General characters:

IIntroduction:
Mycology: study of fungi
Mushroom, Mycetes, Mycophytes, Fungus
Logie: study
Fungus: plural of fungi (funus: funeral)
Mushrooms were the cause of many accidental or criminal deaths.

IIInterest in mycology:
* food interests: Paris mushrooms, truffles (exterfes)
Pathogenic fungi (mycoses)
The genus ASPERGILLUS (aspergillosis)
The genus Candida (candidiasis)
Penicillium notatum, penicillium chrysogenum (penicillin)
Totyplocladium inflatum (cyclosporine)
saccharomyces cerevisiae: genetic gene: insulin production.
Toxic mushrooms: Death cap

IIIDefinition of a mushroom:
eukaryote, thallophyte, cryptogam
heterotroph for carbon, semi-autotroph for nitrogen and for sulfur
cystophyte
core: spoil pol body

IVVegetative structure: thallus

Thallus: a collection of very fine filaments
Each filament is called: hypha
A set of hyphae is a mycelium
To the naked eye, the thallus appears in the form of a felting (powder) that covers the organic matter.
rotten fruit or stale bread.
Morphological characters:
The hypha:
Filament surrounded by a chitinous wall
Inside, we find all cellular elements except plastids.
One can find one or more cores.
The articles are fragments of filaments
The different types of thallus:
levuriform thallus: unicellular thallus capable of budding
Ex: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (brewer's yeast).
2) mycelial thallus or filamentous thallus: siphonous, septate

a) siphonous thallus: Fungi with siphonous thalli are called Siphonomycetes.

The hyphae are not septate; they have a coenocytic or mycelial structure.
(multi-nucleus structure), archaic character

b) septate thallus: The mushrooms with a septate thallus are called: Septomycetes
higher mushrooms

The hyphae are separated by partitions called Septa, the partitioning delineates the
units uni, bi or multinucleated.

Cellular articles communicate with each other through pores that allow movement.
organelles
Obstructions can be observed: Woronin bodies that separate damaged cells from
rest of the hyphen.
The pore organelles: which isolate cells during reproduction
The dolipore of basidiomycetes: On each side of the dolipore, there is a membrane called
parenthesis-shaped

The associations of hyphae:

according to the complexity of the association of hyphae:
stroma
the sclera
plectenchyme

1) The plectenchyma: False tissue, the hyphae are linked together by a substance called cement.
we distinguish:
The prosenchyme: The mycelial filaments are loose between them.
the pseudoparenchyma: The mycelial filaments are more tightly packed
2) The stroma:
mass of irregularly shaped plectenchyme, serves as support for a fruiting body.
3) The sclera:
Forms of conservation resistance in unfavorable environmental conditions; mass of
hard plectenchyma organized in two layers:
protective outer layer
internal layer rich in reserve materials
Example: Claviceps purpurea

3) Cords and rhizophores:

Aggregation of hyphae arranged in parallel
a) the rhizomorphs: cone-shaped, simulate roots that can reach several meters.
b) the cords: made of two parts:
An external felt: dense plectenchyma absorbs water and minerals
An internal felting: less dense plectenchyma allows gas circulation

VCytology of fungi:
absence of plates
Reserve substances: lipid globules, glycogen, mannitol.
the cell wall is chitinous in nature
plasma membrane associated with the wall by fibrils
Carotenoid pigments are associated with membrane vacuoles.
presence of digestive enzymes.

Composition of the wall:

it represents 30% of the dry weight
Composition: carbohydrates, chitin! beta glucans,
Phosphopeptidomannan, mannoproteins, lipids.
VI-The morphological variations of the thallus
a) thallus structure adapted to substrates:
The attachment of a fungus to a plant requires appressoria (bulbous-shaped organ)
adhering to the cuticle and characterizing plant fungi
nutrition through rhizoids
b) conservation bodies:
- sclerotic cells or sclerote: (resistance to stress)
resistance spore
c) differentiation of the thallus: fruiting organ
VII-Lifecycle:
the life cycle is governed by two modes of reproduction:
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction

Notion of angiophyte and cystophyte:

sporangia / gametangia >> thallophytes
from sporocysts / gametocysts >> cormophytes

Cystophyte:
The reproductive cells are protected by a single layer of cells that comes from
the mother cell.
the notion of sporocyst and gametocyst appears.

Angiophyte
The reproductive cells are protected by the wall that derives from the mother cell.
at least one other cellular sit

Concept of sporangium and gametangium

Definition:
Gamétange: reproductive apparatus of gametes in angiosperms
Sporangium: reproductive organ of spores in angiosperms
Gamete cyst: reproductive organ of gametes in cystophytes
Sporocyst: reproductive apparatus of spores in cystophytes
Gametes: male or female reproductive cells with (N) chromosomes that unite by
the phenomenon of fertilization to produce a zygote with (2N) chromosomes.
Spore: a uni- or multicellular element with (N) or (2N) chromosomes capable of germinating.
to give an adult individual.
Sporophyte: adult individual possessing a reproductive structure of the sporocyst type or
sporangium
Gametophyte: adult individual possessing a reproductive structure of the gametangium type or
gametocyte.
Asexual reproduction:
favorable environmental condition
widespread
simple
predominant
favorable
quick
gives a significant number of individuals
two ways:
Fragmentation of the thallus
Sporulation.

a-Fragmentation :
The initial thallus divides and gives two identical thalli.

b-Sporulation :
it is the production of spores
Spores can be produced in two ways: endogenous or exogenous.

Endogenous spores:
Formed inside a sporocyst, released after its rupture.

Exogenous spores:
Resulting in either:
- By fragmentation of the thallus: thallospores.
-By the operation of a sports device.

The thallospores:
chlamydospores
arthrospores
-dictyspores
blastospores

Arthrospore: result from the fragmentation of the mycelial filament into unicellular elements
or bicellular.

blastospore: Spores produced from the budding of a unicellular thallus

Example: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (brewer's yeast)

dictyospore
Terminal or intercalary cells.
multicellular
resulting from transverse and longitudinal partitions.

chlamydospore
- terminal or intercalary cells! Very thick wall, with dense and rich cytoplasm
in terms of reserve
These are spores of resistance and conservation of the species.
They appear when environmental conditions become unfavorable.

Sporting device:
Sporocyst
Example: conidiogenous apparatus, producing spores called conidia.
Composed of:
conidiophore
thickening: columella
-short filaments: phialides that produce the spores called conidia.

