SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION AND A canal is an artificial channel

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT generally trapezoidal in shape

constructed on the ground to
Unit 1: The Foundation of Water
carry water to the field either
Management in Agriculture
from the river or reservoir

Drip Irrigation- also known as the

Water resource management is trickle or micro irrigation or
the activity of planning, localized irrigation
developing, distributing and
Is an irrigation method that saves
managing the optimum use of
water and fertilizers by allowing
water resources
water to drip slowly to the root
It is a subset of water cycle plants
management; planning has
Either onto the soil surface or
regard to all competing demands
directly onto the rootzone,
for water and seeks to allocate
through a network of valves
water on equitable basis to satisfy
pipes, tubing and emitters
all uses and demands
A surface irrigation (gravity) is a
Cultivated is extremely sensitive
cheap effective way to provide
to water shortages. Good water
water for a smaller sized area
management practices are
needed to keep usage at The basic system is very simple
optimum levels and to maximize consisting of an elevated
the production reservoir with a pipe coming out
the bottom that feeds water into
Pre-planting steps that help water
basic canal or drip irrigation
management include:
system
1. Proper creation and
A technique where water is
maintenance of field
applied and distributed over the
channels for water delivery
soil surface by gravity
2. Land leveling that allows
water to be evenly Furrow irrigation is conducted by
distributed and retained creating small parallel channels
3. Tilling operations that along the field length in the
include field bund direction of predominant slope.
preparation, water pudding, Water is applied to the top end of
and maintenance each furrow and flows down the
4. Bucket-drip irrigation field under the influence of
5. Treadle pumps gravity

Center pivot irrigation is a form of

sprinkler irrigation consisting of
Tools Implement and Methods
several segments of pipe joined
together and supported by A watering can, (or watering pot)
trusses, mounted on wheeled is a portable container, usually
towers with sprinklers positioned with handle and a sprout, used to
along its length. The system water plants by hand.
moves in a circular pattern and is
A well is a deep hole or shaft sunk
fed with water from the pivot
into the earth to obtain water, oil,
point at the center of the arc.
gas, or brine.
Irrigation by Lateral move (side
A nozzle projecting part with an
roll, wheel line, wheel move) A
opening, as the end of a hose, for
series of pipes, each with a wheel
regulating and directing a flow of
permanently affixed to its
fluid.
midpoint and sprinklers along its
length, are coupled together. A pipe is a hollow cylinder or tube
used to conduct a liquid, gas, or
Tank or Cystern is a container for
finely divided solid.
the storage of a liquid.

