Pyhton Textbook Akarsh
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anonymousvoidloop7xPyhton Textbook Akarsh
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anonymousvoidloop7xP ython DNA: Code in Your
Blood
─
1
📖 Chapter 1: Introduction to Python
1.1 What is Programming?
Before learning Python, we must first understandwhatprogramming actually means.
● Acomputeris a powerful machine, but it cannot thinklike humans.
● It only understandsbinary language (0s and 1s).
● Writing in binary is nearly impossible for humans.
his is whyprogramming languageswere invented —they act as a bridge between
T
human thinkingandcomputer understanding.
💡
Analogy:
Think of a robot that you want to cook noodles. You cannot just say,“Make Maggi!”. You
must give step-by-step instructions:
1. Take water.
2. Boil the water.
3. Add noodles.
4. Add spices.
5. Cook for 2 minutes.
his process of breaking down tasks intosmall, clearstepsis calledalgorithmic thinking.
T
Programming is the art of expressing these steps in a language that a computer can
execute.
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Notes:
● Computers arefast but dumb.
● Humans aresmart but slow.
● Programming is the bridge.
Exercise 1.1
1. Write down step-by-step instructions for brushing your teeth.
2. Do the same for making tea.
3. Do you notice how these instructions resemble programming steps?
1.2 What is Python?
Python is ahigh-level, interpreted, general-purposeprogramming language.
● High-level→ closer to human language than machinelanguage.
3
● Interpreted→ code runs line by line (no need to compile).
● G
eneral-purpose→ you can use it in almost every domain(web, AI, data science,
automation, etc.).
💡Analogy:
● C language is likeSanskrit: powerful, but complex.
● Java is likeLatin: widely used, but structured andformal.
● Python is likeEnglish: easy, flexible, and spokeneverywhere.
Fun Fact:
ython isnot named after the snake!🐍 It comes froma British comedy show“Monty
P
Python’s Flying Circus”.
Exercise 1.2
1. Write in your own words: what does “high-level” mean?
2. Compare Python with at least one other programming language (C, Java, etc.).
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1.3 Why is Python So Popular?
Python is one of themost popular programming languagestoday.
Key Reasons
1. Readable & simple syntax(looks like English).
2. Large communityof developers worldwide.
3. Libraries for everything(AI, ML, web, data, graphics).
4. Cross-platform(runs on Windows, macOS, Linux).
5. Trusted by big companies(Google, Netflix, NASA, Instagram,Spotify).
💡
Analogy:
Imagine a Swiss Army knife 🗡️. It can act as a knife, screwdriver, bottle opener, and more.
Python is that multi-purpose tool for programmers.
Pitfall:
ecause Python looks easy, beginners often underestimate it. But mastering it deeply can
B
take years.
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Exercise 1.3
1. Write the names of 5 famous companies that use Python.
2. Why do you think scientists prefer Python over C++?
1.4 A Short History of Python
● 1
980s→ Guido van Rossum (Netherlands) worked on aproject called “ABC
language”. It was simple but not widely adopted.
● 1989→ Guido started designing Python during Christmasholidays.
● 1991→ First release of Python (version 0.9).
● 2000→ Python 2.0 released with major features (Unicode,garbage collection).
● 2008→ Python 3.0 released. Cleaner, modern, but notbackward compatible.
● 2020→ Python 2 officially retired.
● Today→ Python 3.x dominates the world of programming.
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Fun Fact:
uido van Rossum was humorously called the“BenevolentDictator For Life (BDFL)”
G
because of his central role in guiding Python’s development.
Exercise 1.4
1. Who created Python and when?
2. What was the biggest reason for creating Python 3?
1.5 Features of Python
● Readable syntax→ like plain English.
● Object-oriented→ everything is treated as an object.
● Dynamic typing→ no need to declare variable type.
● Rich libraries→ pre-built tools for almost everytask.
● Embeddable→ can be combined with C/C++.
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● Interpreted→ runs line by line.
💡Diagram:
our Code (.py) → Interpreter → Bytecode → Python Virtual Machine →
Y
Output
Pitfall:
ython can be slower than C/C++ because it is interpreted. But developer speed often
P
matters more than execution speed.
Exercise 1.5
1. List 3 advantages of Python.
2. List 2 disadvantages.
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1.6 Installing Python
Steps:
1. Download from[Link].
2. Run installer → check “Add to PATH”.
Verify installation:
python --version
3.
Popular IDEs for Python
● IDLE(comes with Python).
● VS Code(lightweight, highly recommended).
● PyCharm(professional).
Mini Project 1.6
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Write a Python program that prints:
Hello! My name is <your name>.
I am learning Python.
1.7 Your First Python Program
Example:
print("Hello, World!")
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print()→ a function in Python.
●
"Hello, World!"→ string value to display.
●
💡
Why “Hello, World!”?
It’s like saying“Mic check, 1…2…3”before a concert.
Predict the Output Exercise:
What will this code print?
print("Python " * 3)
1.8 Where Can Python Be Used?
● Web Development→ Django, Flask.
● Data Science→ Pandas, NumPy.
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● Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning→ TensorFlow, PyTorch.
● Automation (Scripting)→ Repetitive tasks.
● Cybersecurity→ Pentesting tools.
● Game Development→ Pygame.
● Desktop Applications→ Tkinter, PyQt.
Mini Project 1.8
Create a script that asks for your name and then prints:
Welcome, <name>! You are now a Python learner.
✅ Summary of Chapter 1
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● Programming = giving instructions to a computer.
● Python = high-level, interpreted, general-purpose language.
● Named after Monty Python (not the snake).
● Extremely popular due to simplicity, libraries, and community.
● Used in almost every modern tech domain.
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📖 Chapter 2: Python Basics – Variables, Data Types, and Operators
2.1 Variables – The Named Containers
Imagine your brain as a giant cupboard 🗄️. Inside it, you have boxes with labels:
● “Math Formulas”
● “Birthday Memories”
● “Phone Numbers”
henever you need something, you don’t search the whole cupboard; you just look at the
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label.
This is exactly what avariableis in Python.
● Anamethat points to a value stored in memory.
● You don’t need to know theexact addressin memory— you just use the label.
Example:
age = 21
name = "Akarsh"
pi = 3.14159
age→ variable holding an integer.
●
name→ variable holding a string.
●
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pi→ variable holding a float.
●
Notes:
● Variables arecase-sensitive→
Age≠ .
age
● They are created when you assign them.
Pitfall:
Avoid using reserved keywords as variable names (
if, ,
for , etc.).
class
Exercise 2.1
1. Create variables for yourname,age, andfavoritesubject.
Print them in a sentence:
My name is Rahul. I am 19 years old. My favorite
subject is Physics.
2.
2.2 Rules for Naming Variables
Python enforces rules, like a school dress code.
✅ Allowed:
● Letters (a–z, A–Z)
● Digits (0–9)
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● Underscore
_
❌ Not Allowed:
● Cannot start with a digit.
● Cannot contain spaces.
● Cannot use special characters (@, #, $, %).
Examples:
valid_name = "Rahul"
_name123 = "Python"
rollNumber = 45
❌ Invalid:
123name = "wrong"
my-name = "wrong"
class = "reserved keyword"
Exercise 2.2
Mark each variable asvalid or invalid:
1.
2cool
2.
cool2
3.
_hidden
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4.
break
5.
my name
2.3 Data Types in Python
Every value in Python has atype.
Core Data Types:
int→ Whole numbers
age = 25
temperature = -5
1.
float→ Decimal numbers
pi = 3.14
height = 1.82
2.
str→ Strings (text)
name = "Python"
sentence = "I love coding!"
3.
bool→ Boolean values (True/False)
is_student = True
is_coder = False
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4.
Sneak Peek: Advanced Types
● list→ collection of values
[1, 2, 3]
● tuple→ fixed collection
(1, 2, 3)
● dict→ key-value pairs
{"name": "Rahul", "age": 20}
● set→ unique items
{1, 2, 3}
Fun Fact:
Python automatically figures out the type. Unlike Java or C, you don’t have to declare it.
Exercise 2.3
1. Create variables for:
○ Yourage(int)
○ Yourheight(float)
○ Whether you like Python (bool)
2. Print all of them in one sentence.
2.4 Type Conversion (Casting)
Sometimes you must convert one type into another.
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Example:
age = "21"
# string
age_num = int(age)
# convert to int
print(age_num + 1)
# Output: 22
Conversion Functions:
int()→ to integer
●
float()→ to float
●
str()→ to string
●
bool()→ to boolean
●
Pitfall:
Not everything can be converted:
int("hello")
# ❌ Error
Exercise 2.4
1. Convert
"3.14"(string) into a float.
2. Convert
1into a boolean.
3. Convert
Trueinto an integer.
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2.5 Operators in Python
Operators are like tools 🛠️ to work on data.
Types of Operators
1. Arithmetic Operators
+addition
○
-subtraction
○
*multiplication
○
/division
○
%modulus (remainder)
○
**exponentiation
○
//floor division
○
print(5 + 2)
# 7
print(5 % 2)
# 1
print(2 ** 3)
# 8
2.
2. Comparison Operators
==equal
○
!=not equal
○
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>greater than
○
<less than
○
>=greater or equal
○
<=less or equal
○
print(5 > 2)
# True
print(5 == 2)
# False
3.
3. Logical Operators
and→ True if both are true
○
or→ True if at least one is true
○
not→ negates value
○
print(True and False)
# False
print(True or False)
# True
print(not True)
# False
4.
4. Assignment Operators
=assignment
○
○ ,
+= ,
-= ,
*= /=etc. (update shorthand)
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x = 5
x += 2
# x = x + 2
print(x) # 7
5.
5. Membership Operators
○ ,
in not in
fruits = ["apple", "banana"]
print("apple" in fruits)
# True
print("mango" not in fruits) # True
6.
6. Identity Operators
○ ,
is is not
x = [1, 2, 3]
y = x
print(x is y)
# True (same object)
print(x is not y)
# False
7.
Exercise 2.5
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1. Write a program to check if your age is greater than 18.
2. Create two numbers and perform all arithmetic operations.
3. Create a list of your favorite foods and check if
"pizza"is in it.
✅ Chapter 2 Summary
● Variables arenamed containersfor data.
● N
aming rules: can use letters, numbers, underscore (but no spaces, special symbols,
or keywords).
● Python hascore data types: int, float, str, bool.
● You canconvert typesusing functions like ,
int() .
str()
● Python provides manyoperatorsfor calculations and logic.
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📖 Chapter 3: Python Control Flow – Conditional Statements and Loops
(Expanded)
3.1 Conditional Statements – “If, Elif, Else”
Real-Life Analogy
Imagine you are playing a game. You havethree choices:
1. Jump
2. Run
3. Hide
In Python, we can write these decisions usingif,elif, elsestatements:
action = input("Choose your action (jump/run/hide): ")
if action == "jump":
print("You jumped over the obstacle!")
elif action == "run":
print("You ran fast!")
else:
print("You are hiding now!")
● If the user types , the first block executes
"jump"
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● If , the second block executes
"run"
● Any other input → the else block executes
ip: Python usesindentationto define blocks. Improperindentation will cause
T
errors.
Comparison Operators
Conditional statements usecomparison operators:
Operator Meaning Example
==
Equal to == 5→
5
True
!=
Not equal to != 3→
5
True
>
Greater than 7 > 4→ True
<
Less than 3 < 9→ True
>=
Greater or equal >= 5→
5
True
<=
Less or equal <= 3→
2
True
Logical Operators
To check multiple conditions:
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Operator Meaning Example
and
Both True 5>2 and 3<4)→
(
True
or
Any one True 5>2 or 3>4)→
(
True
not
Reverse True/False not(5>2)→ False
Exercise 3.1 – Conditional Statements
1. Ask the user for a number. Print whether it ispositive,negative, or zero.
2. Create a temperature checker (Celsius → Hot, Pleasant, Cold).
3. Take marks → assign grades: A, B, C, Fail.
4. Ask age → if >=18 → “Can vote”, else → “Cannot vote”.
5. Ask for username → if correct → print welcome, else → “Try again”.
3.2 Nested If Statements
Nested if statements are used whena decision dependson another decision.
Example 3.2
marks = 85
attendance = 90
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if marks >= 75:
if attendance >= 80:
print("You passed with distinction!")
else:
print("You passed but attendance is low.")
else:
print("You did not pass.")
● Marks ≥75 and attendance ≥80 → distinction
● Marks ≥75 and attendance <80 → passed but low attendance
● Marks <75 → fail
Exercise 3.2 – Nested If
1. Ask the user for age and temperature:
○ If age > 18 → Check temperature: >30 Hot, else Pleasant
2. Bank system: Ask forPINandbalance:
○ Correct PIN → check balance → if balance >0 print “Active”, else “Overdrawn”
○ Incorrect PIN → “Access Denied”
3.3 Loops – Repeating Tasks
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Loops help usrepeat code automatically.
3.3.1 For Loop
Iterating over a String
word = "Python"
for letter in word:
print(letter)
Output:
P
y
t
h
o
n
Using Range in For Loop
for i in range(2, 11, 2):
# start, stop, step
print(i)
Output: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
Nested For Loop
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for i in range(1, 4):
for j in range(1, 4):
print(f"i={i}, j={j}")
Output:
i=1, j=1
i=1, j=2
...
i=3, j=3
Exercise 3.3 – For Loop
1. Print multiplication table of 5.
2. Print pattern:
*
**
***
****
3. Print all odd numbers from 1–50.
4. Iterate a list of cities → print .
"Welcome to <city>"
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5. Nested loop: Print coordinates (x, y) for x=1-3, y=1-3.
