c13.

qxd 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 608

CHAPTER 13
Complex Numbers
and Functions. Complex
Differentiation

The transition from “real calculus” to “complex calculus” starts with a discussion of
complex numbers and their geometric representation in the complex plane. We then
progress to analytic functions in Sec. 13.3. We desire functions to be analytic because
these are the “useful functions” in the sense that they are differentiable in some domain
and operations of complex analysis can be applied to them. The most important equations
are therefore the Cauchy–Riemann equations in Sec. 13.4 because they allow a test of
analyticity of such functions. Moreover, we show how the Cauchy–Riemann equations
are related to the important Laplace equation.
The remaining sections of the chapter are devoted to elementary complex functions
(exponential, trigonometric, hyperbolic, and logarithmic functions). These generalize the
familiar real functions of calculus. Detailed knowledge of them is an absolute necessity
in practical work, just as that of their real counterparts is in calculus.
Prerequisite: Elementary calculus.
References and Answers to Problems: App. 1 Part D, App. 2.

13.1 Complex Numbers and

Their Geometric Representation
The material in this section will most likely be familiar to the student and serve as a
review.
Equations without real solutions, such as x 2 ⫽ ⫺1 or x 2 ⫺ 10x ⫹ 40 ⫽ 0, were
observed early in history and led to the introduction of complex numbers.1 By definition,
a complex number z is an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers x and y, written

z ⫽ (x, y).

1
First to use complex numbers for this purpose was the Italian mathematician GIROLAMO CARDANO
(1501–1576), who found the formula for solving cubic equations. The term “complex number” was introduced
by CARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS (see the footnote in Sec. 5.4), who also paved the way for a general use of
complex numbers.

608
[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 609

SEC. 13.1 Complex Numbers and Their Geometric Representation 609

x is called the real part and y the imaginary part of z, written

x ⫽ Re z, y ⫽ Im z.

By definition, two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal
and their imaginary parts are equal.
(0, 1) is called the imaginary unit and is denoted by i,

(1) i ⫽ (0, 1).

Addition, Multiplication. Notation z ⫽ x ⫹ iy

Addition of two complex numbers z 1 ⫽ (x 1, y1) and z 2 ⫽ (x 2, y2) is defined by

(2) z 1 ⫹ z 2 ⫽ (x 1, y1) ⫹ (x 2, y2) ⫽ (x 1 ⫹ x 2, y1 ⫹ y2).

Multiplication is defined by

(3) z 1z 2 ⫽ (x 1, y1)(x 2, y2) ⫽ (x 1x 2 ⫺ y1 y2, x 1 y2 ⫹ x 2 y1).

These two definitions imply that

(x 1, 0) ⫹ (x 2, 0) ⫽ (x 1 ⫹ x 2, 0)
and
(x 1, 0)(x 2, 0) ⫽ (x 1x 2, 0)

as for real numbers x 1, x 2. Hence the complex numbers “extend” the real numbers. We
can thus write

(x, 0) ⫽ x. Similarly, (0, y) ⫽ iy

because by (1), and the definition of multiplication, we have

iy ⫽ (0, 1)y ⫽ (0, 1)( y, 0) ⫽ (0 # y ⫺ 1 # 0, 0 # 0 ⫹ 1 # y) ⫽ (0, y).

Together we have, by addition, (x, y) ⫽ (x, 0) ⫹ (0, y) ⫽ x ⫹ iy.

In practice, complex numbers z ⴝ (x, y) are written

(4) z ⫽ x ⫹ iy

or z ⫽ x ⫹ yi, e.g., 17 ⫹ 4i (instead of i4).

Electrical engineers often write j instead of i because they need i for the current.
If x ⫽ 0, then z ⫽ iy and is called pure imaginary. Also, (1) and (3) give

(5) i 2 ⫽ ⫺1

because, by the definition of multiplication, i 2 ⫽ ii ⫽ (0, 1)(0, 1) ⫽ (⫺1, 0) ⫽ ⫺1.