A reservoir is a natural or artificial

place where water is collected GOAL OF WATER MANAGEMENT
and stored for use, especially
Water resource is one of
water for supplying a community,
paramount importance for
irrigating land, furnishing power.
sustainable agricultural
A dam is a barrier constructed socioeconomic development.
across waterway to control the
Agriculture is also one of the
flow or raise level of water
prominent factors responsible for
A pump is a device that moves the deterioration in the water
fluid (liquids or gases), or quality mostly due to poor water
sometimes slurries, by management practices and lack
mechanical action. Pumps can be of proper knowledge about soil-
classified into three major groups plant atmosphere relationship.
according; direct lift displacement
As such optimally designed
and gravity pumps. to the method
techniques and carefully selection
they use to move fluid
of irrigation system can ensure
Irrigation sprinklers are sprinklers high efficiency and uniform
providing irrigation to vegetation. distribution of applied water.
Water is distributed through a
Advanced planning and proper
system of pipes usually by
management of water could lead
pumping. It is a method of
us toward sustainable agricultural
applying which like= natural
development with optimal crop
rainfall
production even physical.
environmental, financial and In several parts of the world, the
technological restrictions. moisture available in the root-
zone soil, either from rain or from
undergrad waters, may not be
INTRODUCTION TO IRRIGATIOON sufficient for the requirements of
the plant life. This deficiency may
Irrigation
be either for the entire crop
Three basic requirement of season or for only part of the crop
agricultural production are soil, season.
seed, and water. In addition,
fertilizers, insecticides, sunshine,
suitable atmospheric, For sufficient plant growth,
temperature, and human labour therefore, it becomes necessary
are also needed. Of all these, to make up the deficiency by
water appears to be the most adding water to the root-zone soil.
important requirement of This is artificial application of
agricultural production. The water to land for supplementing
application water to soil is the natural available moisture in
essential for plant growth and it the root-zone soil for the purpose
serves the following functions: off agricultural production is
termed irrigation.
1. It supplies moisture to the
soil essential for The artificial removal of excess
germination of seeds, and water is termed drainage which
chemical and bacterial general is complementary to
processes during plant irrigation.
growth.
To keep the optimum content of
2. It cools the soil and the
water in soil, irrigation supplies
surroundings thus making
water to the land where water is
environment more
deficient and drainage withdraws
favorable for plant growth.
water from the land where water
3. It washes out or dilutes
is excess.
salts in the soil.
4. It softens clods and thus The object of providing irrigation
helps in tillage operations. and drainage is to assist nature in
5. It reduces the adverse maintaining moisture in the root-
effects of frost on crops. zone soil within the range
6. it enables application of required for maximum
fertilizers. agricultural production.
7. It ensures crop success Usefulness and importance of
against short-duration irrigation can be appreciated by
droughts. the fact that without irrigation, it
would have been impossible for
the Philippines to have become  Improvement of the
self-sufficient in food with such microclimate. Possibly
large population to feed. provided for the wastewater
use and disposal.
Irrigation schemes can be broadly
 Retention of water in
grouped into two main categories:
reservoirs and possible
(i) surface water, irrigation
multipurpose use thereof.
schemes, and (ii) ground water
irrigation schemes. The former Negative
use diversion and storage
 Danger of water logging
methods ad obtain their supplies
and salination of soils, rise
from rivers. Ground water
in ground water table.
irrigation schemes use open
 Changing properties of
wells, and deep and shallow tube
water in reservoirs.
wells to lift water from the
Deforestation of area which
bearing strata below the earth’s
is to be irrigated and with it
surface. The choice of an
a change of the water
irrigation scheme depends on
regime in the area.
several factors, such a surface
Reservoir bank abrasion.
topography, rainfall
characteristics type of source
available, sub profile, etc. one HEALTH (Positive)
should however always plan to
 Securing increased
use surface and ground water
agricultural production and
together to derive maximum
thus improving the nutrition
benefits. Such use is termed
of the population.
conjunctive use of surface and
 Recreation facilities in
ground waters.
irrigation canals and
reservoirs

IMPACT OF IRRGATION ON HUMAN

ENVIRONMENT

The main impact of irrigation is in

terms of the increased
agricultural yield which, in turn, Negative
affects social, cultural, economic,
 Possible spread of diseases
political and other aspects of
ensuing from certain types
human environment.
of surface irrigation.
ENGINEERING (Positive)  Danger of the population of
water resources by return
 Improvement of the water
runoff from irrigation
regime of irrigated soils.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL (Positive) that is administered by artificial
means (as opposed to natural
 Culturing the area.
means such as rain, floods, and
Increasing the social and
runoff).
cultural level of the
population. Tourist interest Irrigation exists in many forms
around the newly built and involves widely varying levels
reservoir. of technology. On small farms in
developing countries,
Negative
Irrigation is primarily human, or
 Colonisation of the irrigated
animal-powered, and systems are
area. Displacement of
designed around locally available
population from retention
resources. On larger commercial
area. Necessity of
farms, mechanical irrigation is
protecting cultural
used to reduce the labor required
monuments is inundated
to apply water to large plots.
areas.
These installations carry a high
capital cost but are often more
AESTHETIC (Positive)
efficient and easier to calibrate
 New man-made lakes in the than simpler methods.
area
Full irrigation is the practice of
Negative applying water to the field at
regular intervals throughout the
 Project’s architecture may
growing season to maintain a
not blend with the area.
desired level of available soil
water.
POLITICAL (Positive) Supplemental irrigation, as
introduced in Chapter 7, is the
 Increased self-sufficient in
selective application of water to
food, thus lesser
primarily rainfed fields when
dependence on other
rainfall is insufficient to protect
countries.
the plants against water stress

On smallholder farms in the semi-

arid tropics, supplemental
irrigation is usually applied using
low-cost surface irrigation.
Unit 2: Irrigation
Supplemental irrigation is a useful
Irrigation is the termed used to complement to the soil and water
describe any type of water management practices outlined in
application to agricultural fields Part 2, and significant productivity
improvements have been especially problematic are fungal
observed in cases where these diseases including root rot
strategies are implemented (Phytophthora spp.), weeds, and
together. insects.

