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Ancient India Stone Age

Paleolithic or Stone
Age
o Stone Age refers to a period when
people were dependent on
stones. Stone tools, stone caves
were the mainstay of the
Contemporary life. It is from the
earliest period of human
civilization when man was not
developed like that of today.

o The earliest complete human was

known as a Cro-Magnon man.
During this period, man used to
struggle with natural calamities
and lived his life by hunting and
eating fruits and dates.

o Blade-burin type tools are the

characteristic features of the
Upper Paleolithic Period.

o Sohan culture, Madras and

Vindhya culture are associated
with palaeolithic culture.

o The credit of exploring Indian

prehistory goes to [Link],
who in 1842 AD discovered
prehistoric tools from a Neolithic site named Lingsugur in Raichur district of
Karnataka.

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o Stone Age comes under pre-historic Civilization and Indus Valley Civilization and the
Vedic Civilization comes under Proto-Historic civilization, while the historical period
begins from the sixth century BCE.

o Research of the Stone Agecivilization first started in India in 1863 [Link] focus of
study of prehistory is the history of illiterate societies.

o In 1816, Tamson Confirmed triangular divison of the Stone Age,the Bronze age and
the Iron age.

o John Lubbock first divided the Stone Age into pre-palaeolithic and Neolithic period in
1865 AD. Lubbock was later known as Lord Avery.

o Palaeolithic and Neolithic terms were first used by John Lubbock in his book
Prehistoric Times published in 1865.

o Laertet divided the Palaeolithic period in the Early or Lower,Middle and Upper
palaeolithic period.

o The flake, chopper, chopping and borer type were used in the manufacture of stone
tools of the Pole axe type, while handaxe tools were first discovered from Madras
and Atirapakkam. These include tools like cleavers, scrapers, etc.

o ·Chronology-Palaeolithic Age -Neolithic Age -Bronze Age -Iron Age.

o Present archaeological system of the three main ages-stone bronze and iron was
developed by the Danish archaeologist Christian Jurgensen Thomson in 1820.

o Indian archaeologist V.S. Wakankar first saw the Bhimbetka cave and discovered the
prehistoric significance of its rock paintings.

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Chopper-chopping or Pebble Culture
Acheulian culture (hand axe and cleaver)

o Chopper-chopping first discovered in Sohan river valley,hence it is also called Sohan

[Link] same Acheulian cultureis called Hand axe culture.

o Hand axe was obtained first on 28 September 1 864 by Prof. King from Vadmadurai
and Atipakkam of Madras. Since Hand axe was first discovered from Madras, it is
also known as Madrasi culture. Cleaver, scraper and core are also found in this
culture.

o In India, the Father of Pre History was-Geologist Robert Bruce Foote.

o Robert Bruce Foote discovered the first Stone Age tool from Pallavaram, Madras in
May 1863,which was made of quartzite stone.

o The expedition of L. Cambridge team under the leadership of D. Tera did the most
important research in Sohan valley in 1935.

o In Belan valley, the research was carried under the direction of G.R. Sharma of
Allahabad University. Nearly 44archeological sites were found in this valley which
are related to lower Palaeolithic period.

o Belan river valley (tributary of Tons river) originates from Sonbhadra district of Uttar
Pradesh and joins Tons river in Allahabad district through Mirzapur district. This area
is famous for archaeological findings, this valley is also called the text book of Indian
Prehistoric period.

o Apart from tools, statue of Bone-made Mother Goddess of this age has been
discovered from Lohanda Nala region of Belan Valley which is currently safe in the
Kaushambi museum. These tools were made of quartzite stones.

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o The Middle Palaeolithic period is also called Falak culture due to the abundance of
plaques.

o Sihawal (Madhya Pradesh) is an ancient site of belonging to Lower Palaeolithic

period. The Sanghao Cave belongs to the Middle Palaeolithic period.

o Palaeolithic Period-

o Only lower Palaeolithic evidences have been discovered from Singhi Talav in Nagaur
district of Rajasthan.

o Palaeolithic sites have been discovered from all over India. The greatest number of
Palaeolithic sites have been discovered from the basins of the Ganges and the Indus.

o Palaeolithic sites have been discovered from Marwar and Mewar. Mounds of ashes
have been discovered from South Indian sites like Palawai (Andhra Pradesh), Utanur
(Andhra Pradesh), Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski etc.
o The word dolmens mean megalithic tombs built over buried dead.

o The life of Palaeolithic people was completely natural. They were primarily
dependent on hunting. They were not aware of fire so they ate raw meat.
Palaeolithic people were also not aware of farming and animal husbandry.

o Man of this era was hunter and food collector. Human beings of this period did not

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 have knowledge of animal husbandry and agriculture.

o There was a drastic decrease in temperature during this period (evidence of industry
and habitation of the Middle Palaeolithic period near Nevasa in [Link] the
Middle Palaeolithic period quartzite stones were replaced by stones of Jasper, Churt,
Flint, etc.).

