TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS 2
COURSE OUTLINE 3

INTRODUCTION 4

Module 1: Power, Energy & Energy Sector 5

Section 1.1 Power . . . . . . 5
Section 1.2 Energy . . . . . . 10
Section 1.3 Energy Sector . . . . . 12
Self-Assessment 1 15

Module 2: Variable Loads 16

Section 2.1 Variable Load and Load Curves . . . 16
Section 2.2 Terms and Factors . . . . . 19
Self-Assessment 2A . . . . . . 24
Section 2.3 Selection of Units . . . . . 25
Self-Assessment 2B . . . . . . 27

Module 3: Types of Power Plants 28

Section 3.1 Sources of Energy Used by Power Plants . . 28
Section 3.2 Different Classifications of Power Plants . . 32
Section 3.3 Types of Power Plants (According to Energy Source) 38

Project – Group Activity (Research and Design) 52

Module 4: Power Plant Operation 53

Section 4.1 Power Plant Operation Computations . . 53
Self-Assessment 4 . . . . . . 57

Module 5: Power Plant Economics 58

Section 5.1 Power Generation Economics . . . 58
Self-Assessment 5 . . . . . . 63

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COURSE OUTLINE
Course Title: Power Plant Engineering
Course Code: ELEN 3563
Course Credits: 3 units
Course Description:
This course aims to provide students extensive knowledge on the operation, design, and
calculations for power stations (Electrical Engineering side). Equip students with in-depth
understanding on the whole energy sector, and its current field developments. Develop critical
thinking and boost student’s enthusiasm in research.
Course Objectives:
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:
1. The students must be able to explain the different energy sources.
2. The students must be able to discuss importance, advantages, and disadvantages of
each type of power stations.
3. The students must be able to apply their knowledge in field applications in the future.
4. The students must be able to apply learned concepts on renewable energy
researches and further studies.
Contents:

Module No. Module Description Target Completion

1 Power, Energy, & Energy Sector Week 1 – 2
2 Variable Loads Week 3 – 5
3 Types of Power Plants Week 6 – 10
4 Power Plant Operation Week 11 – 14
5 Power Plant Economics Week 15 – 18

**Target Completion assumption includes self-assessment exercises, project, and long quizzes,
found after each module, as well as, Final Exam. (See Table of Contents for Reference)
First Semester Duration:
October 5, 2020 – February 19, 2021 18 weeks (excluding Christmas Vacation)
Methodology:
Self-paced Offline Learning (**Possibility of Virtual Meeting/s for Consultations or Further
Discussions as per students’ request/availability)

Grading System:
Major Exams 30%
Class Participation 70% (**includes self-assessment exercises and projects)

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 Introduction

Energy is one of the necessities for daily living. Also, one of the major contributors to economic
development of a country. The availability of huge amount of energy in the modern times has
resulted in an efficient work environment, higher agricultural and industrial production, healthier
living, easier access to medical needs, and better means of transportation.
Energy exists in different forms of nature. Electrical Energy is considered as the most important
form of energy.
Electricity is produced by power plants in bulk quantities. A power plant is assembly of systems
or subsystems to generate electricity which must be useful economically and environmental
friendly to the society.
Electricity is the only form of energy, which is easier to produce, easy to transport, easy to use
and easy to control. It is the terminal form of energy for transmission and distribution. Commonly
it is accepted, that the standard of living increases with the increasing energy consumption per
capita.
It is well known nowadays, the crisis in energy that the world is facing. The pollution manifesting
itself in the spiraling cost of energy wherein there is an increasing curve of pollution elements.
The main factor is the depletion of conventional energy resources.
To meet these challenges, planners are checking growing energy demand and find mitigations
such as developing nonpolluting energy conversion system. Thus, the adaptation of renewable
energy sources as means of producing energy, grows exponentially.

Historical Development
Many centuries ago, water power is being utilized in China, Egypt and Assyria.

YEAR REMARKS

1769 Steam engine was invented by Watt

1822 First installation of water wheels ~ Capacity: 10000HP

1831 Foundation of Electric Generator and Motor

Michael Faraday’s principle of electromagnetic induction was introduced

1885 Transformer was invented; the first alternating current System then
induction motor was invented by Nikola Tesla

1886 Alternating Current transmission was discovered

1903 Steam power was obtained from steam engines

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 MODULE 1: POWER, ENERGY & ENERGY SECTOR
Section 1.1 POWER

WHAT IS POWER?

It is the rate of flow of energy.

WHAT IS POWER PLANT?

It is the unit built for the production and delivery of flow of mechanical and electrical
energy.
It is a station or establishment which houses the prime-movers, electric generators, and
auxiliaries, for conversion of mechanical, chemical and/or nuclear energy into electrical energy.
WHAT IS POWER PLANT ENGINEERING?

It is the art of designing and installing generating plant that will result in maximum return
of investment (profit) over the expected life of the equipment. Moreover, operating this
equipment to achieve reliable, continuous and cheap power service.
FUNCTION OF POWER PLANT

Deliver power on the station busbars at the lowest possible cost per kilowatt-hour and
still maintain a high grade of service without interruptions.
It is in the analysis of the elements that contributes to the cost per kilowatt-hour to have
the most profitable trend for future power-station development.
Total Cost Factors:
• Operating Labor and superintendence
• Maintenance
• Fuel Cost
• Fixed Charges
In a conventional steam power plant, the highest cost factor are the fixed charges and fuel
costs. Through the decades, the adoption of more efficient methods decrease the fuel costs of
the power plant.
WHAT IS POWER PLANT ENGINEERING AND DESIGN?
It is the art of selecting and placing the necessary power-generating equipment so that a
maximum of return will result from a minimum of expenditure over the working life of the plant
and the operation of the completed plant in a manner to provide cheap, reliable and continuous
service.

5
Categories of professional engineers
1. Designing engineers
2. Construction engineers
3. Operating engineers
There are several ways on how to design and operate a power plant. One, it is being designed
by a firm of consulting engineers, constructed by contractor(s) and operated by a public or
private utility company. The other one, a utility company design it with its own engineering
offices, supervise the construction and the work of various separate contractors, and, operate
the station.
Others, the design, and construction by a firm of engineering contractors who finally turn over a
working plan to a public service company; and, design and operation by company engineers
with erection by a construction contractor.
In designing, a visit to the power station or site of construction is important for complete and
comprehensive initial planning. Adequate portrayal by drawings, schedules and reports, or
letters of the designer’s conceptions will ensure that the design is equally intelligible to all others
whose labors are essential to the building and operation of the plant.
Design drawings must always be preceded by considerable amount of engineering. Preliminary
estimates are made, and bids prepared. Most power plant construction is contracted for through
the processes of competitive bidding.
It is important to establish a workable procedure for handling the routine features of the design
job, construction phase, up to the operations.