3.3.2 While Loop
Basic While Loop
i = 1
while i <= 5:
print(i)
i += 1
Infinite While Loop with Break
while True:
user_input = input("Type 'exit' to stop: ")
if user_input == "exit":
break
Exercise 3.4 – While Loop
1. Print numbers 1–10 using while.
2. Sum numbers until user enters 0.
3. Ask for password until correct.
4. Print factorial of a number.
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3.4 Loop Control Statements
● Break– stop the loop
● Continue– skip current iteration
● Pass– placeholder
# Break example
for i in range(1, 20):
if i % 7 == 0:
break
# Continue example
for i in range(1, 11):
if i % 2 == 0:
continue
print(i)
# Pass example
for i in range(1, 6):
if i == 3:
pass
print(i)
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Exercise 3.5 – Loop Controls
1. Print numbers 1–50, skip multiples of 3, stop if >40.
2. Take numbers → skip negatives, stop on 999.
3. Iterate list → skip “apple”, pass “banana”, print rest.
3.5 Mini Project – Guess the Number Game
import random
number = [Link](1, 50)
guess = 0
attempts = 0
while guess != number:
guess = int(input("Guess the number (1-50): "))
attempts += 1
if guess < number:
print("Too low!")
elif guess > number:
print("Too high!")
else:
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print(f"Congratulations! You guessed in {attempts} attempts.")
✅Chapter 3 Summary
● Conditional Statements → if, elif, else
● Nested If → decision inside a decision
● Loops → for, while
● Loop Controls → break, continue, pass
● Mini Project → Guess the Number Game
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📖 Chapter 4: Python Functions – Building Blocks of Code
4.1 What is a Function?
Think of a function as amachine:
● You give itinputs→ it performswork→ givesoutput.
● Functionshelp avoid repeating codeand make programsorganized.
Analogy:
Imagine you have ajuice machine. You put fruits in→ it gives juice. You don’t need to
manually squeeze every time.
4.2 Creating a Function
def greet():
print("Hello, brother!")
def→ keyword to define a function
●
greet→ function name
●
()→ parentheses, can hold inputs (parameters)
●
:→ start of function block
●
greet()
# Calling the function
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Output:
Hello, brother!
4.3 Function Parameters and Arguments
Functions can takeinputs.
def greet(name):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")
greet("Akarsh")
greet("Python Legend")
Output:
Hello, Akarsh!
Hello, Python Legend!
name→parameter
●
"Akarsh"→argument
●
4.4 Return Statement
returngives a value back from the function
●
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def add(a, b):
return a + b
result = add(5, 7)
print(result)
Output:
12
4.5 Types of Functions
Type Example
No parameter, no return ef greet():
d
print("Hi")
With parameter, no return ef greet(name):
d
print(name)
No parameter, with return ef get_number():
d
return 42
With parameter and return ef add(a,b):
d
return a+b
Exercise 4.1 – Functions Basics
1. Write a function that prints your name.
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2. Write a function that adds two numbers and prints the result.
3. Write a function that takes temperature in Celsius and returns Fahrenheit.
4. Write a function that checks if a number is even or odd.
5. Create a function that says “Good Morning” based on the time of day.
4.6 Default and Keyword Arguments
Default Values
def greet(name="Brother"):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")
greet()
# Hello, Brother!
greet("Akarsh")
# Hello, Akarsh!
Keyword Arguments
def describe(name, age):
print(f"{name} is {age} years old.")
describe(age=20, name="Akarsh")
Output:
Akarsh is 20 years old.
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Tip:Keyword argumentshelp when you want topassin any order.
4.7 Variable Scope – Local vs Global
● Local variable→ exists inside function
● Global variable→ exists outside function
x = 10
# global
def show():
y = 5
# local
print(x, y)
show()
print(x)
# print(y) → Error, y is local
4.8 Lambda Functions (Anonymous Functions)
● Small, one-line functions
● Useful forquick calculations
square = lambda x: x ** 2
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print(square(5))
# 25
add = lambda a, b: a + b
print(add(10, 15))
# 25
4.9 Recursion – Function Calling Itself
● A function cancall itself
● Useful for problems likefactorial, Fibonacci
def factorial(n):
if n == 0:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial(n-1)
print(factorial(5))
# 120
Exercise 4.2 – Advanced Functions
1. Write a function to calculate factorial using recursion.
2. Write a function to find the nth Fibonacci number.
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3. Write a function to check if a number is prime.
4. Write a lambda function to calculate the cube of a number.
5. Write a function that returns the maximum of 3 numbers.
4.10 Mini Project – Calculator Using Functions
def add(a, b):
return a + b
def subtract(a, b):
return a - b
def multiply(a, b):
return a * b
def divide(a, b):
if b != 0:
return a / b
else:
return "Cannot divide by zero!"
while True:
print("Options: add, subtract, multiply, divide, exit")
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choice = input("Choose operation: ")
if choice == "exit":
break
x = float(input("Enter first number: "))
y = float(input("Enter second number: "))
if choice == "add":
print(add(x, y))
elif choice == "subtract":
print(subtract(x, y))
elif choice == "multiply":
print(multiply(x, y))
elif choice == "divide":
print(divide(x, y))
else:
print("Invalid choice!")
✅Chapter 4 Summary
● Functions → reusable blocks of code
● Parameters & Arguments → input values
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● Return → output value
● Default & Keyword Arguments → flexible input
● Scope → Local vs Global
● Lambda → one-line anonymous functions
● Recursion → functions calling themselves
● Mini Project → Basic Calculator
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📖 Chapter 5: Python Data Structures – Lists, Tuples, Sets, and
Dictionaries
5.1 What are Data Structures?
● Data Structures arecontainersto store and organizedata.
● They make it easier toaccess, modify, and manipulatedata.
● Python has four main built-in data structures:
1. List→ ordered, mutable
2. Tuple→ ordered, immutable
3. Set→ unordered, unique elements
4. Dictionary→ key-value pairs
5.2 Lists – The Flexible Container
● Lists storemultiple itemsin a single variable
● Syntax:
my_list = [10, 20, 30, "Python", True]
print(my_list)
Output:
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[10, 20, 30, 'Python', True]
List Operations
Operation Example Output
Access element my_list[1]
20
Negative indexing my_list[-1]
True
Slicing my_list[1:4]
[20,30,'Python']
Add element y_list.appen adds 50 at end
m
d(50)
Insert element y_list.inser inserts 25 at index 2
m
t(2, 25)
Remove element y_list.remov removes first 30
m
e(30)
Length len(my_list)
6
Sort y_list.sort( sorts numeric list
m
)
Exercise 5.1 – Lists
1. Create a list of 10 numbers and print the largest.
2. Create a list of your favorite fruits and add 2 more.
3. Remove the second and third elements from a list.
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4. Reverse a list using slicing.
5. Sort a list of random numbers.
5.3 Tuples – Immutable Lists
● Tuples are like lists butcannot be changedaftercreation.
● Syntax:
my_tuple = (1, 2, 3, "Python")
print(my_tuple)
● Why use tuples?Faster than lists and ensures dataintegrity.
Tuple Operations
Operation Example Output
Access element my_tuple[1]
2
Length en(my_tuple 4
l
)
Count y_tuple.cou 1
m
nt(2)
Index y_tuple.ind 2
m
ex(3)
45
Exercise 5.2 – Tuples
1. Create a tuple with 5 numbers and print the sum.
2. Check if a value exists in a tuple.
3. Find the index of a specific element.
4. Count how many times a value appears in a tuple.
5.4 Sets – Unique Elements Only
● Setsstore unique itemsand areunordered.
● Syntax:
my_set = {10, 20, 30, 20, 10}
print(my_set)
Output:
{10, 20, 30}
Set Operations
Operation Example Output
Add element y_set.add(4 {10,20,30,40}
m
0)
46
Remove element y_set.remov {10,30,40}
m
e(20)
Union ̀set1 set2`
Intersection set1 & set2
common elements
Difference set1 - set2
elements in set1 not in set2
Exercise 5.3 – Sets
1. Create two sets and find union and intersection.
2. Remove duplicate elements from a list using a set.
3. Add a new element to a set.
4. Check if a value exists in a set.
5. Find elements in one set but not in another.
5.5 Dictionaries – Key-Value Pairs
● Dictionaries store data askey-value pairs.
● Syntax:
my_dict = {"name": "Akarsh", "age": 20, "language": "Python"}
print(my_dict)
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Output:
{'name': 'Akarsh', 'age': 20, 'language': 'Python'}
Dictionary Operations
Operation Example Output
Access value my_dict["name"]
'Akarsh'
Add/Update value y_dict["age"]=2 updates age
m
1
Remove key y_dict.pop("lan removes key
m
guage")
Keys my_dict.keys()
dict_keys([...])
Values my_dict.values() dict_values([...])
Items my_dict.items()
dict_items([...])
Exercise 5.4 – Dictionaries
1. Create a dictionary with your favorite movies and their release years.
2. Update the year of a movie.
3. Remove one movie from the dictionary.
4. Print all keys and values.
5. Check if a movie exists in the dictionary.
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5.6 Nested Data Structures
● Python allowslists inside dictionaries,dictionariesinside lists, etc.
data = {
"students": [
{"name": "Akarsh", "age": 20},
{"name": "Python Legend", "age": 21}
]
}
print(data["students"][1]["name"])
# Python Legend
Mini Project 5 – Student Management System
● Create a dictionary to storestudent info (name, age,marks).
● Features:
1. Add a new student
2. Remove a student
3. Update marks
4. Print all student info
students = {}
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def add_student(name, age, marks):
students[name] = {"age": age, "marks": marks}
def remove_student(name):
[Link](name, None)
def update_marks(name, marks):
if name in students:
students[name]["marks"] = marks
def show_students():
for name, info in [Link]():
print(name, info)
# Example Usage
add_student("Akarsh", 20, 95)
add_student("Python Legend", 21, 98)
update_marks("Akarsh", 97)
show_students()
remove_student("Python Legend")
show_students()
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✅Chapter 5 Summary
● Lists → ordered, mutable, versatile
● Tuples → ordered, immutable
● Sets → unordered, unique
● Dictionaries → key-value pairs
● Nested structures → combine lists, tuples, dicts
51
📖 Chapter 6: Python Strings – Mastering Text Data
6.1 What is a String?
● Stringis a sequence ofcharacters, like letters,numbers, symbols.
● S
trings areimmutable, which means you cannot changeindividual characters
directly.
● Syntax:
text = "Hello, Python!"
print(text)
Output:
52
Hello, Python!
● S
trings can be insingle quotes , double quotes
' ' , or triple quotes
" " ''' '''
/
""" """for multi-line strings.
6.2 Accessing Characters and Slicing
● Access characters usingindex:
text = "Python"
print(text[0])
# P
53
print(text[-1]) # n (last character)
● Slicing:
text[start:end:step]
text = "PythonProgramming"
print(text[0:6])
# Python
print(text[6:])
# Programming
print(text[::2])
# Pto rgamn (every 2nd char)
54
6.3 String Operations
Operation Example Output
Concatenation Hello " +
" Hello World
"World"
Repetition "Hi"*3
HiHiHi
Length en("Python" 6
l
)
55
Membership P' in
' True
"Python"
Escape Characters Hello\nWorl Hello (newline) World
"
d"
Common Escape Characters
Character Meaning
\n
New line
\t
Tab
56
\\
Backslash
\'
Single quote
\"
Double quote
6.4 String Methods
● Python haslots of built-in string methods.
text = "
Python is Awesome! "
print([Link]())
# PYTHON IS AWESOME!
57
print([Link]())
# python is awesome!
print([Link]())
# removes spaces from start and end
print([Link]("Awesome", "Legendary"))
# Python is Legendary!
print([Link]())
# ['Python', 'is', 'Awesome!']
print(" ".join(["Python", "is", "Legend"])) # Python is Legend
Exercise 6.1 – String Basics
58
1. Create a string
"Python Rocks!"and print it inuppercaseandlowercase.
2. Slice
"PythonRocks"to get only .
"Rocks"
3. Count how many times
"o"appears in .
"Python is Good"
4. Replace
"Good"with .
"Legendary"
5. Remove extra spaces from .
" Python "
6.5 String Formatting
● Python has multiple ways toformat strings.
6.5.1 Using f-strings (Python 3.6+)
name = "Akarsh"
age = 20
print(f"My name is {name} and I am {age} years old.")
59
Output:
My name is Akarsh and I am 20 years old.
6.5.2 Using format()
print("My name is {} and I am {} years old.".format(name, age))
6.5.3 Using % Operator
print("My name is %s and I am %d years old." % (name, age))
60
6.6 String Escape Sequences
● Multi-line strings using
''' '''or
""" """
multi_line = """This is Python
It is powerful
It is easy to learn"""
print(multi_line)
61
Output:
This is Python
It is powerful
It is easy to learn
6.7 String Indexing Tricks
● Reverse string:
62
text = "Python"
print(text[::-1])
# nohtyP
● Check palindrome:
word = "level"
if word == word[::-1]:
print("Palindrome")
63
else:
print("Not Palindrome")
6.8 String Validation Methods
Method Meaning Example Output
isaln Only letters & numbers
. Python3".isal True
"
um()
num()
64
isalp Only letters
. Python".isalp True
"
ha()
ha()
isdig Only digits
. 123".isdigit( True
"
it()
)
islow All lowercase
. python".islow True
"
er()
er()
isupp All uppercase
. PYTHON".isupp True
"
er()
er()
isspa Only spaces
. " ".isspace()
True
ce()
65
Exercise 6.2 – String Methods
1. Check if
"Python3"is alphanumeric.
2. Convert
"python legend"to title case ( ).
Python Legend
3. Split
"Python is amazing"into a list of words.