o At this time, the industry was mainly composed of flakes tools. The main tools of this
time were flakes, burins, perforator and scraper. Due to the abundance of flake
tools, this period is called flake culture.

o Plaque tools made by the Levallois technique are characteristic of the Middle
Pleistocene epoch.

o Human-like creatures i.e. the earliest animals from which humans are said to have
evolved are called hominid. The first hominid fossils were discovered from the
Hathnora site (beside Narmada) of the Indian subcontinent. Anthropomorphic fossil
discovered from Hathnora was Homo erectus.

o The first evidence of humans in India has been found in the western Narmada region
of Madhya Pradesh. It was discovered in the year 1982.

o Evidence of a group of animal footprints along with Acheulian tools has been
discovered at a palaeolithic site called Atirapakkam in Tamil Nadu.

o Chirki-Nevasa and Hunsgi are the excavated Acheulian sites. Acheulian tools include
hand-axes, cleavers, scrapers, etc., found mostly in South India and the Deccan.

o The earliest date of the Lower Palaeolithic period has been known from a site called
Chirki-Nevasa located in Maharashtra. The remains of a limestone tool
manufacturing centre have been found from the banks of Hunsgi located in
Karnataka.

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o The Mrichtal Chintamani Gavi Archaeological Cave Site is a High Palaeolithic site
located in Andhra Pradesh from where the largest number of bone-horn tools have
been found. Other Upper Palaeolithic sites of Andhra Pradesh are Renigunta,
Betamchaila, Bemula, Kurnool etc.

o Isampur located in Karnataka was a very important centre of Palaeolithic tool

making. Jwalapuram-9 is an important Palaeolithic site located in the Kurnool district
of Andhra Pradesh. Similarly, Jalalpur and Dina are Palaeolithic sites located in the
Riwat Valley of Pakistan.

o Mesolithic Period

o Mesolithic is composed of two words Middle (Mesos)+Lithos (stone).This period is

also called the Epi-Palaeolithic Age,the Early or Proto Neolithic Age and the
Transitional Phase.

o The first information about the Mesolithic period in India came in 1867 AD when C.L.
Carlyle had discovered the microliths from the Vindhya region. Human skeletons are
first found in India from the Mesolithic period.

o Microliths mainly belong to the Mesolithic period . Mesolithic period is considered as

the transition period.

o 14 human skeletons have also been found from Langhnaj in Gujarat.

o Large number of implements made of bones and horns have been found from the
Mesolithic site, Mahadha (Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh). Evidence of a garland made
up of antelope rings has been discovered from the Mesolithic archaeological site

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 Mahadaha.

o In Damdama 41 human graves were found. Damdama is a Mesolithic site in

Pratapgarh district Uttar Pradesh. A grave with four human skeletons have been
found at Sarai Nahar Rai. An ivory pendant and many types of tools made of bones
have been discovered from Damdama, a Mesolithic site located in Pratapgarh (Uttar
Pradesh).

o In addition to Mesolithic small stone tools,17 human skeletons have been found
from the rock shelter number 1 of Lekhiya in Vindhya region.

o According to the excavated evidence the domestication of animals began in the

Mesolithic period. The earliest evidences of domestication of animals in India have
been found at Adamgarh (Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh) and Bagor (Bhilwara,
Rajasthan).

o The Bagore (India's largest Mesolithic ancient site is located in Rajasthan. Ox sheep,
goat and pig were raised as livestock in around 5000 BC. Since then these was kept
as livestock From 1968 to 1970,V.N Mishra got the excavation done here.

o Bhimbetka situated in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh is the best example of

Mesolithic rock painting.

o Two rock shelters of Middle Stone Age have been found near Panchmarhi in Madhya
Pradesh, namely Jambudweep and Dorothy Dwip. The stone paintings and rock
paintings obtained from Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are indicative of the Middle
Stone Age.

o Maheshwar is a historical city and a famous tourist destination located in the

Khargone district of Madhya Pradesh. It is situated on the banks of river Narmada.
Maheshwar is also known by the name 'Mahishmati'.

o Cultural remains ranging from stone culture to the Harappan civilization have been

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 obtained from Mehrgarh, a site located in Balochistan(Pakistan).

o The earliest evidence of domesticated buffalo comes from Mehrgarh in the Indian
subcontinent

o Maddaha (Patti, Pratapgarh)is a Mesolithic site, the evidence of a slaughterhouse

(abattoir) has been discovered from here.

o In the Mesolithic context, the evidence of wild paddy has been found from 'Chopani
Mando'. This site is situated on the left bank of river Budhi Belan in Meja tehsil of
Allahabad district. The credit for finding this site goes to Shri BD Mishra in 1967

o ·Evidence of the oldest huts has been found from Paisra (Bihar). Paisara is an ancient
site of the Mesolithic era. It was discovered by Vidula Jaiswal in 1947.