Design Drawings and Specifications Principles of Power Plant

A design or plan for the construction of a power plant is set forth in his drawings and
specifications.
Specifications are a written set of rules, regulations, explanations, standards of quality, etc.,
which accompany a set of drawings.
A combination of drawings and written specification is more compact. The drawings and
specification should be adequately cross-referenced so that the reader will be able to integrate
the information they contain with minimum effort.
In general, specifications carry the following type of information and directions:
1. General information on what the contractor can expect at the site and the conditions of
his use of the premises.
2. Basis of legal relations between contractor and purchaser. Conditions of payment
insurance, guarantees, arbitration, etc.
3. General description of the planned project, expected mode of operation, sequence of
construction, etc.
4. Standard of workmanship expected and method of insuring that it is furnished
5. Qualities of materials, performance of components, etc.
6. Schedules of equipment in multiple which would overload the drawing if attempted to be
placed there.
7. Conditions of acceptance tests.

6
The major items of equipment in a power station are generally purchased through competitive
bidding. Equipment specification should set forth, as briefly and concisely as the individual case
permits, the requirements of the purchaser and information which he desires the manufacturer
to submit in his bid.
The specification should be clear on:
➢ Matters of capacity
➢ Performance
➢ Over-all dimensions
➢ Quality

Note that, it should not unduly restrict freedom of design on the part of the manufacturer unless
added cost resulting from special design an be accepted.
Power Plant Design Drawings Uses (upon completion)
1. Purchases of material are made on the basis of the items indicated on the drawings
2. Drawings furnish the erector with the information he needs to build the plant in
accordance with designer’s ideas
3. Certain of the drawings will be used as a source of information for the guidance of
operating staff.
Layout drawings generally consist of one or more plans and a number of elevations.
The drawings for a steam power plant design are generally classified as follows:
Mechanical Designs Building Service
Machine Layout Plumbing
Steam piping Heating
Water piping Ventilating
Boiler Settings Steel
Coal and ash handling Floor plans
Draft Stairs
Turbogenerator Trusses
Condenser and Auxiliaries Cranes
Water Conduits Concrete
Cranes and Hoists Floor plans
Electrical Designs Wall Elevations
Conduit Substation Foundations
Equipment Details Details

Wiring Control Boards

Lighting

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Tendencies in the design of steam generating stations classified with four heads
1. Tendencies that improve the reliability of the power station. Increases its cost, but
do not appreciably affect the operating efficiency.
• The use of house turbines, auxiliary generators, and storage batteries for ensuring the
auxiliary power supply.
• Isolated-phase layout and the use of reactors and other protective devices in the switch
house.
• The duplication of auxiliaries and provision of excessive amounts of space capacity in
boilers and turbines.

2. Tendencies that decrease the coal consumption per kilowatt-hour and increase the
cost of the power station
• The use of higher steam pressures (900 psi or higher) taken together with steam
reheating durings its expansion.
• The use of pulverized-fuel-burning equipment.
• The use of adjustable speed motors for driving auxiliaries where saving in power
consumption at light loads is the consideration
• The use of air heaters or economizers
• The use of an excessively large amount of surface in the surface condensers for the
main turbines.
3. Tendencies that decrease the coal consumption per kilowatt-hour and also result in
a reduction in the cost of the power station and perhaps in the cost of operating labor
• The use of electrically driven auxiliaries.
• The use of moderately high steam pressures without reheating.
• The use of highest steam temperatures that are possible with existing materials.
• The use of large turbines and large boilers.
• The use of large mills for pulverizing coal.
4. Tendencies that add to the cost of the station without either improving its reliability
or appreciably decreasing its coal consumption.
• Insufficient care given to grouping of equipment and waste space in power-station
building.
• Too may architectural frills.

Mercury-vapor steam cycle power plants

Three major possibilities ahead:
1. The further development of commercial equipment for use in the application of
mercury-vapor steam cycle.
2. The development of superheaters, high-pressure stea piping, valves and turbines for
operation in connection with steam temperatures of 900 oF or higher.
3. The use of hydrogen or some equally suitable gas as the cooling medium in
connection with closed ventilating systems for turbogenerators and the development of
new generator designs that will take advantage of all the possibilities of this new cooling
medium.

8
Hydroelectic Power Plant

Five factors that will limit the size of units.

1. Shipping facilities
2. Material size limits
3. Economical generator speeds
4. Manufacturing limits
5. Strength and life of parts
The Fixed charges are the most important item in the final cost of energy.
The main objective is to lower the cost per unit of installed capacity (water-wheel units) instead
of higher efficiency.

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Section 1.2 ENERGY

WHAT IS ENERGY?
Associated with physical substance but not a substance itself
Units of Energy

1 KWH = 3600 KJ = 3413 BTU = 860 KCAL

1 HP-hr = 2545 BTU
1 QUAD = 1015 BTU

Classifications of manifestations:
➢ MECHANICAL WORK
➢ HEAT
➢ ELECTRICITY
➢ RADIATION
WHAT IS ENERGY EFFICIENCY
FRACTION OF THE ENERGY SUPPLIED TO A UNIT OR A SYSTEM WHICH IS
FINALLY USEFULLY CONVERTED TO THE PURPOSE FOR WHICH THE PROJECT
WAS CONCEIVED.
IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electrical Energy is superior to all other forms of energy due to the following reasons:
1. Convenient Form - can be easily converted into other forms of energy (heat, light)
2. Easy Control - electrically operated machines have simple and convenient
starting, control and operation
3. Greater Flexibility - easily be transported from one place to another thru
conductors
4. Cheapness - cheaper, overall economical use (for domestic, commercial,
industrial)
5. Cleanliness - not associated with smoke, fumes or poisonous gas
6. High Transmission Efficiency - transmitted in high powers, thus, high in efficiency