2) Sexual reproduction:
Rare: difficult living condition
Chromosomal mixing produces new individuals
Preserve of the species
It occurs through the fertilization of two gametes -> chromosomal mixing
*haploid phase + diploid phase
notion of homothallism and heterothallism.

Homothallism:
The male gametes of a given thallus are capable of fertilizing all gametes indiscriminately.
females of a thallus of the same species
It is said that the gametes are compatible.

Heterothallism:
The gametes of a thallus possess alleles on their genes.
The fusion of gametes can only occur if the alleles are of opposite signs.
They say that they are complementary.
Bipolar heterothallism: two alleles
Tetrapolar heterothallism: four alleles: very abundant in basidiomycetes
the most evolved mushrooms

a-Types of fertilization:
Hologamy: unicellular organisms.
The individual plays the role of gamete and fuses with its counterpart.
Cystogamy: no individualization of gametes. Fusion of gametocysts.
Merogamy: (appearance of true gametes)
Isogamy: identical and mobile gametes
Anisogamy: different and mobile gametes
Oogamy: large and immobile female gamete, mobile male gamete.
Aplanogamy: the two immobile gametes:
Planogamy: where one of the two gametes is mobile. (isogamy, anisogamy, oogamy)

Trichogamy: (case of ascomycetes)

The male gamete is a spermatic (non-flagellated)
The female organ is an ascogonium (a globular cell topped with a trichogyne)
There will be fusion of the walls and then injection of the male nucleus. During the journey of the nucleus.
male, the latter will multiply, there will then be pairing without fusion of the nuclei
dicaryon

Thallogamy: fusion of two compatible thalli (regression of sexuality)

Somatogamy: One of two cells from the same thallusfusionofcellssomaticand not ofgametes,
at the origin of the myceliumdiploidwho will form thespores.

Autogamy: It is a case of the degradation of sexuality.

Autogamy is common in higher fungi:
in ascomycetes, in the absence of fertilization, the nuclei of the ascogonia can
to join in pairs.
In most basidiomycetes, these are any cells, uninucleated, that
pair up.

Sexual reproduction in higher fungi involves 2 phases.

essential:
plasmogamy: fusion of two cytoplasms between genetically different thalli,
presence of two nuclei in the dicaryon stage.
Caryogamy: fusion of two haploid nuclei of different genotypes.

The life cycle:

the time period during which the complete life of a living organism takes place
reproduction.
Life cycles are characterized by a double alternation: an alternation of phases.
and an alternation of generations.
The phase: Maintaining a chromosomal state.
There are two types:
The haploid phase (with n chromosomes)
The diploid phase (with 2n chromosomes),
For which Jean Paul Vuillemin introduced the terms haplophase and diplophase.
We therefore observe the following cycles:
A haplophase cycle
A diplophase cycle
A haplodiplophase cycle
A diplohaplontic cycle.

c-The fructifications:
Structures result from fertilization
Complex structures formed by the association of mycelial filaments (plectenchyma)
Carry the fertile parts, for example the hymenium.

Note:
The asexual stage: anamorphic stage
Sexual reproduction: staditeleomorph
Male gametes X female gametes

If the asexual stage (anamorphic) and the sexual stage are known, it is said that the fungus is
perfect or holomorphic.
If the asexual stage is known, the sexual stage is unknown, the fungus is said to be imperfect.
or anamorphic.

VIII-Lifestyle:
Mushrooms are heterotrophic, always living in association with other beings.
living beings to feed on.

Nitrogen: autotrophs use nitrate nitrogen rather than atmospheric nitrogen

semi-autotrophs use ammonia nitrogen; heterotrophs must live
necessarily on organic materials.
Carbon: all fungi are heterotrophic for carbon, which has determined
their way of life.
Sulfur: autotrophic for sulfur.

They are capable of using trace elements and growth factors (thiamine
and inositol
They secrete enzymes outward that allow them to break down material.
in simple molecules that will be absorbed by the mushroom,
Nutrition by absorption
Their way of life depends on this heterotrophy.

Different lifestyles:
Saprophytism
Parasitism
Commensalism: opportunism
Predation
Symbiosis
Endomorphism

a-Saprophytism:
They feed on dead organic matter (plants or animals in
decomposition, excrement, ..) That they degrade thanks to enzymes and participate in this
made for its recycling,
This role is essential in the formation of humus.
b-Parasitism:
 It only takes an injury or a weakness of the body for them to penetrate the cells!
Attack living tissues and draw everything they need from them, causing the
death of their victim or host.
c-The symbiosis:
The mushroom lives in association with an autotrophic living being that tolerates each other.
mutually depending on the cases, we have 2 types of associations:
Lichens: the *alga-fungus* association are good indicators of pollution.
mushroom provides the algae with effective protection against external aggressions
(dehydration), and it benefits from algae in organic matter.
Mycorrhizae: association between a fungus and the roots of higher plants:
Ectomycorrhiza: the fungus surrounds the root.
Endomycorrhiza: the fungus penetrates the root but remains extracellular.

mushroom-bacteria: only yeasts

mushroom -plant: endophytism to protect them from insects

d-Predator: the fungus secretes an anesthetic substance capable of immobilizing a

animal and then use it as a source of N. (Nitrogen)

Opportunistic fungi: commensalism: species generally saprophytic,

but which become pathogenic in the presence of favorable circumstances
( weakening of the body: old age, pregnancy, corticosteroid therapy, diabetes, e.g.: Candida
albicans.

Classification: Kingdom of Fungi

Mushrooms were long considered plants because of their immobility!
And of their sexual reproduction cycles: analogy between zygomycetes and zygophytes
(zygospore)
But given the following characters, they are currently in a separate realm:
heterotrophy
digestive enzymes
the chitinous wall
During mitosis: the nuclear membrane persists (EMS: enveloping membrane
(system), instead of the centriole, a plaque (SPB or spindle pole body) appears.
Thanks to molecular biology, a clear difference has been noted between the RNA of a
mushroom and that of a plant

Currently, we have 6 branches:

Chytridiomycota: aquatic species with flagellated spores. (Perfect fungus)
Zygomycota: syphonomycetes (perfect mushroom)
Glomeromycota: removed from zygomycota (perfect fungus)
Ascomycota: asci (perfect fungus)
Basidiomycota: basidia (perfect mushroom)
Deuteromycota: artificial group with unknown sexual reproduction (imperfect fungus)