[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 610

610 CHAP. 13 Complex Numbers and Functions. Complex Differentiation

For addition the standard notation (4) gives [see (2)]

(x 1 ⫹ iy1) ⫹ (x 2 ⫹ iy2) ⫽ (x 1 ⫹ x 2) ⫹ i( y1 ⫹ y2).

For multiplication the standard notation gives the following very simple recipe. Multiply
each term by each other term and use i 2 ⫽ ⫺1 when it occurs [see (3)]:

(x 1 ⫹ iy1)(x 2 ⫹ iy2) ⫽ x 1x 2 ⫹ ix 1 y2 ⫹ iy1x 2 ⫹ i 2y1 y2

⫽ (x 1x 2 ⫺ y1 y2) ⫹ i(x 1 y2 ⫹ x 2 y1).

This agrees with (3). And it shows that x ⫹ iy is a more practical notation for complex
numbers than (x, y).
If you know vectors, you see that (2) is vector addition, whereas the multiplication (3)
has no counterpart in the usual vector algebra.

EXAMPLE 1 Real Part, Imaginary Part, Sum and Product of Complex Numbers
Let z 1 ⫽ 8 ⫹ 3i and z 2 ⫽ 9 ⫺ 2i. Then Re z 1 ⫽ 8, Im z 1 ⫽ 3, Re z 2 ⫽ 9, Im z 2 ⫽ ⫺2 and

z 1 ⫹ z 2 ⫽ (8 ⫹ 3i) ⫹ (9 ⫺ 2i) ⫽ 17 ⫹ i,

z 1z 2 ⫽ (8 ⫹ 3i)(9 ⫺ 2i) ⫽ 72 ⫹ 6 ⫹ i (⫺16 ⫹ 27) ⫽ 78 ⫹ 11i. 䊏

Subtraction, Division
Subtraction and division are defined as the inverse operations of addition and multipli-
cation, respectively. Thus the difference z ⫽ z 1 ⫺ z 2 is the complex number z for which
z 1 ⫽ z ⫹ z 2. Hence by (2),

(6) z 1 ⫺ z 2 ⫽ (x 1 ⫺ x 2) ⫹ i ( y1 ⫺ y2).

The quotient z ⫽ z 1>z 2 (z 2 ⫽ 0) is the complex number z for which z 1 ⫽ zz 2. If we

equate the real and the imaginary parts on both sides of this equation, setting z ⫽ x ⫹ iy,
we obtain x 1 ⫽ x 2 x ⫺ y2 y, y1 ⫽ y2 x ⫹ x 2 y. The solution is

z1 x 1x 2 ⫹ y1 y2 x 2 y1 ⫺ x 1 y2
(7*) z ⫽ z ⫽ x ⫹ iy, x⫽ , y⫽ .
2 x 22 ⫹ y 22 x 22 ⫹ y 22

The practical rule used to get this is by multiplying numerator and denominator of z 1>z 2
by x 2 ⫺ iy2 and simplifying:

x 1 ⫹ iy1 (x 1 ⫹ iy1)(x 2 ⫺ iy2) x 1x 2 ⫹ y1 y2 x 2 y1 ⫺ x 1 y2

(7) z⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫹i .
x 2 ⫹ iy2 (x 2 ⫹ iy2)(x 2 ⫺ iy2) x 22 ⫹ y 22 x 22 ⫹ y 22

EXAMPLE 2 Difference and Quotient of Complex Numbers

For z 1 ⫽ 8 ⫹ 3i and z 2 ⫽ 9 ⫺ 2i we get z 1 ⫺ z 2 ⫽ (8 ⫹ 3i) ⫺ (9 ⫺ 2i) ⫽ ⫺1 ⫹ 5i and

z1 8 ⫹ 3i (8 ⫹ 3i)(9 ⫹ 2i) 66 ⫹ 43i 66 43

⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫹ i.
z2 9 ⫺ 2i (9 ⫺ 2i)(9 ⫹ 2i) 81 ⫹ 4 85 85

Check the division by multiplication to get 8 ⫹ 3i. 䊏

[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 611

SEC. 13.1 Complex Numbers and Their Geometric Representation 611

Complex numbers satisfy the same commutative, associative, and distributive laws as real
numbers (see the problem set).