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GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
The conversion of energy available in different forms in nature into electrical energy.
Electrical energy is produced from the forms of energy available in the nature.
However, it differs in one important aspect. Unlike other commodities that were produced at will
and consumed as needed, electrical energy must be produced and transmitted to the point
of use at the instant it is needed. The entire process takes only a fraction of a second. This
instantaneous production of electrical energy introduces technical and economical
considerations unique to the electrical power industry.
SOURCES OF ENERGY
1. FOSSIL FUELS
Coal
Petroleum
Natural Gas
2. RENEWABLE SOURCES
Solar & Wind
Hydroelectric
Biomass & Geothermal sources
3. NUCLEAR POWERED SOURCES
Fission
Fusion

Table 1.2 Economics per Source of Energy

Economics per Source of Energy
Fuel Difficult to Shift to Cheaper Fuel
Flowing Streams of Water Effort to Harness Water Power
Hard to Justify Its Development
Ocean Tides and Waves Difficult to Harness and Control Energy
Enormous Amount of Energy
Wind Expensive Installation
Variability of Operation
Solar Rays Night Time
Terrestrial Heat Far from the Center of Civilization
Atomic Nuclei Enormous Amount of Energy
Hazardous (Radiations)

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Section 1.3 ENERGY SECTOR

ENERGY SECTOR

Figure 1.3.1 Conventional Energy Sector

Conventional power system is vertically integrated.
Generation sector produces electricity by converting mechanical energy to electrical energy
(using different sources of energy) in bulk. Generation Sector is not regulated.
Transmission are overhead or underground lines that transport electrical energy from
generating plants to load points (substation). Transmission Sector is regulated by a government
entity.
Distribution sector delivers energy from the transmission system to the end users within the
franchise area. Distribution Sector is regulated by a government entity.
Supply sector is the group of consumers.
However, due to the rise of technology and aim to produce electricity at least costs, laws on
adapting renewables and flexible grids are present in the today’s power system. For example, a
consumer can select his own power distributor or electricity supplier or buy electricity directly
from the generating stations.

Figure 1.3.2 Basic Structure of the Electric System

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PHILIPPINES AND ENERGY
Philippines Installed Power Capacities
Department of Energy Statistics

Figure 1.3.3 Installed Power Capacities per Fuel Type

Philippines’ major electricity resource rely on coal.
Generation Energy Mix Analysis (from DOE)

Figure 1.3.4 Philippine Power Generation Mix 2011

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 Figure 1.3.5 Philippines Power Generation Mix 2015
There is a notable increase in coal consumption and renewables. Philippines is one of the Asian
countries actively adapting to the use of renewable energy sources on the present decade,
especially on solar. With the government’s initiative of creating laws and programs on using
renewable resources, other groups and utilities also join campaigns on promoting the use of
non-depleting resources.

Figure 1.3.6 Generation Mix Analysis of the Philippines

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SELF-ASSESSMENT 1
1. What do you think is the importance of including Power Plant Engineering in your course
subjects?
2. What are the considerations in designing a Power Plant?
3. Why is electrical energy preferred over other forms of energy?
4. Discuss the different sources of energy available.
5. What do efficiency of a system mean?
6. What are the problems in the use of nuclear energy?
7. Discuss the role of renewable energy in modern power system.
8. Discuss how electricity is related to the Gross Nation Product of the Country.

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 MODULE 2: VARIABLE LOADS
Section 2.1 VARIABLE LOADS AND LOAD CURVES

Variable Load on the Station

Load on a power station that varies from time to time due to uncertain demands of the
consumers
Effects of Variable Load
❑ Need of additional equipment
Supply varies with demand (Demand of power plant increases; to increase the
supply production of energy, the need for the supply of raw materials and equipment
increases)
❑ Increase in production cost
The use of several generating units increases the initial cost (maintenance costs) per
KW of the plant capacity as well as floor area required.

Power Plant Planning

When planning a power plant, the two basic parameters to be decided are:
1. Total power output to be installed (kW)
2. Size of the generating units
Determining factors of Power Plant Installed Capacity
1. First demand (maximum) estimated
2. Growth of demand anticipated
3. Reserve capacity required
Size of generating units will depend on:
1. Daily variation of load
2. Total capacity of units connected to the grid
3. Minimum start-up and shut-down periods of the units
4. Maintenance program planned
5. Plant efficiency vs. size of unit
6. Price and space demand per kW vs. size of unit

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LOAD CURVES
Curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time
▪ Daily load curve
Load curve showing the variations of load with respect to time during the day
▪ Monthly load curve
Load curve showing the variations, average values of power over a month at different times
of the day. This is used to fix rates of energy.
▪ Yearly load curve
Load curve considering monthly load curves of a particular year. It is used to determine the
annual load factor.

Figure 2.1.1 Daily Load Curve

Figure 2.1.2 Daily Load Curves per Customer Type

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IMPORTANCE OF DAILY LOAD CURVE
i. Shows the variations of load on the power station during different hours of the day.
ii. Its area gives the number of units generated in the day.
Units generated/day = (Area in kWh) under daily load curve
iii. Highest point represents the maximum demand on the station on that day.
iv. The area under the daily load curve divided the total number of hours gives the average
load on the station in the day.
(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ ) 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
Average load = 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

v. The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of rectangle in which it is
contained gives the load factor.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ) 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
Load Factor = =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤/𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
v. Helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
vi. Helps in preparing the operation schedule of the station
LOAD DURATION CURVE
When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes.

Figure 2.1.3 Load Duration Curves

i. It readily shows the number of hours during which the given load has prevailed.
ii. The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding load curve.
Area under daily load duration curve (kWh) will give the units generated on that day.
iii. It can be extended to include any period of time.
Annual Load Duration Curve, abscissa from 0 hour to 8760 hours,
the variation and distribution of demand for an entire year can be
summarized in one curve.