IPhylum of chytridiomycetes:
 Example of study: Allomyces arbusculus

general characteristics:
Chytrids are primarily aquatic.
parasites: algae, protozoa, plants (potato) can therefore
creates serious problems in agronomy.
saprophytes on insect corpses
They are considered to be very primitive fungi because they produce at
course of their zoospore cycles and that some species have an amoeboid thallus
Their wall is not chitinous, we classify them in the kingdom of Fungi thanks to RNA.
Ribosomal.
The best-known chytrid is: Allomyces.
In chytridiomycetes, the zoospores are uniflagellate (with only one posterior flagellum)
smooth
b-vegetative apparatus: siphonous mycelial thallus
c-cycle of development: homothallic species alternation of generations
isomorphs (haploid and diploid are identical)
Asexual reproduction:
The sporophyte produces two types of sporocysts:
-Of multiplication sporocysts.
Of conservation sporocysts.
The multiplication sporocysts produce zoospores that will germinate to give a
adult individual.
The conservation sporocyst has a thick wall that allows it to resist
external conditions, and which will suffer:
dormancy
meiosis inside the sporocyst
spore release at Nchr
-germination: adult individual >> the gametophyte.

II-Phylum of the zygomycetes:

Saprophytes
Parasites
Mycorrhizal
Siphoned sheet
Immobile spores
Present a characteristic zygospore
An interesting order: order of Mucorale
Order of Mucorales:
saprophytic species: white mold, developing on vegetables, fruit and the
pain
pathogenic parasites for humans and animals
mycosis: zygomycosis or mucormycosis
Example of pathogenic mucorales for humans:
-absidia corymbifera
absidia oryzae
mucor racemosus

Example study: Mucor mucedo

white mold on bread
develops on the surface of starchy materials
-vegetative apparatus: siphoned thallus at (Nchr)
It is a saprophytic mushroom that develops on the surface of starchy materials.
white mold on bread.

Asexual reproduction:
spore-forming apparatus:
-of a sporocystophore
- a columella protected by a wall called peridium; together they make up the
sporocyst.
-rhizoides: fixators or very short filaments located at the base of the spore-producing devices
allowing the mushroom to attach to its substrate.
-stolons (long fungal filaments connect the sporiferous devices)

Asexual reproduction occurs through the endogenous spores produced by the spore apparatus.

b-Development cycle:
sexual reproduction
Contact from two siphons of opposite signs the rapprochement is made thanks to the actino-
chemical of *trispotic acid* (chemotaxis effect)
Each differentiates a multinucleated article having the value of a gametocyst.
-Suspenseurs appear
Monitoring of the lysis of the wall from where cytoplasmic mixing (plasmogamy) occurs
The nuclei pair up two by two.
Caryogamy
Only one nucleus persists (the others degenerate), it is surrounded by a thick wall and
accumulates reserve substances it is a conservation spore: it is the
zygospore.
The zygospore hibernates, in the beautiful season it germinates: the nucleus undergoes meiosis followed by
several mitoses
Development of the adult individual or sporophyte.
The sporophyte is reduced to a single spore-bearing structure without a vegetative structure.
Haplo-phasic digeneric cycle, predominant haploid gametophytic phase.
Formation of the zygospore:
The rapprochement of filaments is induced by chemical substances (acid
trisporic) emitted by the mycelia

III-Phylum of ascomycetes:
 a-General characters:
The largest phylum, 3200 genera and 32000 species.
Thallophytes.
Cystophytes.
Eumycetes (immobile gametes)
Septomycetes.
b-Vegetative apparatus :
Unicellular thallus: Yeast-like.
Filamentous septate hyphae (septobasidiomycetes)
The septa are equipped with simple pores that can be blocked by dense bodies.
Woronin body calls.

c-Reproductive organ :
Asexual reproduction: conidia
Sexual reproduction: Somatogamy = fusion of two thalli (heterothallism) rare case
widespread.

Fusion of gametes produced by male gametocysts or antheridia and

female gametangia or ascogonium, presents a cell-capturing filament
male reproducer called trichogyne: fertilization is trichogamy.
self-fertilization

Presence of SPB (speedle pol body) and EMS (enveloping membrane system)
bipolar heterothallism.
homothallism
amphithallism: self-fertility.

Nuclear conditions:
Monocaryon: the nuclei are genetically similar.
Dicaryon: in each cell, we find two compatible nuclei.
Heterokaryon: the nuclei are genetically different.

1-Sexual reproduction:
You can see endogenous spores called ascospores which are:
-products by sporocysts or quash.
- protected by a fructification ouascocarpe (it is the fructification of ascomycetes, it
is formed of a fertile tissue called hymenium, this tissue is made up of fertile elements -
asques and sterile paraphysis

Different types of ascocarps:

the cleistothecium.
The perithesis
Locule
The apothecary

Classification of the phylum of Ascomycetes:

Archiascomycetes (pneumocystis)
Filamentous Ascomycetes (aspergillus, penicillium)

Archiascomycetes
Primitive ascomycetes (naked asci: without ascocarp) have few species (a few
dozens
2 very important groups:

1-tophrinomycetes: are plant parasites

2-pneumocystidomycetes: (pneumocystis carinii)
An extracellular parasite of the lungs of mammals that has long been thought to be a
Protozoa is the observation of ascospores and ascomycetes that allowed them to be classified among the
mushrooms
Molecular biology confirms it.
Once in the lungs, it mainly develops inside the alveoli and
causes pneumonia if the immune system is deficient in a person with HIV.
Its cycle is as follows:

unicellular thallus with N chromosomes that can encyst to better preserve itself.
Asexual reproduction occurs through binary fission: mitosis.
sexual reproduction
fusion of gametangia ... Zygote.
The zygote encysts, the nucleus undergoes meiosis + mitosis... 8 nuclei.
formation of an ascus with 8 nuclei.
each nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm and a cytoplasmic membrane and becomes
ascospore.

Saccharomycetes:

They are primitive ascomycetes with naked asci (without ascocarp).

These are the real yeasts.
Thallus unicellular yeast-like.
Asexual reproduction by budding through the formation of blastospores.

Example study: Saccharomyces cerevisiae:

Thallus yeast-like
Development cycle:
Asexual reproduction: in some cases, the blastospore does not detach from the initial thallus.
we obtain a chain (pseudomycelium)
Sexual R.
Heterothallic species.
Fusion of 2 thalli of opposite signs
Plasmogamy
Caryogamy
Zygote a 2N chr
Budding of the zygote
-2 thalles at 2 N chr
Each thallus undergoes a chromosomal reduction followed by mitosis -> ascus with 4 nuclei
Each nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm and cytoplasmic membrane, becoming a spore or
ascospore

Benefits of brewer's yeast:

Sugar fermentation
Planning
Beer brewing
Source of vitamins B1 B6 B12 B2
Vaccine production: thanks to its speed and ease of reproduction through asexual means.
the exploitation in genetic engineering for the production of vaccines, insulin, and glucagon.