Complex Plane
So far we discussed the algebraic manipulation of complex numbers. Consider the
geometric representation of complex numbers, which is of great practical importance. We
choose two perpendicular coordinate axes, the horizontal x-axis, called the real axis, and
the vertical y-axis, called the imaginary axis. On both axes we choose the same unit of
length (Fig. 318). This is called a Cartesian coordinate system.

(Imaginary y
axis)
y 1

P 5 x
z = x + iy
–1
1

(Real
1 x axis) –3 4 – 3i

Fig. 318. The complex plane Fig. 319. The number 4 ⫺ 3i in

the complex plane

We now plot a given complex number z ⫽ (x, y) ⫽ x ⫹ iy as the point P with coordinates
x, y. The xy-plane in which the complex numbers are represented in this way is called the
complex plane.2 Figure 319 shows an example.
Instead of saying “the point represented by z in the complex plane” we say briefly and
simply “the point z in the complex plane.” This will cause no misunderstanding.
Addition and subtraction can now be visualized as illustrated in Figs. 320 and 321.

z2
y
z1
z1 + z2
z2
x

z1– z2
z1
– z2
x

Fig. 320. Addition of complex numbers Fig. 321. Subtraction of complex numbers

2
Sometimes called the Argand diagram, after the French mathematician JEAN ROBERT ARGAND
(1768–1822), born in Geneva and later librarian in Paris. His paper on the complex plane appeared in 1806,
nine years after a similar memoir by the Norwegian mathematician CASPAR WESSEL (1745–1818), a surveyor
of the Danish Academy of Science.
[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 612

612 CHAP. 13 Complex Numbers and Functions. Complex Differentiation

Complex Conjugate Numbers

The complex conjugate z of a complex number z ⫽ x ⫹ iy is defined by

z ⫽ x ⫺ iy.

It is obtained geometrically by reflecting the point z in the real axis. Figure 322 shows
this for z ⫽ 5 ⫹ 2i and its conjugate z ⫽ 5 ⫺ 2i.

2 z = x + iy = 5 + 2i

5 x

–2 z = x – iy = 5 – 2i

Fig. 322. Complex conjugate numbers

The complex conjugate is important because it permits us to switch from complex

to real. Indeed, by multiplication, zz ⫽ x 2 ⫹ y 2 (verify!). By addition and subtraction,
z ⫹ z ⫽ 2x, z ⫺ z ⫽ 2iy. We thus obtain for the real part x and the imaginary part y
(not iy!) of z ⫽ x ⫹ iy the important formulas

1
(8) Re z ⫽ x ⫽ 12 (z ⫹ z), Im z ⫽ y ⫽ (z ⫺ z).
2i

If z is real, z ⫽ x, then z ⫽ z by the definition of z, and conversely. Working with

conjugates is easy, since we have

(z 1 ⫹ z 2) ⫽ z1 ⫹ z 2, (z 1 ⫺ z 2) ⫽ z 1 ⫺ z 2,
(9)
az b ⫽
z1 z1
(z 1z 2) ⫽ z1z 2, .
2 z2

EXAMPLE 3 Illustration of (8) and (9)

Let z 1 ⫽ 4 ⫹ 3i and z 2 ⫽ 2 ⫹ 5i. Then by (8),

1 3i ⫹ 3i
Im z 1 ⫽ [(4 ⫹ 3i) ⫺ (4 ⫺ 3i)] ⫽ ⫽ 3.
2i 2i

Also, the multiplication formula in (9) is verified by

(z 1z 2) ⫽ (4 ⫹ 3i)(2 ⫹ 5i) ⫽ (⫺7 ⫹ 26i) ⫽ ⫺7 ⫺ 26i,

z 1z 2 ⫽ (4 ⫺ 3i)(2 ⫺ 5i) ⫽ ⫺7 ⫺ 26i. 䊏

PROBLEM SET 13.1

1. Powers of i. Show that i 2 ⫽ ⫺1, i 3 ⫽ ⫺i, i 4 ⫽ 1, this by graphing z and iz and the angle of rotation for
i 5 ⫽ i, Á and 1>i ⫽ ⫺i, 1>i 2 ⫽ ⫺1, 1>i 3 ⫽ i, Á . z ⫽ 1 ⫹ i, z ⫽ ⫺1 ⫹ 2i, z ⫽ 4 ⫺ 3i.
2. Rotation. Multiplication by i is geometrically a 3. Division. Verify the calculation in (7). Apply (7) to
counterclockwise rotation through p>2 (90°). Verify (26 ⫺ 18i)>(6 ⫺ 2i).
[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 613