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Section 2.2 TERMS AND FACTORS

Terms and Factors

1) CONNECTED LOAD
Sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment connected to supply system.
2) MAXIMUM DEMAND
It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
3) DEMAND FACTOR
Ratio of maximum demand to its connected load
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
4) AVERAGE LOAD/AVERAGE DEMAND
Average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period
(day/month/year)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
5) LOAD FACTOR
Ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∗ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟(𝑎𝑣𝑒) 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
=
𝑘𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 8760
6) DIVERSITY FACTOR
Ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on
power station; measured time distribution of maximum demands for similar types of consumers
𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (Reciprocal)
𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

7) PLANT CAPACITY FACTOR/PLANT FACTOR/CAPACITY FACTOR

Ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could have
been produced during a given period
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟(𝑔𝑒𝑛) 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑘𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 ∗ 8760 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
8) PLANT USE FACTOR
Ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours
for which the plant was in operation

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 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 − 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒)
𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟(𝑔𝑒𝑛)
=
(𝑘𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 ∗ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)
9) PLANT CAPACITY/INSTALLED CAPACITY
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∗ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
10) RESERVE CAPACITY
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
11) NAMEPLATE OR CAPACITY RATING
Ability to carry load under condition specified by the manufacturer
12) CAPABILITY RATING
Maximum output of equipment obtained by test under specific operating condition
13) UTILIZATION FACTOR
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
14) PLANT RATIO
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
15) OPERATING FACTOR
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
16) OPERATING PLANT FACTOR
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
17) OPERATING LOAD FACTOR
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
30∗24
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑀𝐷1+𝑀𝐷2+ …+𝑀𝐷30
30

18) RESERVE FACTOR

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Note: Period = 8760 hours per annum (if the problem does not specify no. of service hours)
Service Hours = Period (if the problem does not specify no. of service hours)

20
UNITS GENERATED PER ANNUM (kWh)
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Load Factor =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Average load = Maximum Demand ∗ Load Factor
Units Generated per Annum = Average Load (kW) ∗ Hours in a year
Units Generated per Annum = Maximum Demand (kW) ∗ L. F. ∗ 8760
EXAMPLES:
1) A power station has a maximum demand of 150 MW. Given an annual load factor of
40%. Calculate the total energy produced in a year.
Solution:
Total Energy Produced = Maximum Demand * Load Factor * Service Hours
TEP = MD * LF * 8760
TEP = 150MW * 0.40 * 8760 = 525,600 MWhr
2) The maximum demand of a generation plant is 33 MW and its connected load is 53 MW.
Find the demand factor
Solution:
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Demand Factor =
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

DF = MD / CL = 33 / 53 = 0.62
3) Given a load factor of 65%, plant capacity factor of 53% and plant use factor of 77%, find
the reserve capacity of the plant with maximum demand of 63MW. Find the daily energy
produced, maximum energy that can be produced daily if plant running at its schedule in
fully loaded scheme.
Solution:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Load Factor =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

LF = AL / MD , find Average load: AL = LF * MD = 0.65 * 63 = 40.95MW

Daily Energy Produced = Average Load * 24 Hours = 40.95 * 24 = 982.8MWhr
Maximum Energy Produced daily (Plant running at its schedule in fully loaded
scheme, meaning, non-stop operation)
Maximum Energy Produced = Actual Energy Produced in a Day / Plant Use Factor
= 982.8MWHr / 0.77
= 1,276.36 MWh / day

21
4) The maximum demand of a generating station is 21000 KVA. The annual load factor is
56% and plant capacity factor is 43%. What is its reserve capacity?
Solution:
Total Energy Produced = Maximum Demand * Load Factor * Service Hours
TEP = MD * LF * 8760
TEP = (21MVA * 0.85) * 0.56 * 8760 = 87,564.96 MWhr
**Maximum demand should be MW, the use of pf 0.85 is based on PGC/PDC
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
Plant Capacity =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟∗𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

= 87,564.96 MWhr / (0.43 * 8760) = 23.25 MW

Reserve Capacity = Plant Capacity – Maximum Demand
= 23.25 MW – (21 MVA * 0.85) = 5.4 MW
5) A diesel station supplies 1500kW to Industrial Cust., 750kW to Commercial Cust.,
100kW to Residential Houses and 450kW for Domestic light. If the maximum demand on
the station is 2500kW and the number of kWh generated per year is 4,500,000,
determine the diversity factor and annual load factor.
Solution:
𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Diversity Factor =
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

= (1500kW + 750kW + 100kW + 450kW)/2500kW = 1.12

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
Load Factor =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∗𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

= 4,500,000 kWh / (2500kW * 8760) = 0.2054

6) The power station has a maximum demand of 15,000kW. Annual load factor is 50% and
plant factor is 40%. Determine the reserve capacity and reserve factor of the plant.
Solution:
TEP = MD * LF * 8760 = 15MW * 0.5 * 8760 = 65,700MW
Plant Capacity = TEP / (Plant Capacity Factor * 8760) = 18.75MW
**Plant factor is the other term for Plant Capacity Factor
Reserve Capacity = Plant Capacity – Maximum Demand
= 18.75 MW – 15 MW = 3.75 MW

22
 7) A generating station has the following daily load cycle:

Time (Hrs) 0–6 6 – 10 10 – 12 12 – 16 16 – 20 20 – 24

Load (MW) 40 50 60 50 70 40

Draw the load curve and find the maximum demand, units generated per day, average
load, and load factor.
Solution:
Based on the table and the load curve, the Maximum Demand is 70MW.
Units generated/day = Area (in kWh) under the curve
= (40*6 + 50*4 + 60*2 + 50*4 + 70*4 + 40*4) MWhr = 1,200 MWhr
Average Load = Units generated per day/24 hours = 50MW
Load Factor = AL / MD = 50 / 70 = 0.714

8) The annual load duration curve of a certain power station can be considered as a
straight line from 20 MW to 4MW. To meet this load, three turbine-generator units, two
rated at 10MW each and one rated at 5MW are installed. Determine the installed
capacity, plant factor, units generated per annum, load factor and utilization factor.
Solution:
Installed Capacity = 2*10 MW + 5 MW = 25MW
Average Demand = ½ (base * height) **refer to load duration curve
= ½ (20 + 4) = 12MW
Plant Factor = Average Demand / Plant Capacity = 12/25 = 0.48
Units generated/annum = Area (in kWh) under load duration curve
= ½ (4 + 20) *8760 = 105,120 MWhr

23
 Load Factor = AL / MD = 12 / 20 = 0.6
Utilization Factor = MD / IC = 20 / 25 = 0.8

SELF-ASSESSMENT 2A
1. Why is the load on power station variable? What are the effects of variable load on the
power station operation?
2. What do you understand by load factor and capacity factor? When are they numerically
equal?
3. Define reserve factor. What is its usual value? How does it fix the maximum unit size?
4. What do you mean by diversity factor?
5. Why do you think load curves and load duration curves are drawn?
6. One generating station has a connected load of 50MW and a maximum demand of
25MW. The units generated being 7*106 MWhr. Calculate the demand factor and the
load factor.
7. 100 MW powers station delivers 100MW for 2 hours, 50MW for 8 hours and is shut down
for the rest of each day. It is also shut down for maintenance for 60 days each year.
Calculate its annual load factor.
8. A generating station supplies the following loads: 15MW, 12MW, 8.5MW, 6MW and
0.45MW. The station has a maximum demand of 22MW. The annual load factor of the
station is 48%. Calculate the number of units supplied annually, the diversity factor and
the demand factor.
9. A power station is said to have a use factor of 47% and capacity factor of 40%. For how
many hours in a year was the power station not in service?
10. A 300MW thermal power station is to supply power to a system having maximum and
minimum demand of 240MW and 180MW respectively in a year. Assuming the load
duration curve to be a straight line, estimate the load factor and the capacity factor.