Because water is only applied Erosion – Soil erosion is

when needed, the efficiency of especially rampant in poorly
crop water use under constructed surface irrigation
supplemental irrigation is much networks.
higher than it is for fully irrigated
Pollution – contamination of
crops.
surface- and groundwater with
agricultural chemicals has
significantly damaged the health
Dangers of Large-scale Irrigation
of water environments Part 3:
The yield potential of irrigated Irrigation 135 worldwide.
farms is impressive, and more Agricultural runoff also causes
water application in agriculture oxygen-deprived dead zones in
will help to produce more food. water bodies, threatening aquatic
However, irrigation development species.
can have consequences for both
Ecosystem damage from dam
the natural environment and
construction – Communal
human
irrigation projects are often
Health in the longer term. These accompanied by investment in
must be considered before water storage structures, usually
moving towards irrigation at a dams, which have their own set of
large scale. environmental impacts. Dam
construction requires major
Some negative effects that have
disruption of natural water
been associated with long-term
courses, with repercussions for
irrigation include:
both natural ecosystems and
Environmental damage: human settlements.
Waterlogging and salinization –
These related phenomena are
discussed in Chapter 2 and are a Human health hazards:
major threat to agricultural land
Contamination of drinking
worldwide.
water wells with harmful
Soil compaction and nutrient substances – Specific problems
leaching. include pesticides, which can be
toxic to humans, and excess
Creation of favorable
nitrate from fertilizers, which can
environments for the formation of
cause methemoglobinemia,
plant diseases and pests-
known as ‘blue baby syndrome’.
Creation of habitat for disease potential for yield increases
agents – water pooling on land provided by irrigation
surfaces can lead to the development. The focus of this
proliferation of serious diseases book is predominantly rainfed
including malaria, yellow fever, farms that may use supplemental
dengue fever, and irrigation to improve soil moisture
schistosomiasis. When during dry periods. When water is
wastewater is used in irrigation, applied judiciously and according
dangers also include cholera, to need, the harmful impacts of
typhoid, ascariasis, amoebiasis, irrigation are significantly
giardiasis, and Escherichia coli. reduced. In regions with shallow
water tables or poorly drained
Risks are highest where water is
soils, water application can
allowed to stagnate
Also be balanced by artificial
Socio-economic effects:
drainage to reduce the problems
Inequality of access – the associated with salinization,
development of district-level waterlogging, and disease
irrigation networks can cause
In order to be sustainable,
increased inequity among
irrigation choices must be scaled
landholders, water-rights’ holders
to ensure that they do not impact
and farm workers, and cause
the long-term viability of water
population migrations that have a
sources, the local environment,
negative effect on social
and the soil. These three natural
structure.
features form the foundation of
Over-extraction of surface or every agricultural enterprise, and
groundwater reserves – Large- projects that damage this
scale irrigation projects contribute foundation will ultimately not
to the over-exploitation of succeed.
precious blue water reserves,
often with serious social and
environmental consequences. IRRIGATION DECISIONS
Irrigation withdrawals have been
Irrigation Decisions: There are
blamed for the drying of several
many ways to apply irrigation
major water bodies worldwide
water. Several factors must be
over the last 40 years. Some
considered when choosing if, how,
Notable victims of over-extraction and how much to irrigate. The
for irrigation include Lake Chad, choice of irrigation system will
the Aral Sea and the Colorado depend on.
River
• The type of blue water source(s)
These long-term effects must be accessible – How close is the blue
balanced against the real water source to the field, and how
will it be moved? Is it • Soil type – As covered in Parts 1
groundwater, surface water, and 2, soils differ widely in their
captured rainwater, or another ability to infiltrate and store
source? water. Some irrigation methods
are best suited to certain types of
What quantity is available for
soils. As an example, furrow
sustainable use? Make no
irrigation methods work poorly in
assumptions about the
fast-draining sandy soils because
abundance of a water source: it is
water added to these soil types
important to thoroughly assess
tends to 138 Chapter 10 drain
the supply and consult with other
vertically downward instead of
users in the watershed before
moving laterally though the soil
installing an irrigation scheme
profile from the furrow bottom
Quality of the water source(s) toward plant roots.
– What water quality is available?
• Crop type – Expensive irrigation
Low-quality or sediment-rich
methods are best suited to high-
water will clog pipes and pumps,
value crops. Some crops tolerate
so it is not suitable for certain
being in moist soil for extended
irrigation systems. Saline water
periods, a common condition in
needs to be managed using
some flood irrigation methods.
specific techniques. Water quality
Others are sensitive to such high-
is discussed further in Chapter 12.
water conditions, and require
The energy source that will be more gradual wetting.
used to move water – If there is
• Climate – Climate is an
a sufficient difference in elevation
important determinant of the
between the water source and the
efficiency of an irrigation system.
field, irrigation can be powered by
For example, sprinkler irrigation
gravity. Otherwise, some form of
can be very inefficient in dry, hot
energy input will be required to
climates, because much of the
move water from the source to
sprayed water will be lost to
the field, and to distribute it over
evaporation
the cultivated area. This could be
human or animal power, or • Local experience – What
energy from fuel combustion in irrigation methods are nearby
the case of mechanical pumps. farmers using? It will be more
difficult to install an irrigation
• Availability of labor – Some
method that has not already been
irrigation methods will require
tried within the local farming
more labor than others for
community.
installation, operation, and
maintenance. Imported systems often require
materials and replacement parts
that can be hard to find in the The flow of water is directed
local marketplace. through a network of gullies and
trenches designed to direct and
Availability of investment –
infiltrate water toward the plant
Some irrigation systems are
root zone. Careful land leveling is
expensive to install and maintain,
critical in surface irrigation
and this investment may take a
networks.
long time to recoup in added
revenue from irrigated crops. Despite these drawbacks, surface
irrigation is the method most
It is important to consider not just
used by poor farmers with access
start-up costs for materials and
to irrigation water, due to its
construction of the system, but
simplicity and low cost.
also ongoing operating costs,
repairs, and the replacement Basin irrigation. (also called
costs of system components. The check basin irrigation, level-basin
cost–benefit ratio of a new irrigation, check flooding, dead-
irrigation system should be level irrigation)
explored before investing.
Basin irrigation is perhaps the
simplest form of surface
irrigation. It involves the
Water Application Methods
construction of a series of level
Gravity-fed irrigation basins at the base of crop plants,
methods- In this category of where water is encouraged to
irrigation systems, water accumulate and infiltrate slowly
distribution and application into the ground.
processes are powered
The basins are filled during
exclusively by gravity (though in
irrigation events when water is
some cases pumping is still used
released from a high point and
to move water to the field or into
allowed to spread through the
storage).
field through a carefully levelled
This category includes various network of channels, dikes, and
forms of surface irrigation and berms.
micro-irrigation. Gravity-fed
Distributed water is kept in place
irrigation methods are typically
by low bunds that surround the
less costly to install and operate
basin areas. These check bunds
than pressurized methods.
can be permanent, semi-
permanent, or seasonal.