For yeasts that are known to reproduce sexually, they are called ascospores, the yeasts.
when we do not know sexual reproduction they are called anascospores.
Some yeasts are parasites of humans and animals (eczema, abscesses, lesions)
pulmonary mimicking tuberculosis), others are symbionts and live in the body
of insects.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces boulardii can become pathogenic in

immunocompromised individuals such as diabetics, those with AIDS, and patients on corticosteroids.

Filamentous Ascomycetes: Euascomycetes

These are the most developed ascomycetes, their asci are protected by an ascocarp.
According to the appearance of the latter, we divide them into:

TABLEAU

CLASS OF PLECTOMYCETE:
2 interesting families:
Gymnosperms
Aspergillaceae (Eurotiaceae)

1) Family of Gymnoascaceae:
Groups together numerous keratinophilic species that develop on keratin (substance
sulfurous proteic component of the stratum corneum of the skin
They are also called dermatophytes.
Ex: Trichophyton (ringworm)
Microsporum (dermatosis)

2) Family of Aspergillaceae:
Very common molds
3 important genres:
 Aspergillus
Penicillium
Paecilomyces
• Eurotiales (plectomycete): Penicillium:

Molds
Characteristic aspect of the conidiophore
Citrus mold
Peniillium notatum / chrysogenum: synthesis of penicillin (Flaming 1928)
Penicillium griseofulvum: dangerous mycotoxin: patulin
Penicillium camembertii, penicillium

• Eurotiales (plectomycete): Aspergillus:

Mold
-Characteristic aspect of the conidiogenous apparatus aspergillary head
Infectious agent (aspergilloses: Aspergillus fumigatus, A. nidulans, A. versicolor)
-A. Flavus: aflatoxin (dried fruits and cereals) carcinogenic (liver damage; use in
laboratory to induce carcinogenesis
-[Link]: acid production through fragmentation

Paecilomyces

These are imperfect filamentous fungi belonging to the class of deuteromycetes.

The sexual form belongs to the class of ascomycetes (byssochlamys, talaromyces,
thermoascus.
The genus includes 31 species
The powdery, fast-growing colonies are usually light in color (white,
pink, chamois to brownish-green) but never green.
The branched conidiophores in whorls bear cylindrical or swollen phialides in the
lower part and finished with a long, tapered and narrow collar.
The unicellular conidia, smooth or echinulate, ovoid, are deposited in very long chains.
basipetal, divergent or entangled.
Paecilomyces are cosmopolitan and ubiquitous fungi (air, plants, soil, etc.).
Some species are entomopathogenic, others involved in allergies and sometimes in
certain infections (mycoses, endocarditis, peritonitis, sinusitis) they can produce
numerous relatively dangerous mycotoxins (paecilotoxins, patulin)

These three genera (aspergillus, penicillium, paecilomyces) can exhibit forms

Only asexual (anamorphs); they are classified among the perfect fungi.
It happens that Léon can determine the sexual form of these anamorphs; at that moment, they are...
reclassified into their definitive phylum.

ANAMORPHIC TABLEAU / ..

Example study: Aspergillus glaucus:

It is a mold that is found on plant or animal substances in
decomposition, it is therefore a saprophyte.
Vegetative structure: septate mycelium (n chr).
Asexual reproduction -> conidia
Sexual reproduction: Mycelial thallus forms male and female gametocysts.
The male gametocyte spirals around the female gametocyte.
The nuclei of the female gametocyte pair up two by two. Septa appear and
delimit binucleated compartments, resulting in dicaryotic filaments
Some nuclei fuse (karyogamy) each nucleus undergoes chromatic reduction.
After 2 mitoses, we obtain 8 nuclei.
Each nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm and plasma membrane, thus forming 8
ascospores that will be released into nature after the decomposition of the cleistothecium, the
Ascospores will germinate and give rise to a thallus.

CLASS OF PYRENOMYCETES:

Study example: Claviceps purpurea

Definition:
It is a parasitic fungus of the ovary of rye and neighboring grasses such as wheat.
the diss, the oats... etc.
The drug is represented by the sclerotium which is listed at level I (products
toxic
The sclerotium is a form of resistance of the fungus.
Description of the mushroom:
Vegetative form: is called phacelia, it is composed of mycelial hyphae which
invade the ovary. The tip of the hyphae bears conidia and the whole thing is soaked in a
sweet substance called Emicellée from rye.
Development cycle:
Sexual reproduction:
In summer, the sphacelia produces conidia that will infest ovaries of
sprouts (wheat, rye)
In winter, the sphacelia condenses into a sclerotium that hibernates in the ground.
Sexual reproduction:
In spring, the sclerotium germinates into stomatic masses, each mass is hollowed out in
depression and in each depression, we find a male gametocyte or antheridium and a
female gametocyte or ascogonium.
Fertilization (trichonogamy) takes place -> formation of perithecium -> ascus ->
ascospore.
Means of obtaining the drug:
Harvesting wild or cultivated ergot through voluntary or artificial infestation of fields
of rye.
Principles of rye ergot actions:
They are indolic alkaloids with an ergol core.
They derive either:
From lysergic acid: the compounds obtained end with "ine" e.g. ergotamine
and are pharmacologically active.
. of isolysergic acid: the compounds obtained end with "inine" and are few
assets.
The main alkaloids derived from lysergic acid:
Monoamides: e.g. engometrine (ergobasine)
Peptide alkaloids: lysergic acid is linked to 3 cyclic amino acids. E.g.:
Ergotamine = lysergic acid + hydroxylamine + proline + phenylalanine.
Therapeutic jobs:
Methyl ergometrine (list I):
Marketed as elm (met hergin)
Antihhemorrhagic, used in obstetrics and gynecology.
Ergotamine (list I):
Marketed in the form of Gynergene Caffeine (My guell)
Used in the treatment of migraine attacks.
Bromocriptine (list I):
Marketed in the form of parlodel
Used in: Parkinson's disease
Acromegaly
Hyperprolactinemia (to inhibit lactation=
Dihydroergotamine (list II): dangerous
Marketed in the form of hydergine
Used in the treatment of behavioral disorders due to brain senescence.
- LSD 25 : (liste III) L : lysergine
sulfuric (acid)
D : dimethylamine
Hallucinogen leading to drug addiction, not used in therapy.
CLASS OF DISCOMYCETES:
This class includes submicroscopic fungi (the pezizes) and
macroscopic (the helvelles, the morels, and the gyronites).
The ascocarp is called Apothecium.
2 orders are being studied:
The Pezizales
Tuberales
1) Order of Pezizales:
Great diversity of apothecia:
Submicroscopic sessile apothecia, e.g.: the peziza (without a stem)
Apothecary's shop:
A apothecium with a foot and a hemispherical convex head, e.g., the helvellas.
The apothecia of morels is a collection of apothecia that resembles the
basidiomycetes.