24
Section 2.3 SELECTION OF GENERATING UNITS

Important Point for the Selection of Generating Units in a Power Station

 The number and sizes of the units should be so selected that they approximately fit the
annual load curve of the station.
 The units should be preferably of different capacities to meet the load requirements.
Although use of identical units ensures saving in cost, they often do not meet the load
requirement
 The capacity of the plant should be made 15% to 20% more than the maximum demand
to meet the future load requirements.
 There should be a spare generating unit so that repairs and overhauling of the working
units can be carried out.
 The tendency to select a large number of units of smaller capacity in order to fit the load
curve very accurately should be avoided. It is because the investment cost per KW of
capacity increases as the size of the units decreases.
TYPICAL CUSTOMER TYPES
▪ Commercial
▪ Industrial
▪ Residential

Base Load and Peak Load on Power Station

Load on the power station varies from time to time. However, using load curves, load on power
station can be considered in two parts, the base load and the peak load.

Figure 2.3.1 Load Curve showing Peak Load and Base Load
Base load is the unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day in the power station.
Peak load is the various peak demands of load over and above the base load.
To achieve overall economy, the best method is to interconnect the two different stations. The
more efficient is used to supply base load while the less efficient will be used to supply the peak
load.

25
INTERCONNECTED GRID SYSTEM
The connection of several generating stations in parallel.
Advantages:
1. Exchange of peak loads
2. Use of older plants
3. Ensures economical operation
4. Increases diversity factor
5. Reduces plant reserve capacity
6. Increases reliability of supply

PROBLEMS:
1) The table shows a proposed station with ff. daily load cycle:

TIME (hrs) 6 to 8 8 to 11 11 to 16 16 to 19 19 to 22 22 to 24 24 to 6

Load (MW) 20 40 50 35 70 40 20

Draw the load curve & choose for a suitable generator units (10,000, 20,000, 25,000, or 30,000
kva). Make operation schedule for the machines selected. determine the load factor. (use pf:
80%)
Units generated/day = Area (in kWh) under the load curve
= (20*8 + 40*3 + 50*5 + 35*3 + 70*3 + 40*2)
= 925MWhr
Average Load = 925 MWhr / 24 hours =38.54 MW
Load Factor = 38.54 / 70 = 0.55

Assuming 0.85 pf, available units are:

10MVA * 0.85 = 8.5MW 25MVA * 0.85 = 21.25MW
20MVA * 0.85 = 17MW 30MVA * 0.85 = 25.5MW
Selecting the size and number of units, consider, first, one set of highest capacity as standby
unit, second, units should meet the maximum demand, and third, there should be overall
economy (safe maximization of units at least cost).
Therefore, select 4 sets of 30MVA, three sets to meet MD while one set will be the reserve unit.
Operational Schedule:
Set No. 1 will run for 24 hours; Set No. 2 will run from 8 hours to midnight
Set No. 3 will run from 11 hours to 16 hours and 19 hours to 22 hours.

26
2) A station is to supply 4 regions of load - peak loads are 10, 5, 8 & 7 MW. diversity factor at
the station is 1.5. average annual load factor of 60%. calculate annual energy supplied by the
station, maximum demand on the station & suggest installed capacity and number of units.
Solution:
Maximum demand = sum of max. demands / diversity factor = 20 MW
Units generated/annum = Max. demand * LF * 8760 = 105,120 MWhr
IC should be 15% to 20% more than the MD to meet future growth of load, use 20%,
Installed Capacity = 1.2 * MD = 1.2 * 20MW = 24MW
Suggested number of units are 4, 6MW capacity.

SELF-ASSESSMENT 2B
1. A certain feeder supplies three distribution transformers, each one supplying a group of
customers whose connected loads are as under:
Transformer Load Demand Factor Diversity
Transformer 1 10 kW 0.65 1.5
Transformer 2 12 kW 0.6 3.5
Transformer 3 15 kW 0.7 1.5
If the diversity factor among the transformers is 1.3, find the maximum load on the
feeder.
2. A power station has to meet the following demand:
Group A: 200kW between 8am to 6pm
Group B: 100kW between 6am to 10am
Group C: 50kW between 6am to 10am
Group D: 100kW between 10am and 6pm, and then, 6pm to 6am
Plot the daily load curve and determine diversity factor, units generated per day and load
factor.

27
 MODULE 3: TYPES OF POWER PLANTS
Section 3.1 SOURCES OF ENERGY USED BY POWER PLANTS

FOSSIL FUELS RENEWABLE SOURCES NUCLEAR POWERED

Coal Solar Fission
Petroleum Wind Fusion
Natural Gas Hydro
Biomass
Geothermal
Fossil fuels
Burning coal, natural gas, and petroleum releases energy stored in the fuel as heat.
(Energy contained by the fuels is from the sun)
Heat that is recovered upon combustion of the fuel
For industrial industries, they use very pure coal called “coke” for extremely high
temperatures (primarily steel industries)
Combustion of fossil fuels:
Fuel is burned to heat water
Steam from the boiling water spins turbines that power a generator
Coal
The higher the carbon content, the more cleanly and brilliantly the coal burns.
Obtain from surface mining & underground mining
States of Coal (lowest carbon content to highest): Lignite, bituminous, anthracite

Figure 3.1.1 Power Plant Using Coal as its Fuel

28
 Figure 3.1.2 Power Plant Using Coal as its Fuel (Schematic Diagram)

Wind
Clean and cheap energy. (Relatively consistent wind-flow is required)
Main cause of wind: difference in atmospheric pressure due to differences in
temperature, warm air rises over the colder air, thus, causing the wind to flow.
Long blades or rotors catch the wind and spin. (rotors are placed atop of towers to take
advantage of stronger winds up high)
Spinning movement leads to transformation of mechanical energy into electrical energy through
a generator
Battery is also important; it serves as backup system to provide energy and can be a storage of
extra energy.
Minimal speeds at which the winds need to blow are 8 miles per hour for small turbines
and 13 miles per hour for large turbines.
Ideally wind-powered generators can be conjuncted into other renewable sources such
as solar which makes a hybrid power producing device. Windmill power plants are
usually connected into a utility grid, it serves as a supplement to other forms of energy
because average wind turbines only generates about 25% of the time which is also why
a wind power plant have the so called wind farm wherein many windmills were placed.