Surface irrigation: networks are Used with- Close-growing field

powered by the movement of crops, maize, sorghum, tree
water from a high point toward crops, rice paddies, orchard
fields that sit at lower elevation.
Favorable condition- Uniform should not exceed two-thirds of
soils, flat fields with slope under this depth.
1%. Plants must be able to
Used with- Widely spaced row
tolerate wet conditions. Well-
crops, root crops, tree
drained soils are preferable.
Efficiency- Low to High,
Coarse soils will require small
depending on design and
basins, while fine soils can
management
support very large basin sizes.
Not suitable in very rainy climates Advantages- Can work well with
where drainage is poor. saline water sources. Furrows can
double as drainage channels in
Efficiency- Medium
high rainfall areas. Easy to
Advantages- Can rehabilitate maintain and operate, can be
saline soils, are easy to operate built by hand or with animal
and maintain, can be constructed traction. Suited to sloping fields,
by hand or with animal traction, adaptable to many plant types,
usable on irregular or small fields, and less prone runoff and
adaptable to many plant types, evaporation losses than other
reduce runoff. surface methods. Usable with a
range of stream sizes
Disadvantages- Expensive to
construct when a high degree of Disadvantages- Construction is
land leveling is required, channels labor-intensive. Leveling must be
and basin dikes interfere with precise on long furrows, which
farm machinery, may require may be difficult to maintain or
large flows of water, and will require skilled labor. Furrows
cause waterlogging in high interfere with farm machinery
rainfall areas.