Study example: Pyronema confluens

Saprophytic mushroom of plants.
Vegetative apparatus: septate mycelium with n chr.
reproductive cycle
Asexual reproduction: conidia

Sexual reproduction:
The mycelial filaments at n chr develop male gametocysts or antheridia and
female filaments or ascogones, the latter are topped with a filament that
captures the male gametes called trichogyne.
The two gametangia fuse, the male nuclei are ejected into the ascogonium.
Male and female nuclei pair up two by two.
The zygote obtained is multinucleated, it is called a coenocytic zygote, it germinates by emitting
vesicles in which dicaryons migrate.
Each vesicle emits filaments following a dangerous mitosis: the cell
The terminal emits a beak, a nucleus migrates into the beak followed by a mitosis of the 2 nuclei.
a partition forms thus delimiting 3 cells:
A binucleated cell
2 uninucleated cells
These 2 cells come together through a hook, thus obtaining 2 cells.
binucleated with male and female nucleus.
The tip of certain dangerous hyphae becomes ascogenous: the terminal cell
undergoes a karyogamy, the diploid cell elongates into an ascus, the nucleus undergoes a
caryogamy followed by 4 mitoses, we obtain 8 nuclei that surround themselves with cytoplasm and
of the plasma membrane and thus form ascospores.
At the same time as the Dangeard division, the filaments covering
develop and shape the wall of the apothecium (ascothecium).

Conidia

Asexual Germination

Filaments
mycelians n chr

Germination Gamete cyst

♀et♂

Ascospore n chr

Coenozygote 2n chr
Filament endangered
Sporophyte II Vesicle
Sporophyte I

Haplodiplophase trigenic cycle

Classification of Pezizales:
ascobalaceae
Morchellaceae
helvellaceae
discinervaceae
humeriaceae
aleuriaceae
Order of Tuberales:
Tubercle-shaped apothecium = truffle
They live as saprophytes or in symbiosis with the roots of Angiosperms, thus forming
mycorrhizae.
In Algeria, a truffle develops in symbiosis with the roots of Cistus.
Heliantheine... It is about Terfeze (Terfezia leonis) often called White Truffle.
Examples of tubercles:
Tuber melanosporum: black truffle of Périgord, a highly valued European species.
Tuber magnatum: white truffle, a highly valued European species.
Terezia leonis (Terfez): North African species of sandy soils (Djelfa, Laghouat).
Adaptation to underground life:
The tuberales are commonly called truffles.
They are adapted to underground life.
What causes a modification of the apothecium.
Examples:
The genus Genea: Epigeous Apothecia
Ascothecie
External envelope
The genus Hydnocytes: Apothecia turned inward, sunk into the ground.
Ascothecie and the outer envelope
The genus Stephensia: Apothecium closes
The hymenium is pleated.

General conclusion:
Evolution of the apothecium: microscopic -> submicroscopic -> macroscopic
Asexual reproduction through conidia tends to disappear, giving way to sexual reproduction.
(somatogamy) which heralds the arrival of basidiomycetes.
The hymenium (set of asci) becomes disorganized, a new tissue appears: The Glebe
(disorganized mess)

IV-Phylum of Basidiomycetes:
a-Generalities: these are:
Thallophytes
Cystophytes
 Septomycetes: their mycelium is septate, the septa are perforated with pores. These
the last ones have a bulge in the shape of a small barrel called dolipore
Characteristics of basidiomycetes. On each side of the dolipore, one finds a
membrane called parenthosome (in the shape of a parenthesis)
The mycelium goes through 2 phases during reproduction:
a monokaryotic phase
a dikaryotic phase
Asexual reproduction:
extract
It occurs through conidia or by fragmentation of the thallus, one can observe
budding as well.
It can occur through:
arthrospores
chlamydospores
Sexual reproduction:
is more frequent
- occurs through exogenous spores called basidiospores formed by the
sporocysts called basidia.
During this division, the danger division takes place, revealing the ...
advantage of dangers.

Fruiting is called carpopore.

The species are heterothallic (tetrapolar)
Formation of the basidium:
As with ascomycetes, it is the dikaryotic sporophyte that produces the basidium.
training steps are :
Caryogamy
Cell elongation
Chromatic reduction -> 4 nuclei
Separation of the nuclei according to 3 cases:
. By transverse partitions Archéobasides.
. By longitudinal partitions Heterobasides.
Absence of partition, no separation Homobasides.
Archbasilica :
Transversely compartmentalized. The compartmentalization separates the 4 cores, followed by an elongation.
unilateral, formation of 4 sterigmata, the nuclei migrate into these.
surround themselves with cytoplasm and plasma membrane, thus forming the
basidiospores.
Heterobasis:
Longitudinally compartmentalized. The nuclei migrate into the sterigmata, surround themselves with
cytoplasm and the cytoplasmic membrane and form the basidiospores.
Homobaside :
Absence of compartmentalization. The cores migrate into the sterigmata, encircling themselves with
cytoplasm and cytoplasmic membrane and form the basidiospores.
 b-Classification :
based on the nature of the basidium (and the absence or presence of the fruiting body)

Archaeobasidiobolaceae Heterobasidiomycetes Homobasidiomycetes

Heterobasidiomycetes:
longitudinally partitioned strips.
underdeveloped carpophore
very common saprophytes on dead bays.
- grouped in the order Distremellales, Fillobasidiales.