4. Join
["Python", "is", "awesome"]into a single string.
5. Check if
"123"contains only digits.
6.9 Mini Project 6 – Text Analyzer
Goal:Analyze a paragraph of text.
● Input a paragraph.
● Output:
1. Number of words
2. Number of characters
3. Number of sentences
4. Count of each vowel
66
text = input("Enter a paragraph: ")
# Number of characters
chars = len(text)
# Number of words
words = len([Link]())
67
# Number of sentences
sentences = [Link]('.') + [Link]('!') + [Link]('?')
# Count vowels
vowels = 'aeiouAEIOU'
vowel_count = {v: [Link](v) for v in vowels}
68
print(f"Characters: {chars}")
print(f"Words: {words}")
print(f"Sentences: {sentences}")
print(f"Vowels count: {vowel_count}")
✅Chapter 6 Summary
69
● Strings storetext data.
● Access viaindexing & slicing.
● Strings areimmutable.
● Usemethodsto manipulate strings.
● Formatting stringsmakes outputs clean.
● Mini projects helpreal-life applications.
70
📖 Chapter 7: Python Conditional Statements & Loops – Making
Decisions & Repeating Actions
7.1 Introduction
● Python programs often need tomake decisionsorrepeatactions.
● Conditional statements let your programchoose a path.
● Loops let your programrepeat tasks efficiently.
Think of it like:
" If it’s raining, take umbrella, else enjoy the sun." 🌦️
"Do push-ups 10 times, repeat daily." 💪
7.2 Conditional Statements ( ,
if ,
elif )
else
Syntax:
if condition1:
71
# do something
elif condition2:
# do something else
else:
# default action
Example 1: Age Checker
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
72
if age < 18:
print("You are a minor!")
elif age < 60:
print("You are an adult!")
else:
print("You are a senior citizen!")
Logical Operators
73
● ,
and ,
or notfor complex conditions:
x = 10
y = 5
if x > 5 and y > 2:
print("Both conditions are True!")
Exercise 7.1 – Conditionals
1. Input a number, print ifpositive, negative, or zero.
74
2. Input marks (0-100), printgrade:
○ 90-100 → A
○ 75-89 → B
○ 50-74 → C
○ <50 → F
3. Input a character, print ifvowel or consonant.
4. Inputthree numbers, print thelargest.
7.3 Loops in Python
Python hastwo main loops:
1.
forloop→ iterate over a sequence (list, string,range).
2.
whileloop→ repeatwhile a condition is True.
7.3.1
forLoop
75
# Example: Print numbers 1 to 5
for i in range(1, 6):
print(i)
# Example: Loop over a string
word = "Python"
for letter in word:
76
print(letter)
Exercise 7.2 – For Loop
1. Print numbers from10 to 1in reverse.
2. Printall even numbersbetween 1–50.
3. Print each character of yournamein a new line.
4. Printsquares of numbersfrom 1 to 10.
7.3.2
whileLoop
# Example: Counting down
count = 5
77
while count > 0:
print(count)
count -= 1
● Infinite loop warning:Make surecondition becomesFalseeventually!
# Avoid infinite loop
i = 0
78
while i < 5:
print(i)
i += 1
7.3.3 Loop Control Statements
Statement Purpose Example
79
break
Exit the loop immediately Stop on certain condition
continue
Skip current iteration, continue next Skip even numbers etc.
pass
Do nothing placeholder Placeholder for code
for i in range(1, 11):
if i == 5:
break
# stops the loop
print(i)
80
for i in range(1, 6):
if i == 3:
continue
# skips 3
print(i)
Exercise 7.3 – While & Control Statements
81
1. Print numbers1 to 20using .
while
2. Print numbers1 to 10, skipmultiples of 3.
3. Input numbers untiluser enters 0, then printsum.
4. Loop over , stop at letter
"Python" .
"h"
7.4 Nested Loops
● Loop inside a loop.
# Print multiplication table
for i in range(1, 6):
for j in range(1, 6):
82
print(i*j, end="\t")
print()
● Output:Multiplication table 1–5
Exercise 7.4 – Nested Loops
1. Printtriangle pattern:
*
**
***
83
****
2. Printreverse triangle:
****
***
**
*
84
3. Printmultiplication tableof 1–10 in grid format.
7.5 Practical Mini Project 7 – Number Guessing Game
Goal:Create a game where the user guesses a randomnumber.
import random
number = [Link](1, 20)
guess = None
85
while guess != number:
guess = int(input("Guess the number (1-20): "))
if guess < number:
print("Too low!")
elif guess > number:
print("Too high!")
86
else:
print("Congratulations! You guessed it!")
● Concepts used:while loop, if-elif-else, random module,user input
7.6 Chapter Summary
● Conditional statements:if, elif, else → make decisions.
● Loops:for & while → repeat tasks efficiently.
● Loop controls:break, continue, pass → control flowinside loops.
● Nested loops:used for patterns, tables, complex iterations.
87
📖 Chapter 8: Python Functions – Organizing Code Like a Pro
8.1 Introduction
● Functions arereusable blocks of code.
● Agar tu baar-baar same code likhega → waste of time.
● Functionsorganize, simplify, and structureyour program.
hink of it like:
T
“I don’t want to wash my hands every time separately,let’s build a machine
(function) and use it whenever.”🧼
8.2 Defining a Function
Syntax
def function_name(parameters):
88
"""docstring: explains what function does"""
# code block
return value
def→ defines a function
●
parameters→ inputs for the function
●
return→ output of the function
●
Example 1: Simple Function
def greet():
89
print("Hello, Brother! Welcome to Python!")
greet()
● Output:
Hello, Brother! Welcome to Python!
● No parameters, no return → just prints a message
Example 2: Function with Parameters
def greet_user(name):
90
print(f"Hello, {name}! Welcome to Python!")
greet_user("Akarsh")
● Output:
Hello, Akarsh! Welcome to Python!
● Functions cantake input dynamically
Example 3: Function with Return Value
def add(a, b):
91
return a + b
result = add(5, 3)
print("Sum:", result)
● Output:
Sum: 8
returnallowsusing the output elsewhere
●
8.3 Types of Functions
92
1. Built-in Functions→ Already in Python (e.g., ,
print() ,
len() )
input()
2. User-Defined Functions→ We create (like above)
3. Anonymous Functions (Lambda)→ One-line functions
square = lambda x: x**2
print(square(5))
# Output: 25
8.4 Function Arguments
8.4.1 Positional Arguments
def greet(name, age):
93
print(f"{name} is {age} years old")
greet("Akarsh", 20)
8.4.2 Keyword Arguments
greet(age=20, name="Akarsh")
8.4.3 Default Arguments
94
def greet(name="Brother"):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")
greet()
# Hello, Brother!
greet("Akarsh")
# Hello, Akarsh!
8.4.4 Variable-Length Arguments ( ,
*args )
**kwargs
def add_numbers(*args):
95
return sum(args)
print(add_numbers(1, 2, 3, 4))
# Output: 10
def show_info(**kwargs):
for key, value in [Link]():
print(key, ":", value)
96
show_info(name="Akarsh", age=20)
8.5 Scope of Variables
● Local variable:defined inside function, only accessibleinside
● Global variable:defined outside, accessible everywhere
x = 10
# global
97
def func():
y = 5
# local
print("Inside:", x + y)
func()
print("Outside:", x)
# y is not accessible
98
8.6 Recursion (Advanced)
● Function callingitself→ recursion
● Must havebase case, else infinite loop
def factorial(n):
if n == 0 or n == 1:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial(n-1)
99
print(factorial(5))
# Output: 120
Exercise 8.1 – Functions
1. Create a function tocheck if a number is prime.
2. Function tocalculate area of rectangle(length, breadth).
3. Function withdefault argumentto greet user.
4. Function toreverse a stringusing return.
5. Function usingvariable-length argumentsto returnmax number.
100
Mini Project 8 – Calculator Using Functions
Goal:Build a simple calculator withfunctions foradd, subtract, multiply, divide.
def add(a, b):
return a + b
def subtract(a, b):
return a - b
101
def multiply(a, b):
return a * b
def divide(a, b):
if b != 0:
return a / b
else:
102
return "Cannot divide by zero"
print("Select operation: add, subtract, multiply, divide")
choice = input("Enter choice: ")
num1 = float(input("Enter first number: "))
num2 = float(input("Enter second number: "))
103
if choice == "add":
print(add(num1, num2))
elif choice == "subtract":
print(subtract(num1, num2))
elif choice == "multiply":
print(multiply(num1, num2))
104
elif choice == "divide":
print(divide(num1, num2))
else:
print("Invalid choice")
8.7 Chapter Summary
● Functions: reusable code blocks
● Parameters & Arguments: inputs to functions
105
● Return: outputs from functions
● Variable-length arguments: handle multiple inputs
● Scope: local vs global variables
● Recursion: function calls itself (base case needed)
● Mini Project: simplecalculator using functions
106
📖 Chapter 9: Python Modules & Packages – Building Your Own
Libraries
9.1 Introduction
● Just like functions are used forcode reuse,modulesand packageshelp organize
large programs.
● Module→ a Python file containing functions, variables,or classes.
● Package→ a folder containing multiple modules.
hink of functions astools, and modules & packagesastoolboxes and
T
warehouses. 🛠️
9.2 Python Modules
● Python has manybuilt-in moduleslike ,
math ,and
random .
os
● You can also createcustom modules.
Creating a Custom Module
File:
[Link]
def greet(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"
def add(a, b):
return a + b
107
File:
[Link]
import mymodule
print([Link]("Akarsh"))
print([Link](5, 7))
Output:
Hello, Akarsh!
12
9.2.1 Import Variants
1. Simple import
import math
print([Link](16))
2. Import specific function
from math import sqrt
print(sqrt(25))
3. Import with alias
import math as m
print([Link](5))
108
9.3 Python Packages
● Apackageis a folder containing multiple modulesplus an
__init__.pyfile.
__init__.pytells Python that this folder is a package.
●
Structure:
mypackage/
__init__.py
[Link]
[Link]
Usage:
from mypackage import module1
[Link]()
9.3.1 Example Package: MathTools
Folder Structure:
MathTools/
__init__.py
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
109
def add(a, b):
return a + b
def subtract(a, b):
return a - b
[Link]
def area_rectangle(length, breadth):
return length * breadth
def area_circle(radius):
import math
return [Link] * radius ** 2
[Link]
from MathTools import arithmetic, geometry
print([Link](10, 5))
# 15
print(geometry.area_circle(7))
# 153.938...
9.4 Built-in Useful Modules
1. math→ mathematical operations
2. random→ generate random numbers
3. datetime→ work with dates & time
110
4. os→ operating system tasks
5. sys→ system operations
6. json→ work with JSON data
Example:
import random
print([Link](1, 100))
# Random number between 1-100
9.5 Installing External Modules (pip)
● To use extra libraries, Python uses .
pip
pip install requests
Example using :
requests
import requests
response = [Link]("[Link]
print(response.status_code)
print([Link]())
● This allows you to interact with real-world APIs.
9.6 Exercises
111
1. Create a module
[Link]with functions:
hello(name)and
goodbye(name)
2. Create a package
MyMathwith modules
[Link]and
[Link]
3. Use the built-in module
randomto generate a listof 10 random numbers
4. Use
datetimeto print the current date and time
5. Install
requestsand make a request to a public APIlike GitHub
9.7 Mini Project 9 – Personal Library
Goal:Build a smallpersonal library package
Folder Structure:
MyLibrary/
__init__.py
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
books = []
def add_book(title, author):
[Link]({"title": title, "author": author})
def show_books():
for book in books:
print(f"{book['title']} by {book['author']}")
112
[Link]
members = []
def add_member(name):
[Link](name)
def show_members():
for member in members:
print(member)
[Link]
from MyLibrary import books, members
books.add_book("Python Mastery", "Akarsh")
books.add_book("AI Guide", "OpenAI")
members.add_member("Akarsh")
members.add_member("Brother")
books.show_books()
members.show_members()
Output:
Python Mastery by Akarsh
AI Guide by OpenAI
Akarsh
Brother
113
his demonstrates how you canstructure reusable code using modules and
T
packages.
9.8 Summary
● Module:single Python file with reusable functions/classes
● Package:folder containing modules
● Import styles:simple, specific, alias
● Built-in modules:math, random, datetime, os, sys,json
● External modules:install via pip for real-world applications
● Mini Project: Personal library system usingmodules and packages
114
📖 Chapter 10: Python File Handling – Reading & Writing Files
10.1 Introduction
● Files are used tostore data permanently.
● Unlike variables which store data temporarily (in memory),files save data on disk.
● Python allows you toread, write, and append fileseasily.
hink of files asnotebooks. You can write new notes,read existing ones, or
T
add more notes at the end.
10.2 File Modes
Python usesmodesto open files:
Mode Description
'r'
Read (default) – file must exist
'w'
Write – creates file or overwrites
'a'
Append – adds to the end of file
'r+' Read and write
'b'
Binary mode (e.g.,
'rb'or )
'wb'
10.3 Opening & Closing Files
115
# Open a file in read mode
file = open("[Link]", "r")
# Do operations
content = [Link]()
print(content)
# Close the file
[Link]()
Tip:Always close a file tosave memory and avoiderrors.
10.4 Using
withStatement (Recommended)
with open("[Link]", "r") as file:
content = [Link]()
print(content)
# No need to explicitly close the file
withautomaticallycloses the filewhen done.