SEC. 13.2 Polar Form of Complex Numbers. Powers and Roots 613

4. Law for conjugates. Verify (9) for z 1 ⫽ ⫺11 ⫹ 10i, 8–15 COMPLEX ARITHMETIC
z 2 ⫽ ⫺1 ⫹ 4i. Let z 1 ⫽ ⫺2 ⫹ 11i, z 2 ⫽ 2 ⫺ i. Showing the details of
5. Pure imaginary number. Show that z ⫽ x ⫹ iy is your work, find, in the form x ⫹ iy:
pure imaginary if and only if z ⫽ ⫺z. 8. z 1z 2, (z 1z 2) 9. Re (z 21), (Re z 1)2
6. Multiplication. If the product of two complex numbers 2
10. Re (1>z 2), 1>Re (z 2) 2

11. (z 1 ⫺ z 2)2>16, (z 1>4 ⫺ z 2>4)2

is zero, show that at least one factor must be zero.
12. z 1>z 2, z 2>z 1
7. Laws of addition and multiplication. Derive the
following laws for complex numbers from the cor-
responding laws for real numbers. 13. (z 1 ⫹ z 2)(z 1 ⫺ z 2), z 21 ⫺ z 22
14. z 1>z 2, (z 1>z 2)
z 1 ⫹ z 2 ⫽ z 2 ⫹ z 1, z 1z 2 ⫽ z 2z 1 (Commutative laws)
15. 4 (z 1 ⫹ z 2)>(z 1 ⫺ z 2)
(z 1 ⫹ z 2) ⫹ z 3 ⫽ z 1 ⫹ (z 2 ⫹ z 3),
(Associative laws) 16–20 Let z ⫽ x ⫹ iy. Showing details, find, in terms
(z 1z 2)z 3 ⫽ z 1(z 2z 3) of x and y:
z 1(z 2 ⫹ z 3) ⫽ z 1z 2 ⫹ z 1z 3 (Distributive law) 16. Im (1>z), Im (1>z 2) 17. Re z 4 ⫺ (Re z 2)2
0 ⫹ z ⫽ z ⫹ 0 ⫽ z, 18. Re [(1 ⫹ i)16z 2] 19. Re (z>z), Im (z>z)
z ⫹ (⫺z) ⫽ (⫺z) ⫹ z ⫽ 0, z # 1 ⫽ z. 20. Im (1>z 2)

13.2 Polar Form of Complex Numbers.

Powers and Roots
We gain further insight into the arithmetic operations of complex numbers if, in addition
to the xy-coordinates in the complex plane, we also employ the usual polar coordinates
r, u defined by

(1) x ⫽ r cos u, y ⫽ r sin u.

We see that then z ⫽ x ⫹ iy takes the so-called polar form

(2) z ⫽ r(cos u ⫹ i sin u).

r is called the absolute value or modulus of z and is denoted by ƒ z ƒ . Hence

(3) ƒ z ƒ ⫽ r ⫽ 2x 2 ⫹ y 2 ⫽ 1zz.

Geometrically, ƒ z ƒ is the distance of the point z from the origin (Fig. 323). Similarly,
ƒ z 1 ⫺ z 2 ƒ is the distance between z 1 and z 2 (Fig. 324).
u is called the argument of z and is denoted by arg z. Thus u ⫽ arg z and (Fig. 323)

y
(4) tan u ⫽ x (z ⫽ 0).