29
 Figure 3.1.3 Types of Windmill Rotors

Solar
Directly converting sun rays into usable energy source using solar collectors or solar
panels
Two ways solar can be converted to energy:
Solar thermal applications – using energy of sun to directly heat air or liquid
Photoelectric applications – use of photovoltaic cells to convert solar to electrical
Two types of Solar thermal collectors:
Flat plate collector - contain absorber plates that use solar radiation to heat a carrier
fluid, either a liquid like oil or water, or air, (around 800C). (Residential applications).
Concentrating collectors – larger scale applications such as air-conditioning, rays are
concentrated into one area by means of reflective mirrors. (higher temperature)
Photovoltaic Cells
Depends on the semiconductor’s silicon content; low maintenance; remote applications
Photovoltaic panel, generally, 40% efficiency
Hydro
Potential energy of water from higher elevation to lower elevation moving spins the
turbines
Forebay is a storage area for water, must be deep enough, and penstock should be
submerged
Water is to flow into the electricity generating system through the penstock

30
 Controlled high pressure water spins the turbines, allowing generator to produce an
electric current.
Powerhouse contains and protects equipment for generating electricity.
High pressure waters exit the system through draft tube.

Geothermal
Pressurized steam from superheated water beneath the earth’s surface can be used to
power turbines and thus generate electricity.
It has limitations because geothermal vents are not widely available. Artificial vents were
being drilled in the ground to reach the hot rocks below and then injected with water for
production of steam.
Most of the time, source of heat is far too deep.
Ocean energy
Two sources of energies from the ocean:
Tidal energy
Simplest generation of it involves a dam known as barrage, across an inlet. Sluice gates on the
barrage allow tidal basin to fill on the incoming high tides and to empty through the turbine
system on the outgoing tide, also known as ebb tide. It is a two-way system generating system
(incoming and outgoing tides).
Tidal barrages can change the tidal level in the basin and increase the turbidity in the water.
Tidal fences can also harness the energy of tides. It has vertical axis turbines mounted in a
fence. All water that passes is forced through the turbines. These turbines are like the wind
turbines, but they are more expensive and heavier.
Wave energy
One way of harnessing wave energy is to bend or focus the waves into a narrow channel,
increasing their power and size. It can be channeled into a catch basin or use directly to spin the
turbine.
Only few wave harnessing plants are there in the world, they have a potential of producing
energy for a small local community.
Nuclear energy
Nuclear fission
Unstable atom splits into several smaller fragments or fission products, about equal to half the
original mass. The process also releases extra neutrons then split additional atoms, resulting in
a chain reaction that releases a lot of energy.
Uranium is the element used as a fuel in nuclear power plants. Nowadays, enriched uranium is
commonly used. (enriched means there is an amount of plutonium combined with uranium)

31
 Nuclear fusion
It is a nuclear process, where energy is produced by smashing together light atoms. Two or
more atomic nuclei come close enough to form one or more different atomic nuclei and
subatomic particles (neutrons and/or protons). The difference in mass between the products
and reactants is manifested as the release of large amounts of energy. It is the
opposite reaction to fission, where heavy isotopes are split apart.
Fusion energy, simply, is the exact opposite of fission energy, which comes from splitting an
atom and is widely used to power nuclear plants and weapons.
Comparison of energy sources
Table 3.1 Comparison of Energy Sources

Particulars Water-Power Fuels Nuclear Energy

Initial Cost High Low Highest

Running Cost Less High Least

Reserves Permanent Exhaustible Inexhaustible

Cleanliness Cleanest Dirtiest Clean

Simplicity Simplest Complex Most Complex

Reliability Most Reliable Less Reliable More Reliable

Section 3.2 DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF POWER PLANTS

Review:
DESIGN OF POWER PLANT
Selection and placing of necessary power-generating equipment which aims to have a
maximum return from a minimum of expenditure over the working life operation of power
plant and to provide cheap, reliable and continuous service.
GENERATING STATIONS/POWER PLANTS
Prime mover coupled to an alternator for production of power
Prime mover (steam/water turbines) converts energy from some other form into mechanical
energy.
Alternator converts mechanical energy of the prime mover into electrical energy.
Electrical energy produced by the generating station is transmitted and distribution thru
conductors to the customers.

32
For modern generating station, several auxiliary equipment and instruments to ensure cheap,
reliable and continuous service.
3.2.1 Classification of power plants according to the type of fuel and type of prime
mover installed
BY FUEL
In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine, which transforms
thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy
Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor’s heat to operate a steam turbine generator.
Fossil fuel powered plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of Natural gas
fired plants may use a combustion turbine.
Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks.
Renewable energy plants may be fueled by waste from sugar cane, municipal solid waste,
landfill ethane, or other forms of biomass.
In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although low-energy-density,
fuel.
Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough to use for power
generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.
FUEL: is any substance, natural or artificial which upon combustion releases heat energy.
COMBUSTION: is a chemical reaction in which certain elements of the fuel combined with
oxygen causing an increase in temperature of the gases; if oxidation proceeds so rapidly that
light is emitted (union of oxygen with combustible materials), light or heat or both can be
produced.
OXIDATION: reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen i.e. Aluminum and oxide =
Aluminum Oxide)
Classification of Fuels:
1. Solid Fuels
Coal, coke, wood, charcoal, bagasse, coconut shells, rice husks, and briquetted fuels
2. Liquid Fuels
Crude petroleum and its distillates (gasoline, alcohol, kerosene, disel, bunker and other
fuel oils)
3. Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas, artificial gas, blast furnace gas, liquefied petroleum gas, methane,
acethylene, propane
3. Atomic Fuels
Natural uranium, thorium and artificially produce fuel like plutonium