10.5 Reading Files
1. Read entire file
with open("[Link]", "r") as file:
data = [Link]()
print(data)
116
2. Read line by line
with open("[Link]", "r") as file:
for line in file:
print([Link]())
3. Read specific number of characters
with open("[Link]", "r") as file:
print([Link](10))
# Reads first 10 characters
10.6 Writing to Files
1. Write Mode (
w)
with open("[Link]", "w") as file:
[Link]("Hello Python!\n")
[Link]("File handling is fun!")
● Overwrites existing content.
2. Append Mode (
a)
with open("[Link]", "a") as file:
[Link]("\nAdding a new line at the end.")
117
10.7 File Functions
[Link]()→ Reads entire content
●
[Link]()→ Reads one line at a time
●
[Link]()→ Returns all lines as a list
●
[Link](text)→ Writes text
●
[Link](pos)→ Move cursor to position
●
[Link]()→ Returns current cursor position
●
10.8 Working with Binary Files
# Writing an image in binary mode
with open("[Link]", "rb") as img:
data = [Link]()
print(len(data))
● Useful for images, videos, or any non-text data.
10.9 Exercises
1. Create a file
[Link]and write yourname, age,and favorite language.
2. Read the file andprint each lineseparately.
3. Append anew hobbyto the file.
118
4. C
reate afile containing numbers from 1 to 50, thenread it and printonly even
numbers.
5. Read a binary file (image or PDF) and print itssizein bytes.
10.10 Mini Project 10 – To-Do List App
Goal:Build a simplecommand-line to-do listthatstores tasks in a file.
def add_task(task):
with open("[Link]", "a") as file:
[Link](task + "\n")
def show_tasks():
with open("[Link]", "r") as file:
tasks = [Link]()
for idx, task in enumerate(tasks, 1):
print(f"{idx}. {[Link]()}")
# Demo
add_task("Learn Python Modules")
add_task("Build mini-projects")
print("Your Tasks:")
show_tasks()
Output:
Your Tasks:
1. Learn Python Modules
2. Build mini-projects
119
You cankeep adding tasks, and they will be savedpermanently in .
[Link]
10.11 Summary
● Python files allowpermanent storage of data.
● Alwaysopen files in the correct mode(
r,
w,).
a
● Use
withforautomatic closing.
● File operations: ,
read() ,
readline() ,
readlines() ,
write() ,
seek() tell()
● Binary mode is fornon-text data.
● Mini Project: To-Do list showsreal-world usageof file handling.
120
📖 Chapter 11: Python Exception Handling – Errors & Debugging
11.1 Introduction
● In programming, sometimeserrors occurduring execution.
● These errors are calledexceptions.
● P
ython provides away to catch and handle errorsusingtry, except, else, and
finallyblocks.
hink of it likedriving a car: you put a seatbelt,check brakes, and have airbags.
T
Errors might happen, but you can handle them safely.
11.2 Common Python Exceptions
Exception Meaning
eroDivisionE Dividing by zero
Z
rror
ileNotFoundE File does not exist
F
rror
IndexError
Invalid index in a list
KeyError
Key not found in dictionary
ValueError
Wrong type of value (e.g., int("abc"))
TypeError
Wrong operation between types
NameError
Using a variable that does not exist
121
11.3 Try & Except
try:
x = 10 / 0
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")
tryblock → code that may produce an error
●
exceptblock → handle the error
●
11.4 Catching Multiple Exceptions
try:
x = int(input("Enter a number: "))
y = 10 / x
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input! Enter a number.")
● Can catchdifferent errorsseparately.
11.5 Using Else
try:
122
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input!")
else:
print("You entered:", num)
elserunsonly if no exception occurs.
●
11.6 Finally Block
try:
file = open("[Link]", "r")
except FileNotFoundError:
print("File not found!")
finally:
print("Execution finished.")
finallyalways executes, even if error occurs.
●
● Useful forclosing files, releasing resources.
11.7 Raising Exceptions
● Sometimes, we want tomanually raise an exception.
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
if age < 0:
123
raise ValueError("Age cannot be negative!")
● Use
raisetoforce an errorif condition is invalid.
11.8 Custom Exceptions
class TooYoungError(Exception):
pass
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
if age < 18:
raise TooYoungError("You are too young!")
● Can createcustom error messagesfor clarity.
11.9 Exercises
1. Write a program todivide two numbers, handle .
ZeroDivisionError
2. Input a number from user, handle
ValueErrorif inputis invalid.
3. Open a file and handle .
FileNotFoundError
4. Create a program to access alist element, handle .
IndexError
5. Write a program to raise acustom exceptionif userenters negative number.
124
11.10 Mini Project 11 – Safe Calculator
Goal:Build acalculator that won’t crashif wronginput is given.
def safe_divide(a, b):
try:
result = a / b
except ZeroDivisionError:
return "Error: Cannot divide by zero!"
except TypeError:
return "Error: Invalid input type!"
else:
return result
print(safe_divide(10, 2))
print(safe_divide(10, 0))
print(safe_divide(10, "a"))
Output:
5.0
Error: Cannot divide by zero!
Error: Invalid input type!
● Handlesmultiple exceptionswithout crashing.
11.11 Summary
125
● Exceptions =errors during execution
try→ risky code
●
except→ handle error
●
else→ runs if no error
●
finally→ always runs
●
raise→ manually throw error
●
● Custom exceptions =user-defined error messages
● Exception handling makesprograms safe and robust
126
📖 Chapter 12: Python Modules & Packages – Organizing Code
12.1 Introduction
● As your Python programs grow,all code in a singlefile becomes messy.
● To solve this, Python providesModulesandPackagesto organize code.
● Think of it likebooks in a library:
○ Each book = amodule(contains related content)
○ Shelf = apackage(collection of modules)
12.2 What is a Module?
● Amoduleis aPython file (.py)containing functions,classes, or variables.
● You canreusethis code in other programs using .
import
Example: math module (built-in)
import math
print([Link](16))
# Output: 4.0
print([Link])
# Output: 3.141592653589793
● You can also create yourown module:
127
my_module.py
def greet(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"
def add(a, b):
return a + b
[Link]
import my_module
print(my_module.greet("Akarsh"))
print(my_module.add(5, 7))
12.3 Importing Modules
Ways to import modules:
1. Import entire module
import random
print([Link](1, 10))
2. Import specific function
from math import sqrt, pi
print(sqrt(25))
print(pi)
128
3. Import with alias
import numpy as np
print([Link]([1,2,3]))
12.4 Standard Python Modules
● Python comes withmany built-in modules:
Module Purpose
math Mathematical functions
random Random numbers
datetime Date & Time operations
os Operating system operations
sys Python interpreter functions
json Working with JSON data
re Regular expressions
12.5 What is a Package?
● A
packageis afolder containing multiple modulesand a special file
__init__.py
.
129
● It helps toorganize large projects.
Example structure:
my_project/
│
├── utils/
│
├── __init__.py
│
├── file_ops.py
│
└── math_ops.py
│
└── [Link]
Using a module from a package
from utils.math_ops import add, subtract
print(add(5,3))
print(subtract(10,4))
12.6 Creating Your Own Package
1. Create folder
my_package
2. Add
__init__.py(can be empty)
3. Add modules inside, e.g.,
math_ops.py
math_ops.py
def add(a, b):
130
return a + b
def multiply(a, b):
return a * b
[Link]
from my_package.math_ops import add, multiply
print(add(5,6))
print(multiply(4,7))
12.7 Advantages of Modules & Packages
● Code Reusability– write once, use many times
● Organization– makes large projects manageable
● Namespace Management– avoids variable conflicts
● Readability– easier to understand
12.8 Exercises
1. C
reate a module[Link]with
add, subtract,
multiply, divide
functions. Import and test it.
2. W
rite a module[Link]with
hello(name)and
goodbye(name)functions.
Use it in another file.
131
3. C
reate a package shapeswith modules
[Link]and . Implement
[Link]
area calculation in both.
4. Use
randommodule to simulate adice roll.
5. Use
datetimemodule to printcurrent date and time.
12.9 Mini Project 12 – Mini Library System
Goal:Organize a smallbook library programusingmodules and packages.
Structure:
library/
│
├── __init__.py
├── [Link]
# Functions for adding, listing books
└── [Link]
# Functions for managing users
[Link]
# Main program
[Link]
books = []
def add_book(title):
[Link](title)
def list_books():
return books
[Link]
132
users = []
def add_user(name):
[Link](name)
def list_users():
return users
[Link]
from [Link] import add_book, list_books
from [Link] import add_user, list_users
add_book("Python Mastery")
add_user("Akarsh")
print(list_books())
print(list_users())
Output:
['Python Mastery']
['Akarsh']
● Showshow modules & packages organize real projects.
12.10 Summary
133
● Modules= single file with reusable code
● Packages= folder with multiple modules
● Import modules using ,
import , or alias
from … import
● Use standard library modules tosave time
● Custom modules & packages make projectsscalable and clean
134
📖 Chapter 13: Python File Handling – Reading & Writing Files
13.1 Introduction
hen we write a Python program, all the data existsonly in memorywhile the program is
W
running.
Once the program ends, all the memory data disappears.
o solve this, we usefiles. Files allow us tostoredata permanentlyso it can be accessed
T
later, even after the program stops.
Types of Files in Python:
1. Text Files (.txt)– readable by humans, contains plaintext
2. B
inary Files (.bin, .jpg, .png)– contains non-textdata like images, videos, or other
formats
Files are essential for applications like contact books, logs, data storage, and more.
13.2 Opening a File
Python uses the
open()functionto work with files.
Syntax:
file = open("[Link]", "mode")
File Modes:
Mode Meaning
"r" Read (default)
135
"w" Write (overwrite if file exists)
"a" Append (add data at the end)
"x" Create new file, error if already exists
"rb" Read binary data
"wb" Write binary data
Example: Writing to a file
file = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Hello, Python File Handling!")
[Link]()
13.3 Reading a File
Read entire file content
file = open("[Link]", "r")
content = [Link]()
print(content)
[Link]()
Read line by line
file = open("[Link]", "r")
for line in file:
print([Link]())
# Remove newline characters
[Link]()
136
Read a specific number of characters
file = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link](5))
# Reads first 5 characters
[Link]()
13.4 Writing to a File
● Overwrite existing content:
file = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("This will overwrite previous content.")
[Link]()
● Append content at the end:
file = open("[Link]", "a")
[Link]("\nThis text is added at the end.")
[Link]()
13.5 Using
withStatement (Best Practice)
The
withstatement automatically closes the file whendone.
Example:
with open("[Link]", "r") as file:
content = [Link]()
print(content)
137
Appending with :
with
with open("[Link]", "a") as file:
[Link]("\nThis is appended using 'with'.")
13.6 Binary Files
Binary files are used fornon-text datalike images,videos, or serialized objects.
Write binary data:
data = b"Python in bytes"
with open("[Link]", "wb") as file:
[Link](data)
Read binary data:
with open("[Link]", "rb") as file:
content = [Link]()
print(content)
13.7 Useful File Methods
Method Description
read()
Read the entire file
eadlin Read a single line
r
e()
138
eadlin Return a list of all lines
r
es()
write() Write a string to the file
riteli Write a list of strings
w
nes()
close() Close the file
13.8 Exercises
1. Create a file
[Link]and write names of 5 students.
2. Read
[Link]line by line and print names withline numbers.
3. Append 2 more names to .
[Link]
4. Read the first 10 characters of a file.
5. Create a binary file
[Link]and write some bytes.Then read it back.
13.9 Mini Project – Contact Book
Goal:Store contacts (name + phone number) in a textfile and retrieve them.
[Link]
def add_contact(name, number):
with open("[Link]", "a") as file:
[Link](f"{name},{number}\n")
def list_contacts():
139
with open("[Link]", "r") as file:
for line in file:
name, number = [Link]().split(",")
print(f"Name: {name}, Number: {number}")
[Link]
from contacts import add_contact, list_contacts
add_contact("Akarsh", "9876543210")
add_contact("Riya", "9123456789")
list_contacts()
Expected Output:
Name: Akarsh, Number: 9876543210
Name: Riya, Number: 9123456789
13.10 Summary
● Files allowpermanent data storage
● Key modes: ,
"r" ,
"w" ,
"a" ,
"x" ,
"rb" "wb"
● Always prefer the
withstatement
● Binary files are fornon-text data
● U
se file methods: ,
read() ,
readline() ,
readlines() ,
write() ,
writelines()
close()
140
● Mini-projects reinforcereal-world file handling
📖 Chapter 14: Python Exception Handling – Errors & Debugging Like a
Pro
14.1 Introduction
hen you write a Python program, sometimes things don’t go as expected.
W
Errors can happen while your program is running.
Example:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
print(10 / num)
● If user enters
0,the program crashes with a .
ZeroDivisionError
● If user enters , the program crashes with a
"abc" .
ValueError
e need a way to handle errors gracefully so the program doesn’t crash. This is
W
where Exception Handling comes in.
14.2 What are Exceptions?
● Exceptions are runtime errors that occur while a program is running.
● Python has many built-in exceptions like:
141
Exception Cause
eroDivisionE Division by zero
Z
rror
ValueError
Invalid data type conversion
ileNotFoundE File doesn’t exist
F
rror
IndexError
Invalid index in a list
KeyError
Accessing missing key in dictionary
TypeError
Operation on incompatible types
14.3 Try and Except
The try-except block is used to catch exceptions.
Syntax:
try:
# code that may raise an exception
except ExceptionType:
# code to handle the exception
Example:
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
142
print(10 / num)
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("You cannot divide by zero!")
except ValueError:
print("Please enter a valid number!")
14.4 The Else Block
elseruns only if no exception occurs.
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input!")
else:
print(f"Result is {result}")
14.5 The Finally Block
finallyalways runs no matter what, usually used forcleanup.