Geometrically, u is the directed angle from the positive x-axis to OP in Fig. 323. Here, as
in calculus, all angles are measured in radians and positive in the counterclockwise sense.
[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 614

614 CHAP. 13 Complex Numbers and Functions. Complex Differentiation

For z ⫽ 0 this angle u is undefined. (Why?) For a given z ⫽ 0 it is determined only up

to integer multiples of 2p since cosine and sine are periodic with period 2p. But one
often wants to specify a unique value of arg z of a given z ⫽ 0. For this reason one defines
the principal value Arg z (with capital A!) of arg z by the double inequality

(5) ⫺p ⬍ Arg z ⬉ p.

Then we have Arg z ⫽ 0 for positive real z ⫽ x, which is practical, and Arg z ⫽ p (not
⫺p!) for negative real z, e.g., for z ⫽ ⫺4. The principal value (5) will be important in
connection with roots, the complex logarithm (Sec. 13.7), and certain integrals. Obviously,
for a given z ⫽ 0, the other values of arg z are arg z ⫽ Arg z ⫾ 2np (n ⫽ ⫾1, ⫾2, Á ).

Imaginary
axis
y
z2
y
P
z = x + iy | z1 – z
2 | z1

|
| z2
r
|=
|z
θ
Real |z 1|
O x axis x
Fig. 323. Complex plane, polar form Fig. 324. Distance between two
of a complex number points in the complex plane

EXAMPLE 1 Polar Form of Complex Numbers. Principal Value Arg z

y
z ⫽ 1 ⫹ i (Fig. 325) has the polar form z ⫽ 22 (cos 14 p ⫹ i sin 14 p). Hence we obtain

1 1+i ƒ z ƒ ⫽ 22, arg z ⫽ 14 p ⫾ 2np (n ⫽ 0, 1, Á ), and Arg z ⫽ 14 p (the principal value).

䊏
2

Similarly, z ⫽ 3 ⫹ 3 23i ⫽ 6 (cos 13 p ⫹ i sin 13 p), ƒ z ƒ ⫽ 6, and Arg z ⫽ 13 p.

π /4

1 CAUTION! In using (4), we must pay attention to the quadrant in which z lies, since
x
tan u has period p, so that the arguments of z and ⫺z have the same tangent. Example:
Fig. 325. Example 1
for u1 ⫽ arg (1 ⫹ i) and u2 ⫽ arg (⫺1 ⫺ i) we have tan u1 ⫽ tan u2 ⫽ 1.

Triangle Inequality
Inequalities such as x 1 ⬍ x 2 make sense for real numbers, but not in complex because there
is no natural way of ordering complex numbers. However, inequalities between absolute values
(which are real!), such as ƒ z 1 ƒ ⬍ ƒ z 2 ƒ (meaning that z 1 is closer to the origin than z 2) are of
great importance. The daily bread of the complex analyst is the triangle inequality

(6) ƒ z1 ⫹ z2 ƒ ⬉ ƒ z1 ƒ ⫹ ƒ z2 ƒ (Fig. 326)

which we shall use quite frequently. This inequality follows by noting that the three
points 0, z 1, and z 1 ⫹ z 2 are the vertices of a triangle (Fig. 326) with sides ƒ z 1 ƒ , ƒ z 2 ƒ , and
ƒ z 1 ⫹ z 2 ƒ , and one side cannot exceed the sum of the other two sides. A formal proof is
left to the reader (Prob. 33). (The triangle degenerates if z 1 and z 2 lie on the same straight
line through the origin.)
[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 615

SEC. 13.2 Polar Form of Complex Numbers. Powers and Roots 615

y
z1 + z2
z2

z1

Fig. 326. Triangle inequality

By induction we obtain from (6) the generalized triangle inequality

(6*) ƒ z1 ⫹ z2 ⫹ Á ⫹ zn ƒ ⬉ ƒ z1 ƒ ⫹ ƒ z2 ƒ ⫹ Á ⫹ ƒ zn ƒ ;

that is, the absolute value of a sum cannot exceed the sum of the absolute values of the terms.

EXAMPLE 2 Triangle Inequality

If z 1 ⫽ 1 ⫹ i and z 2 ⫽ ⫺2 ⫹ 3i, then (sketch a figure!)