Furrow irrigation: are narrow

Border Irrigation in contrast to
channels created through the
basin irrigation these bunds are
field to simultaneously transport
not to contain the water for
and infiltrate water into the
ponding but to guide it as it flows
ground between crop rows. Crops
down the field.
are planted on planting ridges
between furrows. Water moving In contrast to furrows these bunds
through furrows migrates into the are prevents lateral movement of
plant root zone through lateral water within the bunds whereas
infiltration and capillary action. furrows are provided for lateral
percolation of the water in the
Furrows are usually in the range
subsoil directly.
of 20–30 cm deep (measured
from ridge top to furrow bottom) When is it used?
and water levels during irrigation
  Larger mechanized farms Micro Irrigation is a general
 Where machines operations termed used to designate small
are involved in agriculture scale, low-cost irrigation
 Less quiet to small scale techniques that deliver water
farms involving hand labour more efficiently than traditional
or animal powered methods of hand-watering and
cultivation methods. surface flooding.
 Deep homogenous loam or
Micro irrigation is especially
clay of medium infiltration
useful on small holdings where
rate.
water availability is limited. The
 For close growing crops.
installation of micro-irrigation on
small plots and kitchen gardens
can yield a significant
Used with- Closing-growing grain,
improvement in water
forage, or legumes crops
productivity, while reducing the
Favorable conditions- medium to labor required to apply water by
high hand.

Advantages- Little land is wasted Experiments with micro irrigation

as crops can also be grown on have shown that these methods
border bunds. Variable stream can produce higher yields with
sizes can be used. Efficiency is significantly less water than
good when properly constructed. surface methods.
Easy to construct by hand, with
Used with- Vegetable gardens,
moldboard plow or ridge tool.
field crops or trees. Often used
Drainage is achieved through
with kitchen gardens
downstream drainage channels
Favorable conditions- Flat or
Disadvantages- I t can be very
gently sloping topography. Fine-
difficult to achieve even flows
textured soils are preferable but
through the full length of strips.
also effective on sandy soils.
Levelling must be precise, so
Primarily used for irrigating small
initial costs can be high. Water
plots.
distribution will be uneven if
levelling is poor. Requires an even Efficiency Advantages- Very water
and regular land surfaces, efficient, low-cost strategies. No
unusable when soils covers or skilled labor is required for
residues are used. Not suitable on irrigating. Waterlogging is
sandy soils with high infiltration avoided and good soil moisture
rate. In practice, efficiency is conditions are sustained for
often low. Requires high volumes several days after irrigating.
of water. Irrigation frequency is reduced.
Significant water and labor
savings are possible, and water Sprinkler Irrigation
productivity can be enhanced or
Sprinkler is the most common
hand irrigation techniques.
form of irrigation in the
Disadvantages- Water distribution pressurized category. Sprinkler
can be uneven if systems are not irrigation is practiced across the
carefully designed. Regular globe, often on large commercial
maintenance is required to ensure farms with high production
proper functioning of drip lines or output.
pipe sections. High labor demand,
This method is preferred by
especially for porous pot and pipe
commercial farmers because it
systems. Some components may
allows for the uniform distribution
need to be repaired every few
of precise depth of water,
years. Micro drip lines can
calculated according to soil water
interfere with farm machinery.
depletion.
High quality water needed unless
filtration is provided. There are many types of sprinkler
irrigation, classified according to
the shape of the spray and the
Pressured Irrigation Methods way the system is laid out to
cover the land surface. All
This category spans numerous
sprinklers system includes three
configurations of sprinkler and
basic elements: (i) a pumping
drip irrigation.
unit; (ii) a network pipes; and (iii)
In general, pressurized irrigation spray nozzles (sprinklers) that
methods require a great deal send water out over the field.
more equipment energy and
Used with- All kinds of crops,
investment than their gravity-fed
pasture, and orchards
counterparts.
Favorable conditions- All kinds of
However, these methods tend to
topography can be used on sites
offer superior operational
that are undulating and/ or
conditions, providing farmers,
difficult level. Unlike surface
with better control over the
irrigation, these are suitable for
timing, rate, and distribution of
light, sandy soils. Can be used on
water applications.
variable or shallow soils.
In addition, sprinkler and drip
Efficiency- High, except in hot or
irrigation allow gradual and
windy climates were evaporation
carefully calibrated soil wetting
and drift cause water loss.
than surface irrigation, providing
more favorable soil moisture Advantages- Usable on all kinds
conditions. off field and crop. Water
applications can be carefully
calibrated. Can be adapted to evaporation is minimized and
apply fertilizer or chemicals along weed growth is discouraged.
with water. Low labor
Water applications can be
requirement compared with
calibrated to provide each plant
surface methods. Losses to deep
with its precise daily requirement,
percolation and runoff can be
so deep percolation losses can be
avoided. Efficient where water
avoided.
supplies are scarce. Occupies
little space. In addition to limiting water
losses, the small and frequent
Disadvantages- Water
wetting rhythm possible with drip
distribution can be uneven if the
irrigation provides an excellent
system is not well designed.
balance of moisture and aeration,
Regular maintenance is required
creating an optimal environment
to ensure proper functioning. High
for plant growth
energy requirement and capital
cost. Requires clean or filtered Drip systems are composed of
water, otherwise nozzles can clog. three elements: (i) the pump unit;
May require skilled operators. Can (ii) the mains feed line and
contribute to the salinization of associated with submains; and
soils. (iii) the drip lines fitted with
emitters.