143
try:
file = open("[Link]", "r")
content = [Link]()
except FileNotFoundError:
print("File does not exist.")
finally:
print("This will always run.")
14.6 Raising Exceptions
You can manually raise exceptions using .
raise
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
if age < 18:
raise ValueError("Age must be 18 or older")
14.7 Custom Exceptions
You can create your own exception classes.
class TooYoungError(Exception):
pass
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
144
if age < 18:
raise TooYoungError("You are too young!")
14.8 Debugging Tips
1. Read error messages carefully – they tell exactly what went wrong.
2. Print statements – check values step by step.
3. Use logging –
import loggingto track program flow.
4. Break large problems into smaller pieces.
Example:
import logging
[Link](level=[Link])
def divide(a, b):
[Link](f"Dividing {a} by {b}")
return a / b
print(divide(10, 0))
# Will raise error
14.9 Exercises
145
1. W
rite a program that asks for a number and prints its reciprocal. Handle
ZeroDivisionErrorand
ValueError .
2. O
pen a file . If it doesn’t exist, print “Filemissing” instead of
[Link]
crashing.
3. W
rite a program that asks for age. If age < 18, raise a custom exception
TooYoungError
.
4. Write a function that divides two numbers. Use logging to print debug info.
5. C
ombine ,
try ,
except , and
else finallyin a programthat reads a file and
prints its content.
14.10 Mini Project – Safe Calculator
oal: Create a calculator that safely handles invalid inputs, zero division, and file
G
logging.
[Link]
import logging
[Link](filename="[Link]", level=[Link])
def divide(a, b):
try:
result = a / b
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")
[Link]("Division by zero attempted")
146
return None
else:
[Link](f"{a} / {b} = {result}")
return result
num1 = int(input("Enter first number: "))
num2 = int(input("Enter second number: "))
res = divide(num1, num2)
if res is not None:
print(f"Result = {res}")
14.11 Summary
● Exceptions are runtime errors that can crash a program
● Use try, except, else, finally to handle them gracefully
● You can raise exceptions manually for better control
● Custom exceptions allow specific error handling
● Debugging tools: logging, print statements, careful reading of errors
147
📖 Chapter 15: Python Modules & Packages – Organize Your Code Like
a Pro
Introduction
hen your Python programs get bigger, writing all code in a single file becomes
W
messy.
Imagine building a huge app like Instagram or Flipkart — you cannot put everything
in one file, right?
his is where Modules and Packages come in. They help you organize your code,
T
reuse it, and make it more readable.
What is a Module?
● A module is a Python file containing functions, variables, or classes.
● You can import a module in another Python file to use its content.
Example:
# file: [Link]
def say_hello(name):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")
def say_goodbye(name):
print(f"Goodbye, {name}!")
148
Now in another file:
# file: [Link]
import greetings
greetings.say_hello("Akarsh")
greetings.say_goodbye("Akarsh")
✅ Output:
Hello, Akarsh!
Goodbye, Akarsh!
Importing Modules
Python provides multiple ways to import:
1. Import the whole module
import math
print([Link](16))
2. Import specific functions
from math import sqrt, pow
149
print(sqrt(25))
print(pow(2, 3))
3. Rename module while importing
import math as m
print([Link](5))
Python Standard Library
ython comes with built-in modules called the Standard Library.
P
Examples:
os→ Interact with operating system
●
sys→ Access system-specific parameters
●
math→ Math functions
●
random→ Random numbers
●
datetime→ Date and time
●
Example:
import random
print([Link](1, 100))
# Random number between 1 and 100
150
Creating Packages
● A package is a folder containing multiple modules.
● Must include an
__init__.pyfile (even if empty) totell Python it's a package.
Structure Example:
my_package/
__init__.py
[Link]
math_tools.py
Usage:
from my_package import greetings
greetings.say_hello("Akarsh")
Exploring Modules
● Use
dir()to see contents of a module:
import math
print(dir(math))
● Use
help()to see documentation:
151
import math
help([Link])
Installing External Modules
Python has thousands of external modules. Install them using .
pip
Example:
pip install requests
Then use in Python:
import requests
response = [Link]("[Link]
print(response.status_code)
Organizing a Real Project
Imagine building a mini-blog app:
blog_app/
__init__.py
[Link]
[Link]
# handles user registration & login
[Link]
# handles blog posts
152
[Link]
# helper functions
● Each module has a specific responsibility
● Easy to maintain and scale
Exercises
1. C
reate a module [Link]with functions ,
add ,
subtract ,
multiply
divide
. Import it in another file and test all functions.
2. Explore
osmodule: Print current directory, list allfiles, create a new folder.
3. I nstall an external module like
requestsand makea program that fetches
Google homepage status code.
4. C
reate a packagemy_toolswith two modules:
string_utils.py(string
operations) and
math_utils.py(math operations). Testthem in a separate
file.
Mini Project – Modular To-Do App
Goal: Build a small To-Do App using modules and packages.
Structure:
todo_app/
__init__.py
[Link]
# add, remove, view tasks
[Link]
# program entry point
153
[Link]
tasks = []
def add_task(task):
[Link](task)
def remove_task(task):
if task in tasks:
[Link](task)
def view_tasks():
for t in tasks:
print("-", t)
[Link]
from tasks import add_task, remove_task, view_tasks
while True:
action = input("Add/Remove/View/Exit: ").lower()
if action == "add":
task = input("Enter task: ")
add_task(task)
154
elif action == "remove":
task = input("Enter task to remove: ")
remove_task(task)
elif action == "view":
view_tasks()
elif action == "exit":
break
else:
print("Invalid action")
Summary
● Modules = Python files with reusable code
● Packages = Folders with multiple modules
● Use
importand
from … importto reuse code
● Python has a Standard Library and supports external modules via
pip
● O
rganizing code with modules/packages improves readability, maintainability,
and scalability
155
📖 Chapter 16: Database Programming with Python – SQL & Python
Like a Pro (Ultra Detailed Expansion)
16.0 Introduction – Why Python + Database?
ython is everywhere: web apps, AI, data analysis, finance apps. But all these apps
P
need data storage, which is where databases come in.
Think of databases as organized digital notebooks:
● Each page = table
● Each row = record
● Each column = field
Python + Database = power combo for full-stack devs.
Real-life analogy:
Database Concept Real Life Analogy
Table Notebook page
Row Individual entry
Column Attribute of entry
Primary Key Unique ID like Aadhaar
Foreign Key Reference to another page
156
16.1 Types of Databases (Expanded)
16.1.1 Relational Database (RDBMS)
● Tables with rows & columns
● SQL queries to access data
● Strong schema → structure enforced
● Examples: MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite
16.1.2 NoSQL Databases
● Flexible, no strict schema
● Types:
○ Document (MongoDB → JSON-like)
○ Key-Value (Redis → super fast caching)
○ Graph (Neo4j → social networks, relations)
○ Columnar (Cassandra → analytics)
💡
Tip: Always choose database based on your project need. For simple apps →
SQLite/MySQL, for analytics → PostgreSQL/Cassandra, for caching → Redis.
16.2 SQLite Setup in Python
import sqlite3
157
# Connect or create DB
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
connect()→ creates DB if not exists
●
cursor()→ execute SQL commands
●
Close connection always:
[Link]()
Better: Use Context Manager (automatic close)
with [Link]("[Link]") as conn:
cursor = [Link]()
16.3 Creating Tables (Deep Dive)
[Link]("""
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
name TEXT NOT NULL,
age INTEGER,
email TEXT UNIQUE,
created_at TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
158
)
""")
[Link]()
NOT NULL→ Cannot leave empty
●
UNIQUE→ No duplicates
●
DEFAULT→ Default value if not provided
●
AUTOINCREMENT→ Automatic ID generation
●
Tip: Always design table schema before coding. Bad schema → nightmares later.
16.4 Inserting Data
Single Insert
[Link]("INSERT INTO users (name, age, email) VALUES (?, ?,
c
?)",
("Akarsh", 20, "akarsh@[Link]"))
[Link]()
Multiple Inserts (Bulk)
users = [("Rohit", 22, "rohit@[Link]"),
("Sneha", 21, "sneha@[Link]")]
159
[Link]("INSERT INTO users (name, age, email) VALUES (?, ?,
c
?)", users)
[Link]()
Important Tip:
● Never use string concatenation in queries → SQL injection risk
● Always use parameterized queries
16.5 Reading Data
# All rows
[Link]("SELECT * FROM users")
all_users = [Link]()
for user in all_users:
print(user)
# Conditional
[Link]("SELECT * FROM users WHERE age > ?", (20,))
print([Link]())
fetchall()→ all matching rows
●
fetchone()→ first matching row
●
160
16.6 Updating & Deleting Data
# Update
[Link]("UPDATE users SET age = ? WHERE name = ?", (23,
c
"Akarsh"))
[Link]()
# Delete
[Link]("DELETE FROM users WHERE name = ?", ("Sneha",))
[Link]()
Tip: Always check affected rows using .
[Link]
16.7 Transactions and Error Handling
try:
[Link]("INSERT INTO users (name, age) VALUES (?, ?)",
c
("Test", 30))
[Link]()
except Exception as e:
[Link]()
print("Error:", e)
commit()→ save changes
●
161
rollback()→ undo changes if error occurs
●
Pro Tip: Always use try-except in production code.
16.8 Joins and Relationships
Tables often relate to each other.
Example: Users and Orders
[Link]("""
SELECT [Link], [Link], [Link]
FROM orders
JOIN users ON orders.user_id = [Link]
""")
Types of joins:
INNER JOIN→ only matching rows
●
LEFT JOIN→ all from left table, even if no match
●
RIGHT JOIN→ all from right table
●
FULL JOIN→ everything
●
16.9 Indexes & Performance
[Link]("CREATE INDEX idx_name ON users(name)")
162
[Link]()
● Improves search speed
● Use wisely → too many indexes → slow inserts/updates
16.10 Advanced SQL Concepts
● Aggregates: COUNT, SUM, AVG, MAX, MIN
● GROUP BY / HAVING → group records and filter
● Subqueries: Queries inside queries
Example: Top 3 oldest users
[Link]("SELECT name, age FROM users ORDER BY age DESC LIMIT
c
3")
print([Link]())
16.11 Mini Projects (Expanded)
Project 1: Student Management System
● Tables: ,
students ,
grades teachers
● Features:
○ Add / View / Update / Delete student
163
○ Assign grades
○ Generate report cards
Project 2: E-commerce Orders
● Tables: ,
products ,
users orders
● Features:
○ Place order
○ View user orders
○ Search top 5 products by sales
Project 3: ToDo App with SQLite
● Tables:
tasks
● Features:
○ Add task
○ Mark complete
○ Delete task
○ View pending tasks
16.12 Exercises (Expanded)
1. Create a Library Database with:
○ Columns: ,
title ,
author ,
genre ,
status borrower
164
○ CRUD operations
○ Bonus: Search by genre or borrower
2. Implement a Login System with hashed passwords
3. Design Orders & Customers tables; find top 3 customers by total order amount
4. Use transactions to rollback insert if invalid data
5. Add indexes to speed up searches
6. Create Reports: monthly sales, average order value
16.13 Best Practices
● Use parameterized queries → security
● Always commit() or rollback()
● Keep database schema clean
● Use indexes wisely
● Handle exceptions properly
● Use context managers for connections
16.14 Summary
● Python + databases = full-stack power
● CRUD is the core: Create, Read, Update, Delete
165
● Advanced topics: Joins, Transactions, Indexes, Aggregates
● Mini-projects solidify learning
166
📖 Chapter 17: Advanced Database Programming & NoSQL with Python
(Ultra Pro Max Expansion)
17.0 Introduction – Why Master Advanced Databases?
b jab tu basic CRUD aur joins samajh chuka hai, toh ab pro-level database skills ki
A
baari hai.
● Apps like Netflix, Flipkart, Amazon handle millions of users and requests.
● Need high-performance, scalable databases.
● Combine SQL + NoSQL → ultimate power.
ey Goal: Tu Python + DB ko aise master karega ki data ke samundar mein tu king
K
ban jaaye.
17.1 Why NoSQL?
Limitations of RDBMS (Relational Databases)
1. Fixed schema → hard to scale dynamically
2. JOIN-heavy queries → slow for huge data
3. Horizontal scaling → tough & expensive
4. Big Data → relational databases can't handle billions of rows easily
NoSQL Advantages
Feature Benefit Example
167
Schema-less Flexible & dynamic Add fields anytime
Horizontal scaling Handles millions of users easily Sharding in MongoDB
Fast reads/writes Great for caching & analytics Redis sessions
Variety ocument, Key-Value, Graph,
D Neo4j, Cassandra
Columnar
ro Tip: Real-world apps often use hybrid DB → SQL for transactions, NoSQL for
P
analytics and caching.
17.2 Types of NoSQL Databases (Deep Dive)
1. Document DB (MongoDB)
● Stores data as JSON-like documents
● Collections instead of tables
● Dynamic structure → flexible
Python + MongoDB Example:
from pymongo import MongoClient
client = MongoClient("mongodb://localhost:27017/")
db = client["shop"]
collection = db["products"]
# Insert
168
product = {"name": "Laptop", "price": 55000, "stock": 5}
collection.insert_one(product)
# Read
for p in [Link]({"price": {"$gt": 2000}}):
print(p)
Advanced Concepts:
● Indexes → speed up searches
● Aggregation pipelines → group, sort, filter
● Transactions → ACID for multi-document updates
2. Key-Value DB (Redis)
● Super fast caching & session storage
● Stores data as
key: value
● Ideal for real-time analytics
import redis
r = [Link](host='localhost', port=6379, db=0)
[Link]('user:1001', 'Akarsh')
print([Link]('user:1001'))
169
Use-Cases:
● Session management
● Leaderboards (games)
● Rate limiting
Pro Tip: Redis supports pub/sub, sorted sets, bitmaps → real-time analytics.