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Neolithic Period and Some Mesolithic Cultures –

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o Le Mezuraire discovered the Neolithic period by discovering Polished Celt in the Tons
river valley located in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh in [Link] Neolithic period is said
to have started by the beginning of use of chisel,plank and polished tools.

o Gorden Child has remarked the importance of copper in his book 'WHAT HAPPEND
IN HISTORY'.

o The 80000 to 100000 years old remains of modern man were discovered from the
cave of Borneo.

o Neolithic site called Mahagada is located in the Vindhya region. It is located about 70
km south of Allahabad on the bank of river Yamuna. The ash mounds belong to the
Neolithic culture of South India.

o Archaeological evidence of the oldest stove in India has been discovered from Bila
Surgam in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh.

o In the global context, the beginning of the Neolithic period is 9000 [Link] it started
in India 4000 BC.

o The term 'Neolithic' was first used by Sir John Lubbock in his book Pre-Historic times.

o The Gorden Child used words like 'grain producing culture' and 'Neolithic revolution'
to refer to Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture. V. Gordon Child was an Australian
archaeologist. He had termed iron a "democratic metal”.

o Adzes, Chisel, Scrapers round stone with holes belong to the Neolithic Age.

o Alchin couple and B.K. Thapar acknowledged the influence of the Neolithic cultures
of China in the emergence of Neolithic culture of North India.

o The Neolithic period is divided into two phases, the Non-potter Age and the Pottery
Period.

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o Grains were first ever produced in Neolithic Age. Wheat cultivation started during
this period.

o According to the latest research, the earliest evidence of agriculture in Indian sub-
continent has been reported from the Lahuradev site in Sant Kabir Nagar district
Uttar Pradesh. From here 9000 BC to 7000 BC evidence of middle ice has been
found. Prior to this latest research, Mehrgarh was the site with the oldest
agricultural evidence on the Indian subcontinent.

o The site with the earliest rice evidence was believed to be Koldihwa (Allahabad).

o The earliest evidence of wheat-barley cultivation has been discovered in Balochistan

South Asia.

o Evidence of agriculture dating back to 6000 BC has been discovered fo m the Tokwa
site at the confluence of the Belan and Adwa rivers in Mirzapur.

o About 7000 BC ago rice was cultivated in the China Yangtze River Valley region. The
first evidence of maize was found in Mexico. Millet was first cultivated in
China,sorghum in East Africa, mustard in Southeast Asia and oat in Europe.

o · Dog skeleton along with human skeleton has been found from Burzahom, Jammu
and Kashmir. This site was discovered by De-Terra and Peterson in the year 1935.

o Chirand is located in the Saran district of Bihar. After Burzahom (Jammu and
Kashmir), largest number of Neolithic tools have been discovered from Chirand.
Many bone tools have been obtained from here.

o The 'Ash Mounds' have been found from a Neolithic site Sangana - Kallu located in
Vellari district near Mysore in Karnataka. Mounds of ash have also been found at
Piklihal.

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o Fire was first discovered in Neolithic period.

o Mounds of ash have been found from sites like Pallavaya (Andhra Pradesh), Utanur
(Andhra Pradesh), Piklihal, Brahmagiri Maski (Karnataka) in South India.

o Homo erectus is credited with the discovery of fire (However, Homo-Neanderthalic

man was the first to use fire extensively). The first human to cremate the dead was
Homo Neanderthal, while the first modern and intelligent human is considered to be
Homo sapiens.

o Neolithic sites named Kiari and Giyak are located in Ladakh.

o The evidences of stone tools, finished or unfinished, were found in sites of Tripura.
Two Neolithic sites of Tripura were Teliamura and Jirania.

o The sites of the Neolithic Age are as follows -

 In North-West India-(Baluchistan) ---- Mehrgarh, Kile Gul Muhammad,
Ranapundai, Jalilpur, Sarai khola.
 In Kashmir ---- (Jhelum Valley)- Burzahom, Gufkral.
 Northern India ---- Koldihwa (U.P.), Mahgada (U.P.), Chirand (Bihar), Senuar
(Bihar).
 Eastern India ---- Pandu Rajar Dhibi in West Bengal, Sarutru (Assam),
Markadola (Assam].
 Peninsular India ---- Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Kupagal, Maski, Sanganakallu,
Nagarjunakonda, Piklihal and Uttanur, Payyampally (Tamil Nadu).

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 Chalcolithic Period

o Copper was first metal used in Chalcolithic Period. Chalcolithic means -the age of use
of stone and copper. Settlements of Chalcolithic period in India were found in South-
East Rajasthan, Western Madhya Pradesh, western Maharashtra and South-East
India.

o Ganeshwar Civilization - It is situated at the origin of Kantali river in Sikar district of

Rajasthan. This civilization was developed in 2800 BC, it is the one of oldest sites of
the Chalcolithic cultures, that is why it is called the mother of the Copper Age
culture. Its main sites are Ahad, Gilund Marmi and Balathal.

o Two archaeological sites have been excavated in south-eastern Rajasthan, these are
Ahar and Gilund. These sites are located in the Banas Valley. The ancient name of
Ahad is Tambavati, meaning the place of copper. A mud building has been built in
Gilund near Ahar but at some places there are also paved [Link] pieces are
found in Gilund.

o The chronological order of the major Chalcolithic cultures which were prevalent in
India as follows – Kayatha – Ahar – Malwa – Jorwe.