Usually, the pump unit

Drip Irrigation
incorporates a filtration system to
Just like drip irrigation, reduce the clogging of drip
pressurized drip irrigation is emitters by sediment or bacteria
based on the installation of long in the water.
lengths of plastic pipe along crop
Fertilizer tanks can also be
rows.
incorporated at this stage to
Water is allowed to escape enable fertigation (dissolve
through emitters inserted into the fertilizer application with irrigation
plastic pipe at intervals roughly water).
corresponding to plant spacing.
Drip lines are usually flexible PVC
Sometimes called ‘trickle pipe lengths that are no more
irrigation’, pressured drip than 50 m long. Sub mains are
irrigation is highly efficient water fitted with pressure valves that
delivery method. regulate the flow to ensure that
water will be applied evenly along
Because the area of soil wetted
the length of the drip line.
by irrigation systems is limited to
Emitters are chosen based on
the area around plant roots,
water characteristics (to minimize
clogging) and spaced according to Disadvantages- High capital
the cropping layout. investment and technological
complexity. Clean water or
Pressurized drip irrigation is the
filtration unit is required to avoid
most precise and efficient
clogging drip lines. Regular
irrigation method currently
available, and among the most maintenance is required to ensure
expensive. It is typically used on proper functioning. Skilled labor
small fields or orchards producing may be required for some
high-value crops. maintenance tasks. Some
components
Nonetheless, water savings are
considerable: savings of over 80% may need to be repaired or
have been recorded as compared replaced every few years. Plastic
with furrow irrigation.48 Table pipes are subject to UV damage.
10.6 provides some details about Can encourage shallow root
pressurized drip irrigation, and development.
Fig. 10.7 shows a schematic
layout of the system’s
components

Used with- Fruit and vegetable

crops, highly-density orchard, tree
crops. Often used on small plots
of highly-value crops

Favorable condition- Flat or gently

sloping topography. All types of
soil. Cooler climates reduce wear
and tear on plastic pipes, which
can be problematic in drip
systems.

Efficiency- Very high

Advantages- Very water efficient.

Sustainable for areas with limited
water supplies. Water applications
can bee carefully calibrated. Easy
to achieve optimal water and
aeration conditions, increasing
yields and improving water
productivity. Irrigation can be
fully automated. Limited labor
requirement