I.

TECHNIQUES FOR COLLECTING INFORMATION

Data collection techniques allow for the acquisition

systematic information about the objects of study
(people, objects, and phenomena) and their environment.

As already mentioned, data collection must be

systematic, since if the data is collected randomly it will be difficult
to answer the research questions conclusively.

Example
During a nutrition survey, three different scales were used.
in three villas. After completing the survey, it was discovered that the
scales were not standardized and that different ones were obtained
weights of the same child. Therefore, it was impossible to conclude that
the villa had more malnutrition.

The data collection techniques that will be reviewed are the

following:

Utilization of the available information

Observation

Face-to-face interview

Self-administered questionnaires

Discussion with focus groups

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 Other data collection techniques

USE OF AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Frequently, there is a large amount of data collected by

others, that have not necessarily been analyzed or published.

Locating sources and retrieving information is a good starting point.

departure in any data collection effort.

For example; the gathered information can be analyzed.

routinely by health services, to identify
problems in certain interventions or in flows of
supply of medications, or to detect the increase
in the incidence of certain diseases.

Sometimes, the factors that can also be identified

they contribute to the problem, but at other times it will be
necessary to collect additional information

The analysis of health-related information systems,

from the census data, from unpublished reports and from the
publications located in archives, libraries or offices of
different levels, it can be a research in itself.
Usually, however, this is part of studies in which
other data collection techniques are used.

To retrieve data from the available sources, the researcher

you will have to design an instrument, either a checklist or a
sheet for collection.

It is important to inspect the data outputs of the source document.

and design the instruments so that the data can be
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transferred in the order in which they appear in this
This way, time is saved and errors are reduced.

The advantage of using existing data is that its collection is cheap,

however, sometimes it is difficult to access the files or
required reports or the information is incomplete and inaccurate.

Another limitation is the updating of the data as in the

census case.

The definitions and registration methods can also vary from one
from one institution to another and from one period to another.

The researcher must verify these sources of error when using the
available sources of information.

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OBSERVATION

Observation is a technique that involves selecting, seeing, and recording.

systematically, the behavior and characteristics of living beings,
objects or phenomena.

The observation of human behavior is a technique of

data collection widely used that can be carried out from
different ways.

Participatory observation: The observer participates in the

situation that observes.
Non-participatory observation: The observer does not participate
in the situation you observe.

Observations can serve different purposes. They can

provide additional and more reliable information about people's behavior
than interviews or questionnaires.

The questionnaires may be incomplete as they can be forgotten.

some questions or why the interviewees forget or do not want to
answer some things.

With observation, one can then verify the information.

collected (especially on topics such as alcoholism,
drug addiction, AIDS, etc.) but it can also be a primary source
of information (systematic observation of children's play).

The observation of human behavior can be part of

some study, but since it takes time it is used more often
frequency in small-scale studies.

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Objects can also be observed. For example, one can
observe the presence or absence of a latrine and its condition
cleaning.

If observations are made using a defined scale, also

They can be referred to as measurements.

Measurements usually require additional tools.

For example, in nutritional epidemiological surveillance, it measures the

weight and height using measurement scales.

INTERVIEW:

The interview is a data collection technique that involves the

oral questioning of the interviewees, either individually or
in a group.

The answers to the questions during the interview can be

recorded in writing or taped on a tape.

Interviews can be conducted with different degrees of

flexibility.

High degree of flexibility:

For example
The interviews using a form to ensure that they are discussed
all points, but allowing enough time and permitting to continue
any order. The interviewer may ask additional questions.
to obtain as much additional information as possible. The
the questions are open-ended and there are no restrictions on the answers.

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This unstructured method of asking questions can be useful.
for individual or group interviews with key informants.

A flexible interview method is useful if the researcher knows little.

of the problem or the situation that is being investigated. It is applied in
exploratory studies and case studies.

Low degree of flexibility

For example

Interviews using a questionnaire with a fixed list of questions

in a standardized sequence and pre-categorized responses.

The less flexible interview methods are useful when the

the researcher knows in advance the expected answers and when
The number of interviewees is relatively large.

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SELF-ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRES

A self-administered questionnaire is a data collection tool.

of data in which questions are presented in writing for
they will be answered in the same way.

These questionnaires can be administered in different ways,

for example:

The questionnaire and clear instructions can be sent

by mail and the informant can be asked to return them from the
same way.

Gather all or part of the informants in one place.

time, give instructions orally or in writing and ask them to
fill out the questionnaires.

Deliver the questionnaires to the informants and collect them more.

afternoon.

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DISCUSSION WITH FOCUS GROUPS.

OTHER TECHNIQUES FOR DATA COLLECTION

Below are some useful techniques for certain projects

from the ISS.

Nominal group technique

Delphi technique
Life stories
Scales
Essays
Case studies
Mapping
Quick assessment or survey techniques
Participatory surveys.

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTS OF
DATA COLLECTION.

The following table outlines the differences between techniques and

data collection instruments, with the purpose of
avoid confusions.

Techniques and instruments for data collection

Techniques Instruments

Use of the Checklists, collection forms

available information of data
Observation Eyes and other senses, pen and paper,
watch, microscope, etc.
Interview Interview forms, checklists,
questionnaires, recorder
Questionnaires Questionnaires
self-managed

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 Advantages and disadvantages of the techniques of
DATA COLLECTION

The following table summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the

different data collection techniques.

Advantages of data collection techniques.

TECHNIQUE Advantages DISADVANTAGES

Use of the Barata, since the data is not always available.

information data collected is accessible.
available previously. They canto introduce oneself
It allows examining some ethical issues.
past trends. The information may be
imprecise and incomplete.