1) Kayatha (Ujjain, MP),

2) Ahad (Udaipur, Rajasthan),

3) Malwa (MP),

4) Jorwe (Maharashtra, Ahmednagar).

o In the Chalcolithic period, circular pit dwellings have been discovered from Ahar.
Ahar, Gilund, Marmi and Balathal were the major Chalcolithic sites located in
Rajasthan.

o Malwa, Kayatha, Eran and Navdatoli are the major sites in western Madhya
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 Pradesh. Navdatoli is an important Chalcolithic site of Madhya Pradesh, which is
located near Indore. It was excavated by H. D. Sankalia.

o The major sites of western Maharashtra are Jorwe, Nevasa and Daimabad in
Ahmednagar district; Chandoli, Songon, Inamgaon, Prakash and Nashik in Pune
district. All these sites belong to Jorwe culture. Among the Jorwe culture sites known
so far, located beside Pravara River (tributary of Godavari river) Daimabad,
Maharashtra is the largest.

o Evidence of jute has been found from Nevasa.

o Evidence of burial of the dead inside the houses under the floor from north to south
direction has been found in archaeological sites like Nevasa, Daimabad, Chandoli,
Inamgaon etc. of Chalcolithic culture of Maharashtra.

o Sarutaru- It is Situated 25 km south-east of Guwahati. During its excavation, material

like axe was found. From here, pots of brown and gray color have been found,on
which there is a rope [Link] is the site of the Neolithic period.

o Daojali Hading-It is located in Assam. From here, the remains of a 45 cm thick

deposit Neolithic wooden axe and stone axes, chisels, grinding stone, pounders,
pestles and hand-made pottery can be seen with red -colored seals.

o Evidence of Chalcolithic settlements has been found in South India from Brahmagiri,
Piklihal, Sanganakallu, Maski, Hallur, etc.

o An idol of Mother-Goddess has been found in Inamgaon, which is similar to such an

idol found in West Asia.

o Earthen sculptures made in Garuda style found in Malwa and Rajasthan indicate that
Vrishabha (bull) was a symbol of religious sect.

o In Maharashtra the dead body was placed in the north-south direction but in south

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 India in the east-west direction.

o National Human Museum, which was renamed as Indira Gandhi National Museum is
located in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. It is an autonomous organization under the
Department of Culture.

o Highest number of copper evidences have been discovered from Gungeria, Madhya
Pradesh.

o Bharatpur site is located in West [Link] of Chalcolithic period and

Neolithic period has been discovered from here.

Harappan Civilization
o Harappan civilization was the first urban civilization of South Asia. Harappa was first
discovered by Dayaram Sahni in 1921.

o Since the place called Harappa was known first, it was called Harappan civilization'.
John Marshall first called this culture as the Indus civilization, because initially the
sites of this culture were found on the banks of the Indus and its tributaries.

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o John Marshall in his book ‘Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization' suggested that in
future, if these sites are found outside the Indus Valley, then this civilization should
be named Indian Civilization'.

o In Mortimer Wheeler's book ‘Civilization of the Indus valley and Beyond’ it has been
called Indus Civilization'.

o A.R Mughal suggested the name of Greater Indus civilization for this civilization. This
civilization was contemporary with the civilizations of Mikha and Mesopotamia.

o The Harappan civilization is also called the Bronze Age civilization, because bronze (a
mixture of copper and tin) was first used at this time.

o Gorden Child termed Indus civilization the first urban revolution.

o ‘The majority of Indus civilization is on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra river in the
Saraswati valley, hence some scholars named it Saraswati civilization or Indus
Saraswati civilization. In Manusmriti, the area between Drishdvati and Saraswati is
called Brahmavarta. Drishdvati is the present day Hakra river belonging to Rajasthan.

o The lowest deposits in Banawali belong to the pre-Harappan rural culture.

o The Amri culture the Sothi culture and the Kot Diji culture are the pre-Harappan
culture.

o The order of their locations from north to south of the archaeological site of India-
Burzahom – Bhimbetka – Piklihal – Atirampakkam

o Mandi the site of Harappan civilization,is located in Uttar Pradesh, India. Padri,
Kuntasi and Bhirrana etc. are Harappan sites. Amri culture had flourished in Sindh,
Pakistan.

The Harappan or Indus culture had three successive stages -

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 Early or pre-Harappan This was the period of planting of urban life.
civilization (3200-2600
BC)
Mature or Harappan The developed Harappan civilization existed for about
Civilization (2600-1900 700 years.
BC)
Post-Harappan(1900- This is the period of the decline of urbanization (post-
1300 BC) urban state),which is also called the post-Indus culture or
the post-Harappati.