ƒ z 1 ⫹ z 2 ƒ ⫽ ƒ ⫺1 ⫹ 4i ƒ ⫽ 117 ⫽ 4.123 ⬍ 12 ⫹ 113 ⫽ 5.020. 䊏

Multiplication and Division in Polar Form

This will give us a “geometrical” understanding of multiplication and division. Let

z 1 ⫽ r1(cos u1 ⫹ i sin u1) and z 2 ⫽ r2(cos u2 ⫹ i sin u2).

Multiplication. By (3) in Sec. 13.1 the product is at first

z 1z 2 ⫽ r1r2 [(cos u1 cos u2 ⫺ sin u1 sin u2) ⫹ i(sin u1 cos u2 ⫹ cos u1 sin u2)].

The addition rules for the sine and cosine [(6) in App. A3.1] now yield

(7) z 1z 2 ⫽ r1r2 [cos (u1 ⫹ u2) ⫹ i sin (u1 ⫹ u2)].

Taking absolute values on both sides of (7), we see that the absolute value of a product
equals the product of the absolute values of the factors,

(8) ƒ z 1z 2 ƒ ⫽ ƒ z 1 ƒ ƒ z 2 ƒ .

Taking arguments in (7) shows that the argument of a product equals the sum of the
arguments of the factors,

(9) arg (z 1z 2) ⫽ arg z 1 ⫹ arg z 2 (up to multiples of 2p).

Division. We have z 1 ⫽ (z 1>z 2)z 2. Hence ƒ z 1 ƒ ⫽ ƒ (z 1>z 2) z 2 ƒ ⫽ ƒ z 1>z 2 ƒ ƒ z 2 ƒ and by

division by ƒ z 2 ƒ

` ` ⫽
z1 ƒ z1 ƒ
(10) (z 2 ⫽ 0).
z2 ƒ z2 ƒ
[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 616

616 CHAP. 13 Complex Numbers and Functions. Complex Differentiation

Similarly, arg z 1 ⫽ arg [(z 1>z 2)z 2] ⫽ arg (z 1>z 2) ⫹ arg z 2 and by subtraction of arg z 2

z1
(11) arg z ⫽ arg z 1 ⫺ arg z 2 (up to multiples of 2p).
2

Combining (10) and (11) we also have the analog of (7),

z1 r1
(12) z 2 ⫽ r2 [cos (u1 ⫺ u2) ⫹ i sin (u1 ⫺ u2)].

To comprehend this formula, note that it is the polar form of a complex number of absolute
value r1>r2 and argument u1 ⫺ u2. But these are the absolute value and argument of z 1>z 2,
as we can see from (10), (11), and the polar forms of z 1 and z 2.

EXAMPLE 3 Illustration of Formulas (8)–(11)

Let z 1 ⫽ ⫺2 ⫹ 2i and z 2 ⫽ 3i. Then z 1z 2 ⫽ ⫺6 ⫺ 6i, z 1>z 2 ⫽ 23 ⫹ ( 23 )i. Hence (make a sketch)

ƒ z 1z 2 ƒ ⫽ 612 ⫽ 318 ⫽ ƒ z 1 ƒ ƒ z 2 ƒ , ƒ z 1>z 2 ƒ ⫽ 212>3 ⫽ ƒ z 1 ƒ > ƒ z 2 ƒ ,

and for the arguments we obtain Arg z 1 ⫽ 3p>4, Arg z 2 ⫽ p>2,

z1
Arg a b ⫽ ⫽ Arg z 1 ⫺ Arg z 2.
3p p
Arg (z 1z 2) ⫽ ⫺ ⫽ Arg z 1 ⫹ Arg z 2 ⫺ 2p,
z2
䊏
4 4

EXAMPLE 4 Integer Powers of z. De Moivre’s Formula

From (8) and (9) with z 1 ⫽ z 2 ⫽ z we obtain by induction for n ⫽ 0, 1, 2, Á

(13) z n ⫽ r n (cos nu ⫹ i sin nu).