TECHNIQUE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Observation Give more details and they can to introduce oneself
information of the problems ethical
context. related with the
Allows reliability and privacy.
Collection of the possibility can be presented
information about observer bias
facts no observer can notice
mentioned in the only what interests him.
questionnaire. The presence del
It allows evaluating how the observer can influence
reliability of the observed situation.
responses of the training is required
questionnaires. from the observers.
 TECHNIQUE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Suitable for using La presence of the
Interview with people who are not interviewers can
they know neither how to read nor write. influence the answers.
Allow clarify The event report
questions. it can be less complete
Response rate that a through of
higher than with the observations.
questionnaires
self-managed.
Interview Allows The interviewers can
flexible the collection to influence the informants.
small scale information The open questions are
depth. difficult to analyze.

TECHNIQUE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Interview Easy to analyze. The important information
closed to large it can be forgotten, since,
scale they are neither registered nor recorded
the answers
spontaneous.
Cheaper questionnaires. He cannot be used with
self-administered anonymity may be illiterate informants.
s frequently there is a
more honest. low non-response rate.
No requirements The questions can
interviewers. to understand each other in a way
Eliminate the incorrect bias.
produced by giving
different meaning to
the questions with
each informant
 II. IMPORTANCE OF COMBINING DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF
GATHERING

When the different collection techniques were discussed

data, its advantages and disadvantages, it was clear that they can
to complement each other.
The combination of different techniques can maximize quality of
the collected data and reduce the possibility of biases.

Flexible techniques such as:

The structured interview using open-ended questions.
The discussion with focus groups.
Participatory observation.

they are also called QUALITATIVE research techniques and

they produce information that is often recorded in the form
narrative.

Qualitative RESEARCH TECHNIQUES involve the

identification and exploration of related variables that provide a
quick picture of nature and the causes of certain problems and
in the way they affect the population.

The structured questionnaires that help the researcher to

quantify the pre or post-categorized responses to certain
questions are an example of research techniques
quantitative.

The answers can be counted and expressed numerically.

The QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES are used
to measure the magnitude, distribution, and association of certain
variables in a studied population.

Very often these techniques are used in a way

combined in a single study.

For example
In a delegation X, it has been observed that children between 1 and 21/2
years, who have started eating independently, have a
unsatisfactory food intake when they are ill.

To understand the causes of the problem, a design can be created.

research that includes the following phases:

Focus group discussions (FGDs) with 2 to 5 groups of

mothers or in-depth interviews with 10 mothers, to find out
if they changed the way they feed their children in this group of
age during illnesses and how they faced the lack of
appetite that appeared in some of the children who
they fell ill (exploratory study).

A survey to evaluate findings on a large scale.

most important of the exploratory study.

DGFs with women from the study area to discuss the

survey results and develop possible solutions
for the detected problems.

In this example, the first qualitative part of the study should be

used to guide the survey towards the most important aspects
important and help to rephrase the questions in a way
optimal to obtain the information that is needed.
The second, quantitative part of the study should be used to
know the percentage of mothers with different types of practices, the
reasons for their behavior and up to where a certain category of children
(for example, the youngest or those from low socioeconomic backgrounds)
they have a higher risk than others.

The third, qualitative part of the study should provide feedback.

About the most important results of the survey. Questioning
the following points: The conclusions make sense for the
women in the field of study? Some aspects were overlooked.
When were the data interpreted? What actions can be taken?
cable to improve feeding practices for children
sick?

It is also common to collect quantitative and qualitative data in a

solo questionnaire. The researchers who conduct it must have
care of what:

Do not include too many open-ended questions in

large-scale surveys, making analysis difficult.

Do not use inappropriate statistical techniques for the

quantitative data generated in small-scale studies.
III. BIASES IN INFORMATION COLLECTION

The BIAS in the information gathering is a

distortion that generates non-representative information of the

true situation.

SOURCES OF BIAS DURING DATA COLLECTION

1. Defective instruments

Questionnaires with:

Closed questions on topics that are very well known.

little.
Open questions without a guide on how to ask them.
Questions with very vague phrases.
Questions without a logical sequence.

Use of non-standardized measurement scales

These sources of bias can be prevented with a

careful planning of the collection process
data and with the pilot test of the instruments of
collection
2. Observer bias

The observer bias can occur very easily.

during the observation or the individual or group interviews
loosely structured group. the observer can see or
hear only things that interest him and forget information that
it is very important for the research.

Guidelines for the protocols must be prepared

observation and structured interviews and training the
interviewers or observers.

It is recommended that interviewers work in pairs.

when they use flexible collection techniques in a way
that they can discuss and interpret the data immediately
after the collection.

3. Effect of the interview on the informant

This bias can occur in all types of interviews.

The informants must interpret the intentions of the
interview and certain questions will be given a response
mistaken.
This bias can be reduced with an adequate
explanation of the study objectives to the informants,
taking enough time for the interview and ensuring
to the informants that the information will be confidential.
It is very important to be careful in the selection of the
interviewers.
In a study analyzing the reasons for the dropout
use of local health services, for example, no
health service providers should be used,
study area, to interview the population, since its
 presence would definitely influence the results of the
research.

IV. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

When the techniques and instruments for gathering are developed

the information, it is necessary to assess how far production can go
physical or emotional harm to the informants. Some of the ways in
The ones that can cause damage are the following:

Violate privacy with delicate questions or by reviewing

records with personal data

Observe the behavior of the informants without their

consent

Respect cultural values, traditions, or taboos.

Here are some suggestions to face

these problems:

Obtain informed consent before

start the interview or the study

Do not ask delicate questions before establishing a

good relationship with the informant

Ensure the confidentiality of the obtained data.

If questions have to be asked for the study's objectives.
delicate (such as family planning practices), it is advised
omit name and address from the questionnaires.