Example of a filobasidiomycete: 'Cryptococcus neoformans'

The sexual form was discovered in 1975 and called: Fillobasidilla neoformans.
Characters :
Thallus levuriform of variable round to elongated shapes.
Absence of pseudomycelium (Candida albicans)
Asexual reproduction: through blastospores
Sexual reproduction: heterothallic species, 2 thalli of opposite signs fuse
formation of dangerous filaments and basidia.
There are 3 varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans:
. [Link] var-neoformans (serotypes A and B)
. [Link] var-gattu
. [Link] var-group
Presence of a polysaccharide capsule around the wall colored with ink
China.
Cryptococcosis:
Cosmopolitan infection of the central nervous system and the meninges.
The entrance door is most often pulmonary.
Skin lesions may manifest secondarily, as well as at the level of
mucous membranes, bones, and joints.
Previously infrequent (observed in leukemic or cancer patients),
this fungus is currently one of the most common among patients with
AIDS.
Epidemiology:
Very widespread saprophytes in house dust, in pigeon droppings,
farm milk, on fruits and fruit juices.
The eucalyptus tree constitutes their biotope.
Entry points: pulmonary, digestive, or cutaneous.
Diseases: cryptococcosis that progresses in 2 stages: pulmonary then cerebral
leading to death.
Diagnosis:
The identification of this germ is done in:
the cerebrospinal fluid.
skin crests.
expectorations.
gastric tubing.
operating pieces of autopsy
direct examination
After staining with India ink, the mushroom appears in yeast form.
surrounded by a capsule.
Treatment:
Fungisone
Antifungal
Flucytosine at high doses
In the absence of treatment, the disease is deadly.
2) Homobasidiomycetes:
Characters :
unpartitioned basins
Asexual rare
Frequent and simplified [Link]ée
Fruiting is made up of a stalk and a cap, it is a typical carpophore.
Development of the fruiting body:
- Egg stage: the general veil protects the cap, the partial veil protects
the hymenium.
- General tearing of the veil: there remain 2 remnants:
The valve at the base of the foot, the scales at the level of the cap, the partial veil persists.
The partial veil tears and reveals 2 remnants, either in the form of a ring.
in the form of a curtain (in the shape of a fiber reminiscent of a spider web hence the
name of arachnid decortication
Hymenium :
it is the fertile tissue.
2 types of hymenium:
Typical: formed of well-organized basidia accompanied by cystidia (cells that
refringent inclusion with unknown role
Atypical: the basidia are disordered, absence of cystidia, this tissue is
called 'glebe'
Example of an Agarical: the shaggy ink cap
Soil saprophytes.
Asexual reproduction: thallospores
[Link]: by perittogamy:
2 filaments of opposite signs fuse -> dicaryoptic filament -> division
dangerous... dangerous filaments that will constitute the carpophore at the base
from the hat, the filaments will organize into lamellae, the terminal cells
become basidiogenic… the basidiospores will be released after gelling of the
sterigmates.
 Imperfect fungi
a-Generalities:
They are called deutermycete, hyphomycetes, imperfect fungi, it is a fictional group.
we do not know about sexual reproduction.
Lost during the evolution of the fungus.
It appears that in certain culture media.
It has not been highlighted yet.
Some mushrooms reproduce sexually once a year.
When the reproduction of an imperfect fungus is highlighted, it is reclassified into
its appropriate phylum and it is renamed.
Example:
Asexual form sexual form
Claviceps purpurea sphacelia segetum
Cryptococcus fillobasidiella
Neoformans neoformans
Penicillium talaromyces
Vermiculated vermiculated
Aspergillus nidulans emericellanidulans
Most imperfect fungi have been reclassified among the ascomycetes.
some in the basidiomycetes but rarely in the zygomycetes.
Descriptive terms have been established:
Holomorphic
Teleomorph
Anamorph
Synamorphe

The holomorphic form:

This term describes all forms of the fungus: mycelium, sexual and asexual stages.

The teleomorphic form:

It is the sexual form with the production of sexual spores: ascospores and basidiospores.

The anamorphic form:

Asexual reproduction produces only one type of asexual spore, for example, conidia.

The synamorphic form:

Production of several types of asexual spores in this case the international code allows for
teleomorph

b-Vegetative apparatus:
Thalle yeast-like
Mycelial filamentous thallus

c-Asexual reproduction:
-bastospores
conidia
arthrospores
chlamydospores
-sclerotia or bulbils, absence of spores (sterile mycelium) is the group of mycelia
sterile or agromycetes

Asexual fructifications:
the fruiting bears asexual spores
several forms:
Synnéma
Sporodochie
pycnidia and acervuli

1) Synnéma: a set of conidiophores linked together; e.g., penicillium

2) Sporodochia: it is a fructification, a cushion-like aspect from which emerges

conidiophores.

3) Conidiomata:
Pycnid in the shape of a bottle, opened by an ostiole, (resembling perithecia)
The hymenium is covered with conidiophores.
Acervulus: in the form of a disk (resembling the apothecium) covered with conidiophores.

c-Classification :
The first to classify the imperfects was Saccardo (1899)
he relied on the conidia: shape, color, septation

d-Interests of imperfect mushrooms:

1) Imperfect pathogenic fungi:

Various harmless mushrooms (opportunistic) can become pathogenic:
Candida :
Mushroom commensal of the mucous membranes but as soon as the body weakens it becomes
pathogen. It develops fungi called candidoses such as candidoses
vaginal or oral (thrush)
Aspergillus :
The Aspergillus genus develops mycoses called aspergillosis:
Aspergillus versicolor: responsible for dermatophytes (especially in the
immunocompromised) of onychomycosis.
Aspergillus fumigatus: the most common and pathogenic agent, responsible for
pulmonary aspergillosis.
Aspergillus terreus: responsible for pulmonary and cerebral aspergillosis in the
patients suffering from cystic fibrosis and the immunocompromised.
Aspergillus flavus: pulmonary infection.
Aspergillus niger: causes aspergillomas, otitis, and sinusitis.
Aspergillus conditum: very common in nature, it is often found in the
seeds, flour, it is rarely pathogenic but can be responsible for onychitis of
toes.
The genus Penicillium:
This genus is rarely pathogenic, only one species can be, it is Penicillium.
marniffei; it is found in South Asia (southern China, Thailand, Laos). It develops
in immunocompromised individuals, especially among patients with AIDS where it produces
generalized infections.
Geotricum:
Responsible for geotrichosis: mycosis caused by Geotrichum candidum, saprophytic fungus
of the digestive mucous membranes and only becomes pathogenic in cases of weakness of
the organism.
Clinically: bronchitis or digestive manifestation: black tongue and colitis.
It is highlighted by the observation of arthrospore-type spores.
2) Allergenic mushrooms:
Out of 15 allergenic mushrooms, 11 are imperfect mushrooms. The dictyospores.
d'Alternaria are commonly found in house dust and are
the origin of allergy.
3) Toxic agents: responsible for mycotoxicosis.
4) Plant parasites: Fusarium oxysporum [Link] albedinis: (species form);
provoke the bayoud.
5) Pharmaceutical interests:
Antibiotic producers:
From Penicillium notatum, Fleming isolated penicillin in 1928, since several
molecules have been synthesized, example:
Benzyl penicillin (scientific name or common name or INN): Penicillin G (name
commercial
Phenoxy methylpenicillin (DCI): in acid form: oraciliine
Under a blanket of salt: Open
Penicillium chrysogenum is also a producer of penicillin.
The genus Cephalosporium: producer of cephalosporin.
The Fusarium genus: producer of fusidic acid.
Antifungals:
Penicillium griseofulvum producer of griseofulvin.
Immunosuppressants:
Tolypocladium inflatum produces cyclosporine A which is used against transplant rejection.
There are two forms of cyclosporine:
The oral form marketed under the name NEORAL.
The injectable form marketed under the name SANDIMUM.
Fermentation of penicillium: the fermentation of penicillium from acid
mycophenolic product of mycophenolate marketed under the name CELCEPT.
Enzyme producers:
Aspergillus aureus and Aspergillus oryzae produce amylase used in disorders.
Dyspeptic: alpha amylase (maxillase) treats inflammation.
Producers of insulin and glucagon:
Thanks to genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology.
Food interests:
Penicillium roqueforti: production of Roquefort.
Penicillium camberti: camembert.
Biological control:
Fusarium oxysporum subsp. cannabis is used as a natural herbicide for
fight against Cannabis sativa (Indian hemp or hashish).
Textile :
The genus Trichoderma is used for the production of cellulase used in tissue for
achieve a washed-out look.

Toxic mushrooms:
A fungal poisoning:
Direct ingestion = mycetism
Indirect ingestion = mycotoxicosis

A) Mycetism:
1- Phalloid syndrome
2- Orellanian syndrome:
Late syndromes (more than 6 hours)
3- Gyromitra syndrome:
Early syndromes
Affecting the nervous system
4-Muscari or Sudoriferous Syndrome
5-Panther Syndrome
6- Psilocybin Syndrome:
Affecting various systems
7- Coprinian Syndrome
8- Paxillien Syndrome
9- Resinous Syndrome

1-Phalloid syndrome:
The genus Amanita (amanitaceae):
Death cap
Amanita virosa
Amanita verna
Location: at the foot of the oaks: Kabylie and Constantinois.
Syndrome
Onset time: 10 to 12 hours on average.
Digestive issues: abundant diarrhea and incessant vomiting (1-2 days) state of
severe dehydration occurs in 2 to 6 hours, electrolyte deficiency, drop in blood pressure, cramps
abdominals.
Liver damage: destruction of liver cells, (bile retention,
encephalopathy.
Organic renal failure.
In severe cases, after a coma, death can occur after 6 to 8 days in 10 to
30% of cases of poisoning from this type of mushroom,
Toxins and mechanisms of action:
The main toxins: alpha and beta amanitins (cyclic octapeptides) block the
synthesis of proteins in cells. Alpha-amanitin destroys, in particular, the cells
of the liver.

2-Orellanian syndrome (or paraphalloidian)

Responsible mushrooms:
Cochineal-colored cortinarius (Cortinarius orellanus)
(cortinariaceae)
Deadly lepiotes (agaricaceae):
scaly cap or crested lepiota
lepiota cristata

Syndrome :
Onset time: 2 to 20 days.
Signs and symptoms:
Pre-renal phase:
Digestive troubles: vomiting, nausea, diarrhea (intermittent).
Intense thirst sensations, burning lips.
Lower back pain, fatigue, headaches, chills, night sweats (without fever)
Renal phase:
Progressive acute renal failure (69% of cases)
Urine: presence of leukocytes, hematuria, plasma albumin: elevation of urea,
creatinine, sodium, nephritis.
Healing phase: slow.
Chronic renal failure (30 to 50% of cases after 8 days) corticoid dialysis
showing orange-red traces.
Toxins and mechanisms of action:
Orellanine, toxic for kidney cells.
. The kidney is the main target organ.
Lethal dose: 2 or 3 mushrooms (100g)

3-Syndrome gyromitrien :
Responsible mushrooms:
Edible Gyromitra (gyromitra esculenta)
(Located in Algeria)
Helvelles.
Onset time: 6 to 24 hours,
Signs and symptoms:
Gastroenteritis: nausea, vomiting, cramps, abdominal pain.
Neurological disorders: dizziness, motor incoordination, consciousness disturbances
convulsions, coma, agitation, fever, fatigue.
- Digestive problems: vomiting followed by a toxic cystolytic hepatitis and a
organic kidney failure.
Toxins and mechanisms of action:
The helvellas and gyromitrins contain a thermolabile and volatile toxin: the
gyromitrine which gives, by hydrolysis, methyl-hydrazine, responsible for a syndrome
severe hepatorenal.

4-Muscary or sudoriferous syndrome:

Responsible mushrooms:
Inocybe de Patouillard
(Inocybe patouillardii) (Found in Algeria)

Signs and symptoms:

Cholinergic syndrome: exaggeration of secretions: sweating, tearing, salivation,
rhinorrhea. Constricted pupils, vomiting, slowed heart rate, contraction of
smooth muscles (bronchi and digestive tube)
One must not consume any Inocybe.

Toxins and mechanisms of action:

Muscarine (structure similar to acetylcholine)
Mode of action: sustained activation of acetylcholine receptors (messenger
chemical of neurons) associated with glands and certain muscles.

5-Pantherine syndrome:
Responsible mushrooms: Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria)
Onset time: 30 minutes to 2 hours.
Signs and symptoms:
Inconsistent digestive issues
Neurosensory disorders (state of excitation, agitation, euphoria, delirium, state of stupor,
reduction, deep sleep, convulsions, coma = severe forms
Rare cardiovascular troubles
Symptoms disappear in less than 48 hours (2 to 10 hours on average)
Toxins and mechanisms of action:
Isoxazole derivatives, ibotenic acid and its derivative muscimol.
Focus on receptors at the brain level.
Muscinol binds to GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) receptors.
The action is initially excitatory and then inhibitory.