Similarly, (12) with z 1 ⫽ 1 and z 2 ⫽ z n gives (13) for n ⫽ ⫺1, ⫺2, Á . For ƒ z ƒ ⫽ r ⫽ 1, formula (13) becomes
De Moivre’s formula3

(13*) (cos u ⫹ i sin u)n ⫽ cos nu ⫹ i sin nu.

We can use this to express cos nu and sin nu in terms of powers of cos u and sin u. For instance, for n ⫽ 2 we
have on the left cos2 u ⫹ 2i cos u sin u ⫺ sin2 u. Taking the real and imaginary parts on both sides of (13*)
with n ⫽ 2 gives the familiar formulas

cos 2u ⫽ cos2 u ⫺ sin2 u, sin 2u ⫽ 2 cos u sin u.

This shows that complex methods often simplify the derivation of real formulas. Try n ⫽ 3. 䊏

Roots
If z ⫽ w n (n ⫽ 1, 2, Á ), then to each value of w there corresponds one value of z. We
shall immediately see that, conversely, to a given z ⫽ 0 there correspond precisely n
distinct values of w. Each of these values is called an nth root of z, and we write

3
ABRAHAM DE MOIVRE (1667–1754), French mathematician, who pioneered the use of complex numbers
in trigonometry and also contributed to probability theory (see Sec. 24.8).
[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 617

SEC. 13.2 Polar Form of Complex Numbers. Powers and Roots 617

n
(14) w ⫽ 1z .
n
Hence this symbol is multivalued, namely, n-valued. The n values of 1 z can be obtained
as follows. We write z and w in polar form

z ⫽ r(cos u ⫹ i sin u) and w ⫽ R(cos ␾ ⫹ i sin ␾).

Then the equation w n ⫽ z becomes, by De Moivre’s formula (with ␾ instead of u),

w n ⫽ Rn(cos n␾ ⫹ i sin n␾) ⫽ z ⫽ r(cos u ⫹ i sin u).

n
The absolute values on both sides must be equal; thus, R n ⫽ r, so that R ⫽ 1 r , where
n
1 r is positive real (an absolute value must be nonnegative!) and thus uniquely determined.
Equating the arguments n␾ and u and recalling that u is determined only up to integer
multiples of 2p, we obtain
u 2kp
n␾ ⫽ u ⫹ 2kp, thus ␾⫽n⫹ n

where k is an integer. For k ⫽ 0, 1, Á , n ⫺ 1 we get n distinct values of w. Further integers

of k would give values already obtained. For instance, k ⫽ n gives 2kp>n ⫽ 2p, hence
n
the w corresponding to k ⫽ 0, etc. Consequently, 1 z, for z ⫽ 0, has the n distinct values

u ⫹ 2kp u ⫹ 2kp
1 z ⫽ 1 r acos ⫹ i sin b
n n
(15) n n

n
where k ⫽ 0, 1, Á , n ⫺ 1. These n values lie on a circle of radius 1 r with center at the
n
origin and constitute the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides. The value of 1 z obtained
by taking the principal value of arg z and k ⫽ 0 in (15) is called the principal value of
n
w ⫽ 1z.
Taking z ⫽ 1 in (15), we have ƒ z ƒ ⫽ r ⫽ 1 and Arg z ⫽ 0. Then (15) gives

n 2kp 2kp
(16) 2 1 ⫽ cos n ⫹ i sin n , k ⫽ 0, 1, Á , n ⫺ 1.

These n values are called the nth roots of unity. They lie on the circle of radius 1 and
center 0, briefly called the unit circle (and used quite frequently!). Figures 327–329 show
1 1
21 ⫽ 1, ⫺2 ⫾ 2 23i, 21 ⫽ ⫾1, ⫾i, and 21.
3 4 5

y y y

ω ω
ω
ω2
ω2
1 x 1 x 1 x
ω3
ω2 ω3 ω4

3 4 5
Fig. 327. 2 1 Fig. 328. 2 1 Fig. 329. 2 1
[Link] 10/30/10 2:14 PM Page 618

618 CHAP. 13 Complex Numbers and Functions. Complex Differentiation

n
If v denotes the value corresponding to k ⫽ 1 in (16), then the n values of 2 1 can be
written as

1, v, v2, Á , vnⴚ1.