33
Properties of Fuel
1. Analysis of composition
a. Proximate Analysis – is an analysis of the composition of fuel which gives on mass
basis, the relative amounts of moisture content, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash.
b. Ultimate Analysis – is an analysis of the composition of fuel which gives, on mass
basis, the relative amounts of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur ash and
moisture
2. Heating value or Calorific Value
a. Higher heating Value or Gross Calorific Value – is the heating value obtained when
the water in the products of combustion is in the liquid state.
b. Lower Heating Value or Net calorific Value – is the heating value obtained when the
water in the products of combustion is in the vapor state.
Calorific value of fuels
The amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of a unit weight of fuel.
Table 3.2.1 Calorific Value of Fuels

The greater the calorific value, the larger its ability to produce heat
For solid and liquid fuels, cal/gm or kcal/kg. For gaseous cal/litre or kcal/litre
Advantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels
i. The handling of liquid fuels is easier and they require less storage space.
ii. The combustion of liquid fuels is uniform.
iii. The solid fuels have higher percentage of moisture and consequently they burn with
great difficulty. However, liquid fuels can be burnt with a fair degree of ease and attain
high temperature very quickly compared to solid fuels.
iv. The waste product of solid fuels is a large quantity of ash and its disposal becomes a
problem. However, liquid fuels leave no or very little ash after burning.

34
 v. The firing of liquid fuels can be easily controlled. This permits to meet the variation in
load demand easily.
Advantages of solid fuels over liquid fuels

i. In case of liquid fuels, there is a danger of explosion.

ii. Liquid fuels are costlier as compared to solid fuels
iii. Sometimes liquid fuels give unpleasant odors during burning
iv. Liquid fuels require special types of burners for burning
v. Liquid fuels pose problems in cold climates since the oil stored in the tanks is to be
heated in order to avoid the stoppage of oil flow.
BY PRIME MOVER
Steam turbine plants use the pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades of a
turbine.
Gas turbine plants use the heat from gases to directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled
turbine plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply peak energy during periods of high
demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants.
Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a steam boiler and
steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity. This greatly
increases the overall efficiency of the plant, and most new base load power plants are combined
cycle plants fired by natural gas.
Internal combustion reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated communities
and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, office buildings, industrial
plants, and other critical facilities also use them to provide backup power in case of a power
outage. These are usually fueled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas.
Microturbines, stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines are low cost
solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water treatment
plants and waste gas from oil production.
Classification of power plants according to their prime mover
Steam Hydraulic Internal Combustion
Reciprocating engines Impulse Wheel Oil, Diesel
Turbines Reaction Wheel Gas
Propeller and Adjustable-
blade-type Wheel

* Note: Thermal Powerplant – steam, diesel, gas turbine & nuclear

35
Steam
Reciprocating engines are rapidly disappearing from the use in power plant. It accounts for
lower economy with large floor space required, since the first cost is high.
Turbines are low in first cost and low in maintenance and attendance cost. It is economic in
space and foundation. There is absence of oil in condensed steam, free from vibration and
uniform angular velocity. Thus, high efficiencies for large variation in load.
Hydraulic
Impulse Wheel are suitable for very high heads, while Reaction Wheel has much wider limit and
applicable to large class of developments.
Propeller and adjustable-blade-type Wheel, efficiencies are a little below those of the reaction
wheel. They are developed to fill the demands of very low-head developments.
Internal Combustion
Oil and Diesel are adaptable to rather small power plants particularly those which have a very
low load factor. For oil, they are used to a considerable extent in sections of the country where
oil can be obtained readily and cheaply. Thus, maintenance and operating costs are very low
compared to steam plants.
Diesel engine can be started up cold and loaded to its full capacity without any appreciable drop
inefficiency.
Gas are limited to power plants supplying those industries which obtain gas as a by-product.
3.2.2 Classification of power plants according to Conventionality
Table 3.2.2 Classification of Power Plants according to Conventionality

36
3.2.3 Classification of Power Plants According to Use/Demand
Base Load Plant
❑ Plant that assumed load requirements under normal conditions.
Regulating Plant
❑ Plant capable of carrying load for the time interval either during off-peak or peak
periods and usually responds to changes in system frequency.
Peaking Plant
❑ Plant that is normally operated to provide power only during peak load periods.
Reserve or Stand-by Plant
❑ For peak or system deficiencies
TYPES OF PLANT RESERVES
Cold Reserve
❑ Portion of the installed reserve kept in operable condition and available for
service but not for immediate loading
Operating Reserve
❑ Refers to capacity in actual service in excess of peak load
Hot Reserve
❑ Refers to units available, maintained at operating temperature and ready for
service although not in actual operation
Spinning Reserve
❑ Generating capacity connected to the bus ready to take load.

37
Section 3.3 TYPES OF POWER PLANT (According to Energy Source)

3.3.1 Steam Power Plant

A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion into electrical energy.

Figure 3.3.1 Schematic Arrangement of Steam Power Plant

A steam power station basically works on the Rankine Cycle. Steam is produced in the boiler by
utilizing the heat of coal combustion. The steam is then expanded in the prime mover (i.e.,
steam turbine) and is condensed in a condenser to be fed into the boiler again. The steam
turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy. This type of power station is suitable where coal and water are available in abundance
and a large amount of electric power is to be generated.
Advantages:
i. The fuel (i.e., coal) used is quite cheap.
ii. Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
iii. It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal. The coal can be
transported to the site of the plant by rail or road.
iv. It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power station.
v. The cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel power station.

38
Disadvantages:
i. It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke and fumes.
ii. It is costlier in running cost as compared to hydroelectric plant.

Schematic Arrangement
Steam power station simply involves the conversion of heat of coal combustion into
electrical energy, yet it embraces many arrangements for proper working and efficiency.
Commonly, the arrangement is divided into following stages:
1. Coal and ash handling arrangement
Storage of coil is primarily a matter of protection against coal strikes, failure of
transportation system and general coal shortages. From the coal storage plant, coal is
delivered to coal handling plant where it is pulverized to increase its surface exposure,
thus, promoting rapid combustion. Pulverised Coal is fed to the boiler by belt conveyors.
Coal is burnt in the boiler and ash produced is removed from the boiler furnace and
delivered to ash storage plant for disposal.
2. Steam Generating plant Boiler
Responsible to produce steam and other auxiliary equipment for the utilization of flue
gases. Consists of:
Boiler
Superheater
Economizer
Air preheater
3. Steam Turbine
Dry and superheated steam is fed to the steam turbine through main valve. The heat
energy of steam when passing over the blades of turbine is converted into mechanical
energy.
4. Alternator
Converts mechanical energy of turbine to electrical energy
5. Feed Water
6. Cooling Arrangement
*Efficiency of the plant is increased by reducing turbine exhaust pressure.
Choice of Site for Steam Power Stations
To achieve overall economy, the following points should be considered:
1. Supply of fuel
2. Availability of water
3. Transportation facilities