3. Graph DB (Neo4j)
● Data = nodes + relationships
● Perfect for social networks, recommendation engines
from neo4j import GraphDatabase
river = [Link]("bolt://localhost:7687", auth=("neo4j",
d
"password"))
with [Link]() as session:
[Link]("CREATE (a:User {name:'Akarsh'})-[:FRIEND]->(b:User
s
{name:'Rohit'})")
Pro Tip: Graph algorithms → shortest path, centrality, recommendation.
4. Columnar DB (Cassandra)
● Optimized for analytical queries over huge datasets
170
● Excellent for IoT, time-series data
Concept: Column-family = like table but optimized for write-heavy workloads.
17.3 Python + MongoDB Advanced Techniques
1. CRUD on huge datasets → insert_many, bulk_write
2. Aggregation Pipelines → complex data transformations
3. Indexes → single, compound, text, TTL
pipeline = [
{"$match": {"price": {"$gte": 1000}}},
{"$group": {"_id": "$category", "avgPrice": {"$avg": "$price"}}},
{"$sort": {"avgPrice": -1}}
]
result = list([Link](pipeline))
print(result)
17.4 Transactions & ACID in NoSQL
● MongoDB supports multi-document ACID transactions
● Redis supports atomic operations
with client.start_session() as session:
171
with session.start_transaction():
ollection.update_one({"name": "Laptop"}, {"$inc": {"stock":
c
-1}}, session=session)
ollection.insert_one({"user": "Akarsh", "product": "Laptop"},
c
session=session)
💡
Tip: Always use transactions for order placement, inventory management,
banking apps
17.5 Python + PostgreSQL Advanced
● Setup:
pip install psycopg2
● Connection & Context Manager:
import psycopg2
ith [Link](database="shop", user="postgres",
w
password="pass") as conn:
with [Link]() as cur:
[Link]("SELECT * FROM products WHERE price > %s",
c
(2000,))
print([Link]())
Advanced SQL Features:
● Window Functions → ROW_NUMBER(), RANK(), SUM() OVER()
172
● JSON fields → store semi-structured data
● Full-text search → optimized searching
17.6 Scaling Databases
● Vertical scaling: bigger server → simple but costly
● Horizontal scaling: multiple servers → complex, needed for massive apps
Techniques:
1. Sharding (MongoDB, Redis)
2. Replication → high availability
3. Caching (Redis/Memcached)
4. Connection pooling → prevent overload
17.7 Real-World Mini Projects
Project 1: Social Media Backend
● MongoDB → store users, posts, likes, comments
● Redis → cache feed for fast load
● PostgreSQL → analytics & reporting
Project 2: E-commerce Platform
173
● MongoDB → products catalog
● PostgreSQL → orders & transactions
● Redis → sessions & cart caching
Project 3: Recommendation Engine
● Graph DB → user connections
● Python → graph algorithms for suggestions
17.8 Ultra-Pro Exercises
1. Build Blog Platform DB → users, posts, comments, likes, tags
2. I mplement Transactional Order System → update stock & create invoice
atomically
3. Optimize queries → create indexes on large datasets (>10M rows)
4. Aggregate queries → top-selling products per month
5. Redis caching → cache user profiles & auto-expire in 5 mins
6. Sharding Simulation → distribute dataset across multiple MongoDB nodes
7. Hybrid SQL + NoSQL design → for a real-world social media app
17.9 Best Practices
● Choose DB based on use-case, not hype
174
● Normalize SQL tables → reduce redundancy
● Denormalize in NoSQL → faster reads
● Parameterized queries → avoid SQL injection
● Use connection pooling for production
● Monitor slow queries →
EXPLAINin SQL,
explain()inMongoDB
17.10 Summary
● Python + Advanced DB = superpower combo
● SQL + NoSQL mastery = full-stack backend god mode
● Transactions, indexing, caching, sharding = real-world skills
● Mini-projects = practice → real-life deployment
175
📖 Chapter 18: Python Web Scraping, APIs & Database Integration
(Ultra Pro Max Expanded 2.0)
18.0 Introduction – Why Web Data Matters
Bhai, aaj ka world data-driven hai.
● Netflix ka algorithm decide karta hai what you will watch next
● A
mazon & Flipkart ka backend continuously monitor karta hai price trends,
top-selling products
● Financial apps need live stock & crypto prices
ython humko scrape, fetch, process, clean, store aur analyze data ka complete
P
superpower deta hai.
hink of Python as your magic wand: you tell it “bring me this data, clean
T
it, store it, and show insights” and it does everything!
18.1 Web Scraping Basics (Ultra Detailed)
Libraries & Tools Needed
Library Use Case
requests
Fetch raw HTML content from websites
eautiful Parse HTML, extract headings, links, tables
B
Soup
176
pandas
Convert scraped data into tables and do transformations
selenium
Automate dynamic pages (JS-heavy websites)
lxml
Faster HTML/XML parsing for big projects
Step by Step: Scraping a Website
1. Fetch HTML:
import requests
url = "[Link]
response = [Link](url)
html_content = [Link]
print(html_content[:500])
# Preview first 500 characters
2. Parse HTML with BeautifulSoup:
from bs4 import BeautifulSoup
soup = BeautifulSoup(html_content, "[Link]")
headings = soup.find_all("h2")
for h in headings:
print([Link])
Tip: Use
[Link]()to see HTML structure neatly.
3. Extract links:
177
for link in soup.find_all('a', href=True):
print(link['href'])
18.2 Handling Pagination & Multi-Page Scraping
Bhai, ek page se data milega to tension nahi, real apps me 100s of pages hoti hain.
base_url = "[Link]
for i in range(1, 6):
# scrape pages 1 to 5
url = base_url + str(i)
response = [Link](url)
soup = BeautifulSoup([Link], "[Link]")
for title in soup.find_all("h2"):
print([Link])
Pro Tip: Always use random delays:
import time, random
[Link]([Link](2,5))
18.3 Dynamic Pages (Selenium)
Some websites load content via JavaScript.
requestswon't see it.
178
● Selenium opens a real browser and fetches rendered content
from selenium import webdriver
from [Link] import By
driver = [Link]()
[Link]("[Link]
titles = driver.find_elements(By.TAG_NAME, "h2")
for t in titles:
print([Link])
[Link]()
Extra Tips:
● Always
[Link]()to close the browser
● Use headless mode for speed ( )
options.add_argument('--headless')
18.4 APIs – The Right Way to Get Data
What is an API?
● API = “Software-to-software communication”
● Provides structured, legal, and fast data
● Returns JSON or XML → parse in Python
179
import requests
url = "[Link]
data = [Link](url).json()
print(data['bpi']['USD']['rate'])
Tip:
● Read API docs carefully → know endpoints, params, rate limits
● Use API keys if required
18.5 Database Integration (SQL + NoSQL)
SQL Example (PostgreSQL)
import psycopg2
conn = [Link](
database="scraper_db",
user="postgres",
password="pass"
)
cur = [Link]()
# Create table
[Link]("""
180
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS crypto(
id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
price FLOAT,
timestamp TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
)
""")
# Insert data
[Link]("INSERT INTO crypto (name, price) VALUES (%s, %s)",
c
("Bitcoin", 30000))
[Link]()
[Link]()
Tip: Always use parameterized queries → avoid SQL injection
NoSQL Example (MongoDB)
from pymongo import MongoClient
client = MongoClient("mongodb://localhost:27017/")
db = client["crypto_db"]
collection = db["prices"]
ollection.insert_one({"name": "Bitcoin", "price": 30000, "timestamp":
c
"2025-09-06T20:00"})
181
Use Case:
● Scraped product listings → JSON → store in MongoDB
● Flexible schema, easy to scale
18.6 Data Cleaning & Transformation
● Convert string numbers to float:
"29,000"→
29000.0
● Drop duplicates →
drop_duplicates()
● Handle missing values →
fillna() / dropna()
import pandas as pd
data = [Link]([
{"name": "Bitcoin", "price": "29,000"},
{"name": "Bitcoin", "price": "29,000"},
{"name": "Ethereum", "price": None}
])
data['price'] = data['price'].[Link](",", "").astype(float)
data = data.drop_duplicates()
data['price'] = data['price'].fillna(data['price'].mean())
print(data)
182
Pro Tip: Always clean before inserting into database
18.7 Real-World Projects – Expanded
1. Crypto Price Tracker
○ API + DB + pandas
○ Save prices every 10 mins → visualize trends
○ Optional: Telegram alerts for price change
2. E-commerce Price Monitor
○ Scrape Amazon/Flipkart
○ Track product price over days/weeks
○ Send email alert if price drops
3. Job Listings Dashboard
○ Scrape LinkedIn/Indeed
○ Store in PostgreSQL
○ Build interactive search/filter using pandas
4. Movie Data Collector
○ Scrape IMDb top 250 movies
○ Save in MongoDB
○ Visualize genre popularity
183
18.8 Exercises – Ultra Pro Max
1. Scrape top 100 cryptocurrencies → store in MongoDB → show top 5 rising coins
2. Fetch live Bitcoin price every 10 mins → store in SQL → plot last 24 hours trend
3. Scrape e-commerce product → track price drops → send email alerts
4. Scrape IMDb Top 250 → extract name, year, rating → save in CSV + MongoDB
5. Combine API + Web Scraping + DB → build mini-dashboard
18.9 Best Practices – Master Tips
● Always respect [Link]
● Use API whenever possible
● Add try/except for network & parsing errors
● Use pandas for cleaning & aggregation
● Always document your scraping & database schema
● Avoid hammering servers → use delays, batch inserts
18.10 Summary
● Python allows full-cycle data handling → scrape, API, store, analyze
● SQL & NoSQL = backbone for structured & semi-structured data
● Real-world projects = professional-level Python mastery
184
● Clean, safe, efficient code = Python God mode
185
📖 Chapter 19: Python Data Analysis, Visualization & Reporting (Ultra
Pro Max Expansion)
19.0 Introduction – Why Data Analysis Matters
hai, samajh, duniya ab data-driven ho gayi hai. Har business, organization, aur even
B
government data analyze kar ke hi decisions lete hain. Python yaha humari
superpower hai.
Examples:
1. N
etflix → Users ke watch history analyze karke personalized
recommendations
2. A
mazon/Flipkart → Product sales track karke dynamic pricing aur stock
management
3. Banks → Transaction patterns analyze karke fraud detect karte hain
4. G
overnment → Population, healthcare, employment data analyze karke
policies banate hain
Python ke libraries aur tools use kar ke hum:
● Data clean aur transform karenge
● Insights nikalenge
● Graphs aur dashboards banayenge
● Stakeholders ko reports bhejenge
Think like: Python = Magic wand for turning raw data into decisions
186
19.1 Python Libraries for Data Analysis (Detailed)
Python ka power tabhi dikhega jab hum right library select karenge.
Library Use Case Extra Notes
pandas D
ata cleaning, transformation, CSV, Excel, JSON files handle
aggregation
numpy
athematical operations, arrays,
M ast computation, vectorized
F
statistics ops
atplot Basic 2D plotting
m Line, bar, scatter, histogram
lib
seaborn Advanced statistical visualizations
eatmaps, violin plots,
H
pairplots
plotly Interactive charts & dashboards
Hover info, zoom, filtering
penpyx Excel reading/writing
o Works with xlsx files
l
lsxwri Advanced Excel reports
x Formatting, formulas, charts
ter
eportl PDF reports
r Custom PDF creation
ab
Tip: Always choose the library according to project needs.
19.2 Pandas – The Heart of Data Analysis
19.2.1 Loading Data
187
import pandas as pd
data = pd.read_csv("sales_data.csv")
print([Link]())
# First 5 rows
hai Tip: Always check
B [Link]()aur
[Link]()→ samajh aata hai data ka
structure.