More generally, if w1 is any nth root of an arbitrary complex number z (⫽ 0), then the n
n
values of 1 z in (15) are

(17) w1, w1v, w1v2, Á, w1vnⴚ1

because multiplying w1 by vk corresponds to increasing the argument of w1 by 2kp>n.

Formula (17) motivates the introduction of roots of unity and shows their usefulness.

PROBLEM SET 13.2

1–8 POLAR FORM 20. TEAM PROJECT. Square Root. (a) Show that
Represent in polar form and graph in the complex plane as w ⫽ 1z has the values
in Fig. 325. Do these problems very carefully because polar
w1 ⫽ 1r c cos ⫹ i sin d ,
forms will be needed frequently. Show the details. u u
2 2
1. 1 ⫹ i 2. ⫺4 ⫹ 4i
(18)
w2 ⫽ 1r c cos a ⫹ p b ⫹ i sin a ⫹ p b d
3. 2i, ⫺2i 4. ⫺5 u u
22 ⫹ i>3 23 ⫺ 10i 2 2
5. 6. ⫽ ⫺w1.
⫺ 28 ⫺ 2i>3 ⫺12 23 ⫹ 5i
⫺4 ⫹ 19i (b) Obtain from (18) the often more practical formula
7. 1 ⫹ 12pi 8.
2 ⫹ 5i ( 1 9 ) 2z ⫽ ⫾[212( ƒ z ƒ ⫹ x) ⫹ (sign y)i212( ƒ z ƒ ⫹ x)]
9–14 PRINCIPAL ARGUMENT where sign y ⫽ 1 if y ⭌ 0, sign y ⫽ ⫺1 if y ⬍ 0, and
Determine the principal value of the argument and graph it all square roots of positive numbers are taken with
as in Fig. 325. positive sign. Hint: Use (10) in App. A3.1 with x ⫽ u>2.
9. ⫺1 ⫹ i 10. ⫺5, ⫺5 ⫺ i, ⫺5 ⫹ i (c) Find the square roots of ⫺14i, ⫺9 ⫺ 40i, and
1 ⫹ 248i by both (18) and (19) and comment on the
11. 3 ⫾ 4i 12. ⫺p ⫺ pi
work involved.
13. (1 ⫹ i)20 14. ⫺1 ⫹ 0.1i, ⫺1 ⫺ 0.1i
(d) Do some further examples of your own and apply
a method of checking your results.
15–18 CONVERSION TO x ⴙ iy
Graph in the complex plane and represent in the form x ⫹ iy: 21–27 ROOTS
15. 3 (cos 12p ⫺ i sin 12p) 16. 6 (cos 13p ⫹ i sin 13p) Find and graph all roots in the complex plane.
3 3
17. 28 (cos 14p ⫹ i sin 14p) 21. 2 1 ⫹ i 22. 2 3 ⫹ 4i
3 4
18. 250 (cos 34p ⫹ i sin 34p) 23. 2216 24. 2 ⫺4
4 8 5
25. 2 i 26. 兹1苶 27. 2 ⫺1
ROOTS
28–31 EQUATIONS
19. CAS PROJECT. Roots of Unity and Their Graphs. Solve and graph the solutions. Show details.
Write a program for calculating these roots and for
28. z 2 ⫺ (6 ⫺ 2i) z ⫹ 17 ⫺ 6i ⫽ 0
graphing them as points on the unit circle. Apply the
program to z n ⫽ 1 with n ⫽ 2, 3, Á , 10. Then extend 29. z 2 ⫹ z ⫹ 1 ⫺ i ⫽ 0
the program to one for arbitrary roots, using an idea 30. z 4 ⫹ 324 ⫽ 0. Using the solutions, factor z 4 ⫹ 324
near the end of the text, and apply the program to into quadratic factors with real coefficients.
examples of your choice. 31. z 4 ⫺ 6iz 2 ⫹ 16 ⫽ 0