Important Facts-

o The first theoretical analysis on the Harappan political structure was done by Stuard
Piggatt. It was a very centralized empire which was governed by a priest. Harappa
and Mohenjodaro were the two capitals. There are 6 granaries in Harappa.

o The territories which were included in ancient Mesopotamia are present-day eastern
Syria, south-eastern Turkey and much of Iraq.

o In Mesopotamia, the Akkadian language had replaced the Sumerian [Link]

platforms discovered in Kalibanga are made of mud bricks.

o The three-faced deity (Pashupatinath)has been discovered on a seal found from

Mohenjodaro of Harappan civilization, in this elephant, rhinoceros, cheetah and
buffalo are depicted around Pashupati.

o Correct geographical sequence of Harappan cities from North to South --------

Harappa (Montgomery region of Punjab, Pakistan), ----Kalibanga (Rajasthan), -----
Mohenjodaro (Larkana district of Sindh), ----- Lothal (Gujarat).

o Gautam and Baudhayan in the later Vedic period had mentioned in the land revenue
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 related details that the annual interest rate was charged at the rate of 15%.

o Wheeler was the first to give the theory that the Aryans had entered India from the
north-west and destroyed the Harappan culture.

o Evidence of water conservation has been found from Dholavira of Harappan

civilization.

o Evidence of conservation of potable water has been found from Mohenjo-Daro city
during the Indus Valley Civilization.

o Gem making was the main occupation of the people belonging to Lothal and
[Link] major goods imported by the Harappans were metals and precious
stones.

o The excavation of Mohenjodaro was completed in Larkana district on the banks of

river Indus. There was a dockyard at [Link] people of Indus Valley used to play
dice. Camel bones have been discovered from Kalibanga.

o Evidence of seven fire altars have been discovered from Kalibanga. Specific
evidence of efficient and well-planned water harvesting and management system by
dams and reservoirs has been found from Dholavira.

o IEM Wheeler was first propounded the theory of Aryan invasion in India.

o The most important occupation of Lothal and Chanhudaro was bead-production.

For the first time in the history of India, the evolution of cities was discovered from
the Indus civilization itself.

o After independence, most of the Indus sites have been discovered in Gujarat, India.

o The Harappan civilization developed up to northwest of Afghanistan. Two

Harappan sites named Shortugai and Mundigak are located across the Hindukush

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 mountains in Afghanistan.

o Most of the ancient sites related to the Indus civilization have been discovered on
the banks of the Saraswati River.

o Sir Mortimer Wheeler held Indra responsible for the extinction of Harappan culture.

o Chanhudaro is the only site from where curved bricks have been discovered and no
citadel has been discovered from Chanhudaro.

o In Chanhudaro, apart from the Indus culture, remnants of Pre-Indus culture, Jhukar
culture and Jhangar culture have also been found.

o The earliest evidence of silk in India has been discovered from Nevasa. Nevasa is
situated on the banks of Pravara River in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra. The
credit of discovery of this site goes to MN Deshpande.

o The Harappans were not aware of the construction of arches. Dholavira, the city of
Harappan civilization, is divided into three parts.

o A small inscription written in very large letters in Harappan script has been
discovered from Dholavira.

o Information about the Indus Valley script has been derived from seals.

o The divisions of the Indus civilization were multiples of 16. The Greeks received the
knowledge of cotton from the Indians. The Greeks termed cotton as sindon/hindon.

o The most popular among Indus seals is a one horned bull. The remains of
Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods have been discovered in the Belan
valley.

o Evidence of fortification has been discovered from the Harappan site called Kotdiji.

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o The ivory scale for linear measurement has been discovered from Lothal. The unit
of measurement of length in ancient India was called Raktika.

o Lothal and Mundra were the major ports on the coast of Gujarat in the Indus society.

o The Harappan people had knowledge of fruits like watermelon, date palm, lemon
and pomegranate etc. The earliest reference to the Swastika symbol comes from
the Harappan Civilization. The swastika was a symbol of sun worship.

o In the Indus Valley society, Taurus was related to the symbol of strength of animal.
The famous figurine of a priest has been discovered from Mohenjodaro.

o Madhavswaroop Vats first named it as Cemetry [Link] was the first excavator of this
site.

o Alamgirpur is located in the Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh on the banks of the
Hindon River. A small terracotta bead like structure coated with gold and evidence of
cloth is found at this site. Utensils with triangle, Peacock and squirrel impressions are
found here.

o Hulas is located in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. Hand -made and wheel
made pottery with geometric or naturalistic designs painted in black, chert
blades,bone points [Link] been found here.

o Bhagwanpura is located in Kurukshetra district, Haryana. It is located on the south

corner of river [Link] was excavated by [Link].

o Manda is situated on the bank of river Chenab, in Jammu and Kashmir. It was
excavated by J.P. Joshi in 1982.

o Sonauli is an archaeological site located in Baraut Tehsil,Baghpat district, Uttar

Pradesh,where 125 graves belonging to Indus Valley Civilization were found. These