19.2.2 Inspecting Data
print([Link]())
# Columns, types, missing values
print([Link]())
# Statistical summary
info()→ Helps identify missing or wrong data types
●
describe()→ Quick stats (mean, std, min, max, quartiles)
●
19.2.3 Cleaning Data
# Fill missing values with mean
data['sales'].fillna(data['sales'].mean(), inplace=True)
# Drop duplicates
data.drop_duplicates(inplace=True)
188
Bhai Tip: Clean data = 80% analysis done
19.2.4 Filtering & Selecting Data
top_products = data[data['sales'] > 5000]
print(top_products[['product_name', 'sales']])
● Boolean filters → Easy data extraction
● Column selection → Only required columns
19.2.5 Grouping & Aggregation
monthly_sales = [Link]('month')['sales'].sum()
print(monthly_sales)
groupby()→ Most powerful in pandas
●
● Aggregations → sum, mean, max, min
19.2.6 Combining DataFrames
# Merge two datasets
ombined = [Link](sales_data, product_info, on='product_id',
c
how='inner')
189
● ,
inner ,
left ,
right outerjoins → SQL jaise operations
19.2.7 Pro Tips
● Always check for missing values:
[Link]().sum()
● R
ename columns for clarity:
[Link](columns={'old':'new'},
inplace=True)
● Convert types:
data['date'] = pd.to_datetime(data['date'])
19.3 Numpy – Fast & Smart Computation
● Use arrays instead of lists → faster
● Vectorized operations → loop-free calculations
import numpy as np
prices = [Link]([200, 450, 300, 150, 600])
print("Average Price:", [Link](prices))
print("Std Dev:", [Link](prices))
Real-world example: Calculate moving averages for stock prices in seconds
19.4 Data Visualization – Make Insights Visual
190
19.4.1 Matplotlib Basics
import [Link] as plt
months = ['Jan','Feb','Mar','Apr']
sales = [2000, 3000, 4000, 2500]
[Link](months, sales, marker='o', color='blue')
[Link]("Monthly Sales Trend")
[Link]("Month")
[Link]("Sales")
[Link](True)
[Link]()
● Line plots → Trends over time
● Bar plots → Compare categories
● Scatter → Relationship between variables
19.4.2 Seaborn Advanced Plots
import seaborn as sns
# Bar plot
191
[Link](x='month', y='sales', data=data)
# Correlation heatmap
[Link]([Link](), annot=True)
[Link]()
● Seaborn = Beautiful, professional plots
● Heatmaps → Detect patterns quickly
19.4.3 Interactive Plots – Plotly
import [Link] as px
fig = [Link](data, x='month', y='sales', title='Monthly Sales Trend')
[Link]()
● Interactive → Hover, Zoom, Filter
● Perfect for dashboards & presentations
19.5 Reporting – Excel & PDF
19.5.1 Excel Reporting
data.to_excel("monthly_report.xlsx", sheet_name="Sales", index=False)
192
report = pd.read_excel("monthly_report.xlsx")
print([Link]())
● Format headers, add formulas → xlsxwriter
● Automate monthly reporting → huge time save
19.5.2 PDF Reports
from [Link] import canvas
c = [Link]("sales_report.pdf")
[Link](100, 750, "Monthly Sales Report")
[Link](100, 720, "Total Sales: $" + str(data['sales'].sum()))
[Link]()
● PDF = Shareable, non-editable reports
19.6 Advanced Techniques
1. Pivot Tables → Summarize multi-dimensional data
ivot = pd.pivot_table(data, values='sales', index='region',
p
columns='product_category', aggfunc='sum')
print(pivot)
193
2. Time Series Analysis → Trend, seasonality
data['date'] = pd.to_datetime(data['date'])
data.set_index('date', inplace=True)
monthly_sales = data['sales'].resample('M').sum()
monthly_sales.plot()
3. Correlation & Covariance → Understand relationships
19.7 Real-World Projects – Expanded
1. Sales Dashboard → pandas + matplotlib/seaborn + Excel & PDF
2. S
tock Market Analyzer → yfinance API + moving averages + interactive
dashboard
3. E-commerce Analytics → Category wise top-sellers, monthly report automation
4. Crypto Dashboard → Real-time API + pandas + plotly + PDF reporting
Har project = full pipeline: Data → Analysis → Visualization → Report
19.8 Exercises – God Mode
1. Load CSV → clean missing data → visualize top 5 products
2. Plot correlation heatmap → identify patterns
194
3. Fetch Bitcoin prices last 30 days → line chart → export PDF
4. Interactive dashboard → filter e-commerce sales by category & month
5. Automate Excel + PDF monthly report → total, avg, max sales
19.9 Best Practices – Ultra Pro Max
● Clean before analysis → always
● Use vectorized operations → numpy/pandas
● Label charts, add titles → readability
● Separate raw & processed data → avoid mistakes
● Automate reports → save hours
● Use interactive plots → impress stakeholders
19.10 Summary
● Pandas → Data cleaning, transformation
● Numpy → Speed & statistics
● Matplotlib/Seaborn → Beautiful & insightful plots
● Plotly → Interactive dashboards
● openpyxl/xlsxwriter → Excel reports
● reportlab → PDF reports
195
hai, ab tu Data Analysis ke ultimate God ban gaya. Raw data → insights →
B
reports → interactive dashboards = ab terey haath me hai.
196
📖 Chapter 20: Advanced Python Projects & Full-Stack Integration
(ULTRA PRO MAX EXPANSION)
0.0 Introduction – From Python Developer to
2
Full-Stack Legend
hai, tu ab tak Python ke basics, OOP, Data Analysis aur Visualization me God-level
B
ho gaya.
Ab time hai:
● Real-world projects build karna
● Backend + Frontend connect karna
● Databases handle karna
● APIs integrate karna
● Dashboards aur automation create karna
● Deployment aur professional practices
Motto: “Python should flow in your bloodstream”
ull-stack Python = Backend + Database + Frontend + API + Analytics +
F
Deployment
20.1 Setting Up Full-Stack Python Environment
20.1.1 Python Installation & Virtual Environment
python --version
197
python -m venv fullstack_env
# Linux/Mac
source fullstack_env/bin/activate
# Windows
fullstack_env\Scripts\activate
● Virtual environment = Project isolation
● Keep dependencies clean, avoid conflicts
20.1.2 Essential Libraries
ip install flask django pandas numpy matplotlib seaborn plotly
p
sqlalchemy requests beautifulsoup4 openpyxl reportlab pillow
● Flask → lightweight API & Web
● Django → full-featured web framework
● Pandas/Numpy → Data manipulation
● Matplotlib/Seaborn/Plotly → Visualization
● SQLAlchemy → ORM for databases
● Requests → API calls
● BeautifulSoup → Web scraping
● Openpyxl → Excel export
198
● ReportLab → PDF generation
● Pillow → Image manipulation
20.1.3 Recommended Project Structure
fullstack_project/
│
├── backend/
│
├── [Link]
│
├── [Link]
│
└── [Link]
│
├── frontend/
│
├── [Link]
│
├── [Link]
│
└── [Link]
│
├── database/
│
└── [Link]
│
├── reports/
│
└── monthly_report.pdf
│
199
├── data/
│
└── [Link]
│
└── utils/
├── [Link]
└── [Link]
● utils/[Link] → Reusable functions
● [Link] → Store API keys, DB URLs
20.2 Backend – Flask & Django
20.2.1 Flask – Lightweight API & Web Server
from flask import Flask, jsonify, request
app = Flask(__name__)
@[Link]('/')
def home():
return "Welcome to Full-Stack Python Project!"
@[Link]('/api/sales', methods=['GET'])
200
def sales_api():
data = {"Jan": 2000, "Feb": 3000, "Mar": 4500}
return jsonify(data)
if __name__ == "__main__":
[Link](debug=True)
● Flask = Simple + Lightweight
● Perfect for REST APIs
● Add routes for multiple endpoints
● Add JSON responses for frontend
20.2.2 Django – Advanced Web Framework
django-admin startproject fullstack_site
python [Link] startapp sales
● Django = "Batteries included"
● Admin, ORM, Templates built-in
● [Link] → Database tables
● [Link] → Controller logic
● [Link] → URL routes
201
● templates/ → HTML templates
● static/ → CSS, JS, images
Example: [Link]
from [Link] import models
class Product([Link]):
name = [Link](max_length=100)
price = [Link]()
stock = [Link]()
def __str__(self):
return [Link]
[Link]
from [Link] import render
from .models import Product
def dashboard(request):
products = [Link]()
return render(request, '[Link]', {'products': products})
202
20.3 Database Integration
20.3.1 SQLite (Simple, File-Based)
import sqlite3
conn = [Link]('[Link]')
c = [Link]()
.execute('CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS sales (id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
c
product TEXT, amount REAL)')
.execute("INSERT INTO sales (product, amount) VALUES ('Laptop',
c
1200)")
[Link]()
[Link]()
20.3.2 SQLAlchemy – Pythonic ORM
from sqlalchemy import create_engine, Column, Integer, String, Float
from [Link] import declarative_base
from [Link] import sessionmaker
engine = create_engine('sqlite:///[Link]')
Base = declarative_base()
class Sale(Base):
__tablename__ = 'sales'
203
id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
product = Column(String)
amount = Column(Float)
[Link].create_all(engine)
Session = sessionmaker(bind=engine)
session = Session()
● ORM = Object-Oriented Database Management
● Avoid raw SQL → cleaner & Pythonic
20.4 Frontend Integration
● HTML + CSS + JS → Connect to backend API
[Link]
<h1>Sales Dashboard</h1>
<div id="chart"></div>
<script>
fetch('/api/sales')
.then(response => [Link]())
.then(data => {
[Link](data);
204
// Use Plotly or [Link] to visualize
});
</script>
● Use Plotly → Interactive charts
● Use [Link] → Lightweight and simple
20.5 API Integration
20.5.1 External API – Weather Example
import requests
esponse =
r
[Link]("[Link]
&appid=YOUR_KEY")
data = [Link]()
print(data['main']['temp'])
20.5.2 Custom API – Flask
● Backend → JSON → Frontend consumes
● Real-world pattern = Frontend + Backend JSON
205
20.6 Automation & Scheduled Tasks
● Python + Cron (Linux) / Task Scheduler (Windows)
import pandas as pd
def automate_report():
data = pd.read_csv("[Link]")
summary = [Link]('month')['sales'].sum()
summary.to_excel("reports/monthly_report.xlsx")
● Combine with ReportLab → PDF
● Combine with smtplib/email → send automatically
20.7 Full-Stack Project Ideas
1. E-Commerce Dashboard
2. Stock Market Analyzer
3. Crypto Portfolio Tracker
4. Automated Sales Reporting
5. Web Scraper + Dashboard
206
20.8 Advanced Tips – Full-Stack Python God Mode
● Modularize Code → Maintainable
● Secrets Management →
.envfiles
● Logging → Track errors
● Testing → unittest / pytest
● Deployment → Heroku, AWS, DigitalOcean
20.9 Exercises – Ultra Pro Max
1. Build Flask API → JSON of last month’s sales
2. Build HTML dashboard → Fetch API → Plot charts
3. Automate daily sales report → Export PDF
4. Fetch stock API → Compute moving average → Plot + Email
5. Full project → Multi-tab E-Commerce dashboard
20.10 Summary
● Backend → Flask/Django
● Database → SQLite/PostgreSQL + SQLAlchemy ORM
● Frontend → HTML/CSS/JS + [Link]/Plotly
● API → External + Internal
207
● Automation → Cron / Scheduler + Excel/PDF/Email
ow tu data ko analyze → visualize → automate → report → deploy kar
N
sakta hai.
📖 Chapter 21: GUI Programming in Python – From Zero to Full-Stack
GUI Legend
208
21.0 Introduction – Why GUI?
hai, ab tak hum Python me console-based programs aur web projects kar rahe hain.
B
Lekin real-world applications me, agar user-friendly interface chahiye, to GUI must
hai.
● GUI = Graphical User Interface
● Buttons, Labels, Input fields, Tables, Charts, Menus
● Python me popular GUI libraries:
○ Tkinter → Built-in, simple
○ PyQt / PySide → Professional, advanced
○ Kivy → Mobile + Touch apps
○ wxPython → Cross-platform
Goal: Tu GUI me bhi full-stack level ban jaaye.
21.1 Tkinter – The Beginner-Friendly GUI
21.1.1 Installation
Tkinter comes pre-installed with Python. Check:
import tkinter
print([Link])
21.1.2 Basic Window
209
import tkinter as tk
root = [Link]()
# Create main window
[Link]("My First GUI App")
[Link]("400x300")
# Width x Height
abel = [Link](root, text="Hello, Python GUI World!", font=("Arial",
l
16))
[Link](pady=20)
# Add label to window
[Link]()
# Run the GUI
Explanation:
Tk()→ Main application window
●
Label→ Display text
●
pack()→ Layout manager
●
mainloop()→ Keeps GUI running
●
21.1.3 Buttons and Actions
def on_click():
[Link](text="Button Clicked!")
210
button = [Link](root, text="Click Me", command=on_click)
[Link](pady=10)
command→ Connect function to button
●
config()→ Update widget properties dynamically
●
21.1.4 Entry (Input Field)
entry = [Link](root)
[Link](pady=10)
def show_entry():
text = [Link]()
[Link](text=f"You typed: {text}")
entry_button = [Link](root, text="Submit", command=show_entry)
entry_button.pack(pady=5)
[Link]()→ Get user input
●
21.1.5 Frames and Layouts
frame = [Link](root, bg="lightblue", width=300, height=100)
211
[Link](pady=20)
frame.pack_propagate(False)
# Prevent auto-resize
inner_label = [Link](frame, text="Inside Frame")
inner_label.pack()
Frame→ Container for grouping widgets
●
● Useful for clean layout
21.1.6 Checkbuttons & Radiobuttons
var1 = [Link]()
check = [Link](root, text="Subscribe", variable=var1)
[Link]()
var2 = [Link]()
adio1 = [Link](root, text="Male", value="Male",
r
variable=var2)
adio2 = [Link](root, text="Female", value="Female",
r
variable=var2)
[Link]()
[Link]()
IntVar/
● StringVar→ Store widget state
212
● Checkbox → Multiple selection
● Radio → Single selection
21.1.7 Menus
menu_bar = [Link](root)
[Link](menu=menu_bar)
file_menu = [Link](menu_bar, tearoff=0)
file_menu.add_command(label="Open")
file_menu.add_command(label="Save")
file_menu.add_separator()
file_menu.add_command(label="Exit", command=[Link])
menu_bar.add_cascade(label="File", menu=file_menu)
Menu→ Add drop-down menus
●
21.1.8 Message Boxes
from tkinter import messagebox
def show_msg():
213
[Link]("Hello", "This is a message box!")