6-Psilocybin Syndrome:
Responsible mushrooms: Psilocybe
Onset time: 30 minutes to an hour (duration of action 4 hours)
Signs and symptoms:
Agitations, muscle incoordination, visual hallucinations (bright colors, outlines)
money, visions with closed eyes... )
Sensory disorders in general.
Strengthening of visual and auditory acuity.
Decrease in concentration, hilarity, euphoria or anxiety.
Feelings of unreality, dreams and incoherent speech, as well as disturbances
of perceptions of time and space
When the quantities are larger, cardiovascular disorders
Tachycardia, hypertension, convulsions, and coma may occur.
Toxins and mechanisms of action:
Psilocybin, psilocin (indole alkaloids)
Vomiting induced gastric lavage rest sedatives (benzodiazepines or
haloperidol in agitated patients) + monitoring.

7-Coprinian syndrome:
Ink cap mushroom: Coprinus atramentarius
Time of appearance: 30 minutes after the absorption of alcoholic beverages, and during the 3
days (5 days) after the consumption of black ink coprin.
Signs and symptoms:
Perturbation of the sympathetic nervous system
A feeling of discomfort may occur
Skin redness and sensation of swelling in the chest and face (hot flashes of
heat) headaches, sweating, tachycardia, hypotension.
Toxins and mechanisms of action:
Coprine, to be active, it must be hydrolyzed into 1-aminocyclopropanol.

8-Paxillien syndrome:
Responsible mushrooms: Wrap-around paxillus (paxillus involutus)
Onset time: 1 to 3 hours after a second ingestion.
Signs and symptoms:
Acute hemolysis, urine: presence of hemoglobin.
Kidney failure: increased creatinine in the plasma
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain
Lowering of blood pressure, loss of consciousness, painful kidneys upon palpation.
Toxins and mechanisms of action:
Unknown antigen
Immuno-allergic mechanism: first consumption formation of IgG antibodies
specific following ingestions: the paxillus antigen complexes with the antibodies
shape destruction of red blood cells,
Risk of severe hemolytic accidents hence the recommendation: do not consume the
rolled paxille.
9-Resinoid syndrome:
Responsible mushrooms: many mushrooms:
Livid Entoloma (entoloma lividum)
Satan's mushroom (boletus satanas)
Sulfur mushroom (Tricholoma sulphureum)
Emetic Russula (Russula emetica)
Olivier Pleurotus
is common: more than 60% of mushroom poisoning.
Time of onset: 15 minutes to 6 hours after a meal of mushrooms.
Signs and symptoms :
Isolated digestive troubles: gastroenteritis, vomiting, abdominal pain,
diarrhea.
For the livid entoloma: severe digestive disorders, epigastric cramps, vomiting,
colics, bradycardia, dyspnea, hemorrhagic gastritis in severe cases.

Toxins and mechanisms of action:

Various suspect components, phenolic derivatives, sesquiterpenes,
Direct irritation of the digestive mucosa causing diarrhea.

N.B :
The reactions of individuals to certain toxins are very variable. Some tolerate
these toxins better than others, species such as the yellowing mushroom or the paxillus
wrapped, toxic for one person, will have no effect on another,
Even edible mushrooms can cause occasional intolerances.
case of the Paris mushroom.
One must avoid consuming overly mature subjects that are often corrupt and on which
molds develop causing gastrointestinal pain or
diarrhea.
extrinsic intoxications.
they are due, not to the mushroom itself, but to accumulated toxic products
by this one. The main problems related to this phenomenon are related to two cases.
main:

A/ Heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium...): the collection and consumption of

mushrooms that have grown along the roads and highways, near polluting industries,
etc. can lead to the ingestion of huge amounts of heavy metals and other pollutants,
Indeed, some mushrooms, including excellent edible ones, have the ability
to accumulate these elements or molecules in their mycelium, then in the fruiting bodies.

B/ Radioelements: pollution by radioactive elements is also a problem

very serious current events, the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster, but also the
nuclear tests, and the multiple causes of low doses of background radioactivity,
can manifest at the level of fungi that also accumulate these elements.

In summary:
To ensure that the poisoning is indeed caused by the mushroom, it is necessary to check the
following points:
The mushroom is in good condition.
Consume a mushroom when it is young; the aged mushroom is indigestible.
Avoid picking them up when you have no botany knowledge, avoid buying them from
amateurs.
Avoid consuming large quantities as the chitinous wall of the mushroom is
indigested.

There is a method for studying a fruiting body mushroom:

Observation of the general appearance.
Observation of the different parts (cap, hymenium, stem).
Observation of spores.

Incubation time:
It is the time that separates the time of ingestion and the time of symptom appearance.
(clinical signs: vomiting, diarrhea.. etc.)
The longer the time, the more dangerous the mushroom.

Mycotoxicosis:
1- Definition :
It is poisoning by food contaminated with a mycotoxin.
It is an eating disorder that is neither infectious nor contagious.
Mycotoxin: toxic metabolite produced by a mold developing on a food.
Mycotoxin is a byproduct of the metabolism of molds.

2- Dosage and detection:

It is necessary to search for and measure the mycotoxin before declaring the food
is unfit for consumption.
Chloroformic or acetonic extraction.
Elimination of impurities.
Separation by chromatography.
Dosage by fluorodensitometry.
Biological test.

3- The main mycotoxins:

a) Aflatoxins :
Elaborated by Aspergillus flavus, a mold present in many substrates
notably oilseeds and their cakes.
Aflatoxin B1is the most important because it is found in cow's milk under
form of aflatoxin M1and M2which may have an impact on infant feeding
(M = milk)
Aflatoxins are strongly present in peanuts and cause cancer.
of the liver.

b) Islanditoxin :
Produced by Penicillium islandicum, one of the agents of yellow rice in Japan.
c) Patulin or clavacin:
Produced by Aspergillus clavatus and Penicillium expansum, agents of rot
fries.
Patulin has been used in pharmacy as an antibiotic against staphylococcus.
but due to its toxicity, Platuline has been withdrawn.
Patulin is carcinogenic.
d) Ochratoxin :
Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium viridicum, ochratoxin is responsible for the
endemic kidney disease in the Balkans.
e) The trichothecenes:
Are secreted by the genus Fusarium. The trichothecenes are responsible for
leukopenia (decreased production of white blood cells)
Trichothecenes are used as a chemical weapon (Yellow Rain).
f) Zearalenone:
Or toxin T2, produced by Fusarium graminearum, this fungus develops on
the corn.
Zearalenone affects livestock, impacts the genital organs and
causes: sterility, abortion, small litters.
g) Ergotism (holy fire):
Due to the alkaloids of ergot of rye or Claviceps purpurea; responsible for
leg gangrene that can lead to death.