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 graves are oriented in a North-South direction and most are identified as primary
human [Link] practice was started by Homo Neanderthal.

o Ancient Egyptian Civilization flourished along the banks of the river Nile. Nile River is
known as "lifeline of the Egypt” because in the absence of this river this region
would have been a desert.

o The people of the Sumerian civilization were the first script-inventors of the ancient
world.

o Humpbped bulls fossils have been found from sites at Harappa, Mohenjodaro
Kalibangan Surkotada.

o Remains of horse figurines, bones,jaws etc. have been found from Surkotada,Lothal,
[Link] making was popular in Lothal and Chanhudaro. Lothal and Balakot
were famous for pearl industry.

o 'Meluha' has been identified from the Sindh region. Dilmun' has been identified as
present Bahrain in the Persian Gulf.

o In Sumerian inscriptions, Dilmun is referred to as'the place of clean cities' or 'the

field of sunrises' and 'the land of elephants'.

o Figuirines of Dog made of copper from Lothal and copper idols from Kalibangan have
been found. Most of the seals in the Indus period have been made of Steatite.

o Apart from the worship of Mother Goddess and Shiva, the people of Indus used to
worship animals birds, trees etc.

o The dead bodies have been found in south-north direction in Kalibangan, west-east
in Ropar and east-west in Lothal.

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o Harappa - Harappa is located in the Montgomery district (in present-dav Shahiwal)
of the Punjab province of Pakistan, while Mohenjodaro is located in the Larkana
district of Sindh.

o Harappa is situated on the left bank of river Ravi while Mohenjodaro is situated on
the right bank of river Indus. Lohn Marshall first named this civilization as Indus
Civilization.

o So far, the remains of this cvilization have been found in Punjab, Sindh,Balochistan in
Pakistan and parts of Punjab, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir, western Maharashtra in India.

o The westernmost site of the Harappan civilization is Sutkagendor (Baluchistan), the

easternmost site Alamgirpur (Western Uttar Pradesh), the northern-most site of
Manda (Jammu-Kashmir) and the southernmost site of Daimabad (Maharashtra).

o The three major cities of Indus valley civilization- Harappa, Mohenjodaro and
Dholavira were the large towns. The vast mounds were first reported by Charles
Masson in 1826.

o In 1921 Mr.R.B. Dayaram Sahni,surveyed the Harappa culture in the Montagomery

district (present in Sahiwal) of the Punjab on the left side of Ravi river and in 1923
excavation process was started here with continuity.

o In the year 1926, Mr. Madhav Swaroop Vats and in 1946 Mr. Mortimer wheeler had
started the excavation proves on large (extensive) scale.

o Harappa had two mounds, the eastern side mound was known as city mound and
the western one was called as castle mound.

o Mohenjodaro - Mohenjodaro has been variously interpreted as "Mound of the dead

men" in Sindhi language.

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o Mohenjodaro is located right of the Indus River in Larkana district,Sindh, Pakistan.
Mohenjodaro was discovered by Rakhal Das Banerjee in 1922.

o The most important public place of Mohenjodaro seems to be Great [Link] great
bath seems to have been used for ritual bathing. Evidence of conservation of potable
water has been found from Mohenjodaro.

o The fort mound located in the western part of Mohadjodaro is also called 'Stupatila'
because a stupa was built here by the Kushan rulers. The artifacts found from
Mohenjodaro are, mother goddess idol, dancing girl statuette, a seated male
soapstone, Pashupati (Shihva) seal, bones of elephants, and skeleton in the wells,
teeth of elephants Evidence of cotton cloth etc.

o The Chanhudaro situated 130 km south-east of Mohenjodaro was discovered by N.G

Majumdar in 1931 and excavated on a large scale by [Link] in 1935.

o Lothal -Lothal is situated on the Bhogava River in Ahmedabad district of [Link]

was discovered by S.R. Rao in [Link] most prominent feature of Lothal is the
dock-yard.

o Kalibangan - Kalibanga is an ancient and historical place in Hanumangarh district of

Rajasthan. Important remains of the Indus Valley Civilization have been found here.
Kalibanga was a smalltown. A fort has been found here.

o Kalibanga is believed to be more ancient than 4000 [Link] was first discovered by
Amalanand Ghose in 1952 AD. BK Thapar and BB Lal did excavation work here in
1961-69. The world's first cultivated field has been found here and by 2900 BC there
was a developed city here. Ploughed field surface have been found at this [Link]
evidences of Mesopotamian seals, wheels of a toy cart, fire altars are found here.

o Dholavira - Dholavira,which is the second largest site of Harappan Civilization in India

(after Rakhigarhi) is located in Rann of Kutch (Gujarat).The town was built in a

25
 rectangular shape. [Link] and his colleagues excavatedit in 1992. Dholavira is one
of the most prominent archaeological sites of Harappa,which gives us important
informationabout great bath and reservoir.

o Surkotada-Surkotada is located in Kutch district,[Link] evidence of horse bones

and pot burials has been found here.