msg_button = [Link](root, text="Show Message", command=show_msg)
msg_button.pack(pady=10)
messagebox→ Alerts, info, errors
●
21.2 Tkinter Advanced Widgets
1. Listbox – Show list of items, select multiple
2. Scrollbar – Add scroll to Listbox/Text
3. Text – Multi-line editable text
4. Canvas – Draw shapes, images
5. Treeview – Table-like data display
Example: Treeview Table
from tkinter import ttk
ree = [Link](root, columns=("ID", "Name", "Age"),
t
show="headings")
[Link]("ID", text="ID")
[Link]("Name", text="Name")
[Link]("Age", text="Age")
214
[Link](pady=20)
[Link]("", "end", values=(1, "Alice", 23))
[Link]("", "end", values=(2, "Bob", 30))
21.3 PyQt / PySide – Professional GUI
● Installation:
pip install pyqt5
● Example:
from [Link] import QApplication, QLabel, QWidget
app = QApplication([])
window = QWidget()
[Link]("PyQt App")
[Link](100,100,300,200)
label = QLabel("Hello PyQt", parent=window)
[Link](50,50)
[Link]()
app.exec_()
215
● Pros: Modern, flexible, highly customizable
● Good for desktop apps like Spotify, Dropbox
21.4 Kivy – Mobile GUI
● Installation:
pip install kivy
● Example:
from [Link] import App
from [Link] import Button
class MyApp(App):
def build(self):
return Button(text="Hello Kivy")
MyApp().run()
● Kivy → Touch-friendly mobile apps
216
21.5 Projects – GUI Ultra Mega
1. Calculator App (Basic + Scientific)
2. To-Do List Manager (File-based)
3. Inventory Management System (Tkinter + SQLite)
4. Student Database GUI (CRUD operations)
5. Dashboard with Charts (Tkinter + Matplotlib/Plotly)
6. Desktop Weather App (API + Tkinter/PyQt)
21.6 Exercises – Tkinter Ultra Pro Max
1. Build a login window with username + password fields
2. Create a BMI calculator GUI
3. Make a list manager app with Add/Delete items
4. Build a table of students with Treeview, search functionality
5. Connect GUI to database → Insert, Update, Delete data
21.7 Summary – GUI God Mode
● GUI = Real user interaction
● Tkinter = Simple, fast
● PyQt / PySide = Professional desktop apps
217
● Kivy = Mobile apps
● Combine Backend + GUI + Database + API → Full-stack desktop applications
● Exercises → Build real apps to ingrain GUI concepts in bloodstream
roject 1: Student Management System
P
(Desktop + Database GUI)
Features
● Add / Update / Delete student info
● Search students by name / ID
● Display in table (Treeview)
● Store data in SQLite database
● GUI using Tkinter
Folder Structure
student_management/
├─ [Link]
├─ [Link]
└─ [Link]
218
[Link]
import sqlite3
def create_db():
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("""
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS students(
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
name TEXT,
age INTEGER,
grade TEXT
)
""")
[Link]()
[Link]()
def add_student(name, age, grade):
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("INSERT INTO students(name, age, grade) VALUES (?,
c
?, ?)", (name, age, grade))
[Link]()
219
[Link]()
def fetch_students():
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("SELECT * FROM students")
data = [Link]()
[Link]()
return data
def delete_student(student_id):
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("DELETE FROM students WHERE id=?", (student_id,))
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link] (GUI)
import tkinter as tk
from tkinter import ttk, messagebox
rom database import create_db, add_student, fetch_students,
f
delete_student
220
create_db()
def add_student_gui():
name = name_entry.get()
age = age_entry.get()
grade = grade_entry.get()
if name and age and grade:
add_student(name, age, grade)
[Link]("Success", "Student Added!")
refresh_table()
else:
[Link]("Error", "Fill all fields!")
def refresh_table():
for row in tree.get_children():
[Link](row)
for student in fetch_students():
[Link]("", "end", values=student)
def delete_student_gui():
selected = [Link]()
if selected:
221
student_id = [Link](selected[0])['values'][0]
delete_student(student_id)
refresh_table()
[Link]("Deleted", "Student deleted
m
successfully!")
else:
[Link]("Error", "Select a student")
root = [Link]()
[Link]("Student Management System")
[Link]("600x500")
# Input Fields
[Link](root, text="Name").pack()
name_entry = [Link](root)
name_entry.pack()
[Link](root, text="Age").pack()
age_entry = [Link](root)
age_entry.pack()
[Link](root, text="Grade").pack()
grade_entry = [Link](root)
222
grade_entry.pack()
[Link](root, text="Add Student",
t
command=add_student_gui).pack(pady=10)
[Link](root, text="Delete Selected",
t
command=delete_student_gui).pack(pady=5)
# Table
ree = [Link](root, columns=("ID", "Name", "Age", "Grade"),
t
show="headings")
[Link]("ID", text="ID")
[Link]("Name", text="Name")
[Link]("Age", text="Age")
[Link]("Grade", text="Grade")
[Link](expand=True, fill="both")
refresh_table()
[Link]()
✅
Concepts used: Variables, functions, loops, OOP optional, file/db handling, GUI
widgets, Treeview tables, message boxes.
Project 2: Weather App + API + GUI
Features
223
● Fetch live weather from OpenWeatherMap API
● Input: city name
● Output: temperature, humidity, condition
● GUI using Tkinter
● JSON handling, API requests
Code: weather_app.py
import requests
import tkinter as tk
from tkinter import messagebox
API_KEY = "YOUR_API_KEY"
def get_weather():
city = city_entry.get()
if not city:
[Link]("Error", "Enter city name")
return
rl =
u
f"[Link]
EY}&units=metric"
response = [Link](url)
224
if response.status_code == 200:
data = [Link]()
temp = data["main"]["temp"]
humidity = data["main"]["humidity"]
condition = data["weather"][0]["description"]
esult_label.config(text=f"Temp: {temp}°C\nHumidity:
r
{humidity}%\nCondition: {condition}")
else:
[Link]("Error", "City not found")
root = [Link]()
[Link]("Weather App")
[Link]("400x300")
[Link](root, text="Enter City").pack(pady=10)
city_entry = [Link](root)
city_entry.pack()
[Link](root, text="Get Weather", command=get_weather).pack(pady=10)
result_label = [Link](root, text="", font=("Arial", 14))
result_label.pack(pady=20)
225
[Link]()
✅ Concepts used: API requests, JSON parsing, GUI, error handling, functions.
roject 3: E-Commerce Product
P
Dashboard (GUI + Database + CRUD)
Features
● Manage product inventory
● Add, update, delete products
● Show in GUI table
● SQLite database integration
database_ecommerce.py
import sqlite3
def create_db():
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("""
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS products(
226
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
name TEXT,
price REAL,
quantity INTEGER
)
""")
[Link]()
[Link]()
def add_product(name, price, quantity):
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("INSERT INTO products(name, price, quantity) VALUES
(?, ?, ?)", (name, price, quantity))
[Link]()
[Link]()
def fetch_products():
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("SELECT * FROM products")
data = [Link]()
[Link]()
227
return data
def delete_product(product_id):
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("DELETE FROM products WHERE id=?", (product_id,))
[Link]()
[Link]()
main_ecommerce.py (GUI)
import tkinter as tk
from tkinter import ttk, messagebox
rom database_ecommerce import create_db, add_product, fetch_products,
f
delete_product
create_db()
def add_product_gui():
name = name_entry.get()
price = price_entry.get()
qty = qty_entry.get()
if name and price and qty:
228
add_product(name, float(price), int(qty))
[Link]("Added", "Product added!")
refresh_table()
else:
[Link]("Error", "Fill all fields!")
def delete_product_gui():
selected = [Link]()
if selected:
product_id = [Link](selected[0])['values'][0]
delete_product(product_id)
refresh_table()
[Link]("Deleted", "Product deleted!")
else:
[Link]("Error", "Select a product")
def refresh_table():
for row in tree.get_children():
[Link](row)
for product in fetch_products():
[Link]("", "end", values=product)
root = [Link]()
229
[Link]("E-Commerce Product Dashboard")
[Link]("600x500")
# Input Fields
[Link](root, text="Name").pack()
name_entry = [Link](root)
name_entry.pack()
[Link](root, text="Price").pack()
price_entry = [Link](root)
price_entry.pack()
[Link](root, text="Quantity").pack()
qty_entry = [Link](root)
qty_entry.pack()
[Link](root, text="Add Product",
t
command=add_product_gui).pack(pady=10)
[Link](root, text="Delete Selected",
t
command=delete_product_gui).pack(pady=5)
# Table
ree = [Link](root, columns=("ID", "Name", "Price", "Quantity"),
t
show="headings")
[Link]("ID", text="ID")
[Link]("Name", text="Name")
230
[Link]("Price", text="Price")
[Link]("Quantity", text="Quantity")
[Link](expand=True, fill="both")
refresh_table()
[Link]()
✅ Concepts used: Loops, functions, GUI, database, CRUD operations, data validation.
Project 4: Netflix Clone Desktop App
Features
1. User Authentication (Sign Up / Login)
2. Browse Movies / Shows
3. Movie Search by Name / Genre
4. Watch trailers (media playback)
5. Favorites / Watchlist
6. Store user & movie data in SQLite
7. GUI using Tkinter
8. API integration (The Movie Database API - TMDB)
9. Optional: Download poster images
231
Folder Structure
netflix_clone/
├─ [Link]
├─ [Link]
├─ [Link]
├─ media_player.py
├─ images/
└─ [Link]
[Link]
import sqlite3
def create_db():
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("""
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users(
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
username TEXT UNIQUE,
password TEXT
)
232
""")
[Link]("""
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS favorites(
user_id INTEGER,
movie_id INTEGER,
movie_name TEXT,
PRIMARY KEY(user_id, movie_id)
)
""")
[Link]()
[Link]()
def add_user(username, password):
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("INSERT INTO users(username, password) VALUES (?,
c
?)", (username, password))
[Link]()
[Link]()
def verify_user(username, password):
233
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("SELECT * FROM users WHERE username=? AND
c
password=?", (username, password))
result = [Link]()
[Link]()
return result
def add_favorite(user_id, movie_id, movie_name):
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("INSERT OR IGNORE INTO favorites(user_id, movie_id,
c
movie_name) VALUES (?, ?, ?)",
(user_id, movie_id, movie_name))
[Link]()
[Link]()
def fetch_favorites(user_id):
conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cursor = [Link]()
[Link]("SELECT movie_name FROM favorites WHERE user_id=?",
c
(user_id,))
data = [Link]()
[Link]()
234
return data
[Link]
import requests
API_KEY = "YOUR_TMDB_API_KEY"
def search_movie(query):
rl =
u
f"[Link]
uery}"
response = [Link](url)
if response.status_code == 200:
return [Link]()["results"]
return []
def fetch_movie_details(movie_id):
rl =
u
f"[Link]
response = [Link](url)
if response.status_code == 200:
return [Link]()
return {}
235
media_player.py
import webbrowser
def play_trailer(trailer_url):
[Link](trailer_url)
hai, yaha hum simple web browser me trailer open kar rahe hain. Agar
B
chaahe, mai fully embedded Tkinter media player ka code bhi de sakta
hoon.
[Link] (GUI + Integration)
import tkinter as tk
from tkinter import ttk, messagebox
rom database import create_db, add_user, verify_user, add_favorite,
f
fetch_favorites
from api import search_movie, fetch_movie_details
from media_player import play_trailer
create_db()
current_user_id = None
236
def signup():
username = username_entry.get()
password = password_entry.get()
if username and password:
try:
add_user(username, password)
[Link]("Success", "Account created! Login
now.")
except:
[Link]("Error", "Username already exists.")
else:
[Link]("Error", "Fill all fields")
def login():
global current_user_id
username = username_entry.get()
password = password_entry.get()
user = verify_user(username, password)
if user:
[Link]("Success", f"Welcome {username}!")
current_user_id = user[0]
show_main_screen()
else:
237
[Link]("Error", "Invalid credentials")
def search():
query = search_entry.get()
movies = search_movie(query)
for row in movie_tree.get_children():
movie_tree.delete(row)
for m in movies:
ovie_tree.insert("", "end", values=(m["id"], m["title"],
m
m["release_date"]))
def add_to_favorites():
selected = movie_tree.selection()
if selected:
movie_id, name, _ = movie_tree.item(selected[0])['values']
add_favorite(current_user_id, movie_id, name)
[Link]("Added", f"{name} added to favorites!")
def show_main_screen():
login_frame.pack_forget()
main_frame.pack(expand=True, fill="both")
# --- GUI Setup ---
238
root = [Link]()
[Link]("Netflix Clone")
[Link]("800x600")
login_frame = [Link](root)
login_frame.pack(expand=True, fill="both")
[Link](login_frame, text="Username").pack(pady=5)
username_entry = [Link](login_frame)
username_entry.pack(pady=5)
[Link](login_frame, text="Password").pack(pady=5)
password_entry = [Link](login_frame, show="*")
password_entry.pack(pady=5)
[Link](login_frame, text="Login", command=login).pack(pady=5)
[Link](login_frame, text="Sign Up", command=signup).pack(pady=5)
main_frame = [Link](root)
[Link](main_frame, text="Search Movie").pack(pady=5)
search_entry = [Link](main_frame)
search_entry.pack(pady=5)
239
[Link](main_frame, text="Search", command=search).pack(pady=5)
columns = ("ID", "Title", "Release")
ovie_tree = [Link](main_frame, columns=columns,
m
show="headings")
for col in columns:
movie_tree.heading(col, text=col)
movie_tree.pack(expand=True, fill="both")
[Link](main_frame, text="Add to Favorites",
t
command=add_to_favorites).pack(pady=5)
[Link]()
✅ Concepts Covered in Project 4
1. User Authentication (Sign up / Login)
2. GUI design with Tkinter
3. Database CRUD operations (SQLite)
4. API requests & JSON parsing
5. Media handling (trailer playback)
6. OOP optional expansion
7. Loops, conditionals, functions, exception handling
240
8. Long, real-world desktop application
THE END
THANK YOU FOR READING
“ Now if you go to the doctor and get
your platelets checked, you will find the
count of the pyhton code and not the
platelet count.”
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