experimental standard was approved with the negative vote of Spain in 1993 and with subsequent changes was
successively edited in the three languages established by the CEN, English (1995), French and German (1996).

The extended time elapsed between the theoretical date of its approval and the date of its publication in English with a text
Different from the one approved on the date reflected, it has been motivated by the controversy raised in some countries about some
fundamental concepts contained in that experimental standard.

The CEN, as a result of the survey on 1997-05-21 among its members, will decide on the future of the standard.
 121 UNE-ENV 1997-1

1 OBJECT OF THE D.N.A.

This DNA aims to achieve the following objectives:

Provide the minimum additional information that allows the application of EUROCODE 7. Part 1: General Rules.

−Describe the real functionality of the experimental standard, as its application may result in situations where not
the security conditions required by Spanish regulations are met.

Restrict its use as an experimental standard to merely informative purposes, until the results of its
the application is not sufficiently supported and favorably sanctioned by experimental practice.

Encourage its use in parallel with the current regulations (Regulations, Specifications, etc...) in force or in use.
habitual in Spain, in order to more clearly detect those aspects that are susceptible to change in the
future drafting of the European standard (EN).
UNE-ENV 1997-1 - 122 -

2 SCOPE OF APPLICATION

In its current text, EUROCODE 7 - Part 1 cannot be considered as a document that by itself allows the
geotechnical calculation for the foundation project and other types of structures, for the following reasons:

Their general principles are limited in different situations.

2 Numerous practical application rules are not included, without which the general principles remain undefined.

Under these considerations, EUROCODE 7. Part 1 may be applied in the geotechnical calculation of the project of the
following structures.

Foundations of non-monumental buildings.

Non-singular structures of Civil Works.

−Artificial or natural embankments that are free, meaning in the absence of buildings, roads, or any other type of loads on them.
environment.

Non-structural embankments.

Consequently, the Experimental Standard ENV 1997-1 in its Part I is not usable for the project of
dams, tunnels and underground structures, port structures, viaducts and long-span bridges, monuments,
dredging of ports or riverbeds.
 123 UNE-ENV 1997-1

3 SECURITY FACTORS

Consistent with the purpose of this D.N.A., which is the experimentation in real cases of the application of the standard.
Experimental (ENV 1997-1) establishes that the partial safety factors to be taken into account are those that
are listed in table (2.1) for cases A, B, and C.

The application of these partial coefficients will lead in some project situations to global margins of
security against breakage very low compared to what is usually accepted in our country.

Those users who find these significant differences can report it to the subcommittee's secretariat.
AEN/CTN/140 SC-7, in order to complete a record of geotechnical cases that will allow for establishing in the future
most appropriate values for each partial safety coefficient.
UNE-ENV 1997-1 - 124 -

4 REFERENCE REGULATIONS

The different aspects covered by this experimental standard must be resolved and contrasted based on the application of
the current laws and regulations in our country or, if not possible, resort to foreign rules with recognized guarantees.
g
Address C Génova, 6 Phone 91 432 60 00 Fax 91 310 40 32
28004 MADRID-Spain