o Daimabad -Daimabad is situated on the left bank of the Pravara River in Ahmednagar
district of [Link] site was discovered by [Link] in 1958.
Daimabad is famous for the evidences of many bronze goods,someof which were
influenced by Harappan culture.

o Rakhigarhi -Rakhigarhi is situated on the banks of Ghaggar river in Hisar district of

[Link] site wasdiscovered by Suraj Bhan in the year [Link] site is the
largest site of Indus Valley civilization in India.

o Ropar-Ropar (Punjab)is located on the right bank of the river [Link] modern
name of this city is [Link] city was discovered by [Link] in [Link] site
was excavated by Yashdatt [Link] here pottery, selkhari seals,copper arrows
and axes etc,have been [Link] of the burial of a pet dog along with man has
been found from here.
o Rangpur-Rangpur is located in Saurashtra region of western India,on the coast of
Arabian Sea in Gujarat [Link] basis of large fossil remains,it can be said that
these people used to cultivate Rice,Millet and Sorghum.

o Banawali -Banawali is located in the Hisar district of [Link] the year 1973-
74,[Link] site was excavated byMr [Link] figures of mother goddess and toy
plough have been found here.A model of a plough made of burnt clay has been
discovered from Banawali.

o Red pottery painted with black colored figures is characteristic of Harappan

civilization.

26
o After the independence of India,most of the sites of Harappan civilization have been
excavated in Gujarat.

o A replica of a plow made of pucca clay has been found from Banawali in Haryana.

o Seals in the shape of a humped bull have been found from [Link] highest
marking on the seals of the Indus Civilization is that of a horned animal,followed by a
bull with a hump.

o Fire pits have been received from Lothal and [Link] script of the Indus
Civilization is metaphorical.

o The people of the Indus civilization adopted the grid system for the arrangement of
cities and houses. In the Indus civilization, the windows and doors of the houses
opened towards the street and not towards the main [Link] was the only city
whose doors opened towards the main road.

o The Indus people worshiped Mother Goddess as the goddess of [Link] of

Mother Goddess was mostprevalent in the Indus Civilization.

o ·Kalibanga means black bangles'.Kalibanga was the only Harappan site whose lower
city was also fortified.

o Barter system was prevalent in the Indus civilization for [Link] the context
of the dead ones,full tomb,partial burial and cremation were all three prevalent.

o The shape of Pipal tree is found inscribed on the seals from the Indus Civilization.

o The figures or models of boat have been founded from Mohenjodaro and Lothal,the
sites of Indus Valley Civilization.

o Shikarpur is a Harappan site,located in the Kutch district of Gujarat.

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Salient Features of Indus Valley civilization

o The town and building plan of Lothal was well-planned and [Link]
arrangement of drains is seen. A set of twelve bathrooms with floor fitted
bathrooms have been found from this site.

o The Kunal site,located on the banks of the Saraswat river in Hisar district of Haryana,
was discovered by Jagpati Joshiand RS Bisht in 1974 [Link] of trough dwelling
from Kunal has been found in Harappan [Link] silver crowns and gold ornaments
have been obtained from here. Red pottery of Harappan style was first found from
here.

o Daimabad is the largest site of Jorwe Chalcolithic culture.

o The governance system of the Indus Valley Civilization was 'oligarchy'.

o Atranjikheda is not a Harappan [Link] site is a prehistoric site located on the banks
of the Kali River,a tributary of the Ganges,in the Etah district of Uttar [Link] was
discovered by Alexander Cunningham.

o Uttar Pradesh has a special contribution in the main sites of the Indus Civilization,
the major sites here are Alamgirpur, Sothi, Hulas (Saharanpur) while Koldihwa
(Allahabad)are considered to be the stone age [Link] tombs found at Harappa,
named as H burials,belong to the post-Harappan period.

o Mehrgarh is located near the Bolan Pass in the Balochistan province of Pakistan.
Evidence of India's oldest agriculturalsettlement has been discovered from here.

o The archaeological cultures of India are chronologically arranged as follows: -

 Kotdiji-This was a center of ancient Indus civilization situated at a place called

28
 Khairpur'in Sindh province of Pakistan.

 Kayatha Culture-This is a Palaeolithic/Chalcolithic site located on the banks of

the Chhoti Kali Sindh River in Ujjain (MP).This site is related to the time of 2300-
2000 BC,its lower regions are Nagda,Nauvada,Eran and [Link] site is
related to the time of 2300-2000 BC,its lower regions are Nagda,Nauvada,Eran
and [Link] culture has beenstudied by VS Wakankar.

 Malwa Culture-This Chalcolithic site is present on some parts of the Deccan

Peninsula of Maharashtra,Malwa region ofcentral [Link] pottery found in this
culture was the highest among all Chalcolithic cultures.

 Jorwe Culture-It is a Chalcolithic [Link] developed in 2 districts of

Maharashtra-Ahmed Nagar and Pune,its periodwas estimated to be 1500-900
[Link] were three important places of Ahmed Nagar-Jorwe, Nevasa,
Daimabad.

o Charles Mason (1826〕 was a British East India Company soldier independent
explorer leading archaeologist and numismatics. He was the first European to
discover the ruins of Harappa near Sahiwal in Punjab, now in Pakistan.

o Bhagatrav- This Indus Valley site is located in the present state of Gujarat.

o Mehgam- This Indus Valley site is also located in the present state of [Link] was
situated on the trade route of Indus.·

o The figure, referred to as Pashupati discovered from Mohenjodaro wears a three-

horned headgear and is surrounded by animals. An elephant and a tiger are there on
the left side of the figure while a rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen on the right side.
Two deer has been depicted at its feet.

o The first astronomical observatory ofthe Harappan civilization has been found from
an ancient site called Dholavira.

29
o Evidence of seven fire pits has been discovered from Kalibanga. Kalibanga is
presently in Hanumangarh (Rajasthan).

o Besides Dholavira evidence of water storage have also been discovered from Lothal.

o The most prominent feature ofthe Harappan civilization was the production of
cotton cloth,as the Harappans were the first to produce cotton.

o The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro was discovered by RD Banerjee.

o After independence,most of the Indus Valley sites have been discovered in Gujarat
state of India. There are 18 sites of mature Harappan phase in Gujarat and 120 sites
have been known in the post Harappan period.

o Rangpur, Rojadi, Babarkot are the sites of the post-Harappan period.

o Situated on the left bank of the Sutluj river in the Punjab province of India, Ropar is
the only Indus site in India where the first excavation was done after independence.
Its modern name is Roop Nagar.

o Two important sites related to the Indus civilization have been discovered in
Afghanistan, Mundigak and Shortugai.

o Bhirana is the site of mature Harappan culture located in [Link] picture of a

woman has been found on the red pot here. This has been compared to the bronze
dancer found at Mohenjodaro.

o A small inscription written in very large letters in the Harappan script has been found
from Dholavira.

o The ratio of the Harappan weights was 1 :2 : 4 : 8 . On this basis The weight was
measured. The Harappan people also had knowledge of measurement. The CP

30
 instrument was used for the survey which has been found at both Lothal and
Mohenjodaro.

o Remnants of the gray pottery tradition painted with antiquities of the later Harappan
period have been found from a site called Bhagwanpura, located on the southern
bank of the Saraswati river in Kurukshetra district of Haryana. It was excavated by JP
Joshi.

o The ivory scale for linear measurement has been discovered from Lothal.

o The scale of the clay soil from the Harappa has been discovered from Kalibanga.

o In ancient India, the unit of measurement of length or distance was called Yava,
Angul,Vitasti,Hasta Dhanu and Krosh.

o Raktika and Karsha were the weights of the goldsmith and Nimish was used for the
measurement of time.

o The people of the Harappan period had knowledge of fruits like watermelon,date
palm, lemon and pomegranate etc.

o In the Indus society, Taurus was related to the symbol of animal power.

o The Kulli culture located in South Balochistan (Pakistan) comes under the Pre-
Harappan culture. The pottery pandu of this culture is of pink color and has been
depicted in red and black colors.

31
 Vedic Civilization
 · Vedic culture developed after the Indus civilization. The Vedic period is divided
into two parts - [Link] period
 (1 500-1000 BC)[Link] Vedic period (1000-600 BC].
 · The Vedic culture was rural. The word Shudra is first found in the Purusha Sukta of
the tenth Mandala of Rigveda.· The first and tenth Mandalas are the latest. Most of
the Content of the Rigveda is found from the Avesta. The Avesta
 is the oldest text of Zoroastrianism.
 · The administrative unit of the Aryans was divided into several parts - Kul or Griha,
Grama, Vish and Jana.
 · The head of the village was called Gramani,the head of Vish was called Vishapati
and the ruler of the people was
 called Rajan.
 · In the Rigveda period,priests and fighters were the chief state officials. Vidatha
was the most ancient organization of
 the Aryans.
 · The dialogue between Yama and Nachiketa is mentioned in the
[Link] marriage and purdah system
 were not prevalent in Vedic culture. Women who remained unmarried for whole
life were called Amaju.
 · The favorite animal of the Aryans was the horse.

Veda--->
 · The composer of the Vedas was Krishnadvapayana. He used to compile and
categorized the [Link], he
 was called as Ved Vyas. The Vedas are placed in the category of Apaurusheya,
Devadhana, Nitya and Shruti
 (heard). The word Veda is derived from the word 'Vid' metal which means to know.
In general it means knowledge.
 · The Vedas have been considered as Shabdrashi' and Jnanarashi'. The words Nigam
and Amnaya are also used for the

32
 Vedas. Panini has called the Vedas 'Chandasa'. The word Swadhyaya is used for the
Vedas in the Satapatha
 Brahmana and Taittiriya Upanishad. Manu considers Vedas to be the basis of all
knowledge and called them
 sarvajnanamaya.

33