39
 4. Cost and type of land
5. Nearness to load centres
6. Distance from populated areas
Equipment
A modern steam power plant is highly complex and has numerous equipment and auxiliaries
1. Steam Generating Equipment
Boiler a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by utilizing the heat of
coal combustion.
Two Types: Water Tube Boiler Fire Tube Boiler
Boiler Furnace chamber in which fuel is burnt to liberate the heat energy
Superheater a device which superheats the steam (above boiling point of water)
Two Types: Radiant Superheater Convection Superheater
Economizer a device which heats the feed water on its way to boiler
Air preheater extract heat from flue gases and give it to the air supplied to furnace
Two Classes: Recuperative Type Regenerative Type
2. Condensers device which condenses the steam at the exhaust of turbine
3. Prime Movers converts steam energy into mechanical energy
Two Types: Impulse turbines Reaction Turbines
4. Water Treatment Plant
5. Electrical Equipment
Alternators
Transformers
Switchgears

You may watch this YouTube video for further understanding:

How Does a Thermal Power Plant Work?
Learn Engineering
[Link]

40
3.3.2 Hydroelectric Power Plant
Hydro-electric power stations are generally located in hilly areas where dams can be
built conveniently, and large water reservoirs can be obtained. In a hydro-electric power station,
water head is created by constructing a dam across a river or lake. From the dam, water is led
to a water turbine. The water turbine captures the energy in the falling water and changes the
hydraulic energy (i.e., product of head and flow of water) into mechanical energy at the turbine
shaft. The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Hydro-electric power stations are becoming very popular because the reserves of fuels (ie., coal
and oil) are depleting day by day.
They have the added importance for flood control, storage of water for irrigation and water
for drinking purposes.
Advantages:
i. It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of electrical energy.
ii. It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or ash is produced.
iii. It requires very small running charges because water is the source of energy
which is available, free of cost.
iv. It is comparatively simple in construction and requires less maintenance.
v. It does not require a long starting time like a steam power station. In fact, such
plants can be put into service instantly.
vi. It is robust and has a longer life.
vii. Such plants serve many purposes. In addition to the generation of electrical
energy, they also help in irrigation and controlling floods.
viii. Although such plants require the attention of highly skilled persons at the time of
construction, yet for operation, a few experienced persons may do the job well.
Disadvantages:
i. It involves high capital cost due to construction of dam.
ii. There is uncertainty about the availability of huge amount of water due to
dependence on weather conditions.
iii. Skilled and experienced hands are required to build the plant.
iv. It requires high cost of transmission lines as the plant is located in hilly areas
which are quite away from the consumers.

Figure 3.3.2 Hydroelectric Power Plant

41
Schematic Arrangement
1. Reservoir
2. Dam
3. Surge tank
4. Valve House
5. Penstock
6. Power House
7. Tailrace/Tailwater
Choice of Site for Hydroelectric Power Stations
1. Availability of water
2. Storage of water
3. Cost and type of land
4. Transportation Facilities
Constituents
1. Hydraulic Structures
Dam
Spillways
Headworks
Surge tanks
Penstock
2. Water Turbines
Impulse Turbines
Reaction Turbines
3. Electrical Equipment
Definitions
Reservoir
stores the water coming from the upper river or water falls.
Head Water
is the water in the reservoir
Spillway
is a weir in the reservoir which discharges excess water so that the head of the
plant will be maintained

42
 Dam
is the concrete structure that encloses the reservoir
Slit Sluice
is a chamber which collects the mud and through which the mud is dischaged
Valve
is a device that opens or closes the entrance of the water into the penstock
Trash Rack
is a screen which prevents the leaves, branches and other water contaminants to
enter into the penstock
Penstock
is the channel that leads the water from the reservoir to the turbine
Surge Chamber
is standpipe connected to the atmosphere and attached to the penstock so that
the water will be at atmospheric pressure.
Generator
is a device that converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy.
Hydraulic Turbine
is a device that converts the energy of water into mechanical energy.
Tail Race
is channel which leads the water from the turbine to the tail water
Tail Water
is the water that is discharged from the turbine
Draft Tube
is a device that connects the turbine outlet to the tail water so that the turbine can
be set above the tailwater level.
Types of Hydraulic Turbines
1) Impulse Turbines
Also known as Tangential Wheel or Pelton Wheel
A turbine that utilizes kinetic energy of high velocity jet which acts upon a small part of the
circumference at an instant.
Movement of the water is tangential
Suited for (very) high head plants (150 m and above) & low volume of water

43
No exact value for critical head, hence heads are given in range.
Has no draft tube.
Typical turbine efficiencies are in the range of 80% to 90%
Higher efficiencies are associated with turbines having two or more runners.
2) Reaction Turbines
A turbine which develops power from the combined action of pressure and velocity of the water
that completely fills the runner and the water passages.
Movement of water for reaction turbines can be radial for Francis type and axial for
Propeller/Kaplan type.
Reaction turbine has draft tube which keeps the turbines up to 5 m (15ft) above the tailwater.
Reaction turbines’ conversion efficiency is usually higher than that of impulse turbine.
Reaction turbines’ conversion efficiency is about 85% to 95%
A. Francis Type
For medium head
James B. Francis of California who developed such turbine type for which conversion efficiency
in range of 90 to 94%
Movement is radial
B. Propeller & Kaplan Type Reaction Turbines
For very low head
Propeller (Fixed Blade) – a type of reaction turbine with reduced number of fixed blades. The
flow is inward flow axial. Suited for low head plant and has usual conversion efficiency is 80%.
Kaplan (Adjustable Blade) – a type of reaction turbine with a movable blades. The flow is inward
flow axial. Suited for low headed and large volume flow of water and usual conversion efficiency
of more or less 93%.
Movement is axial
Types of hydroelectric power plants
Micro Scale
Smallest type of hydroelectric energy systems (less than 100KW)
Small Scale
Can produce 100 – 30,000 kilowatts (kW) of electricity.
May involve a small dam, or be a diversion of the main stream, or be a run-of-the-river system.
Large Scale
Capacity to produce more than 30,000 kilowatts (kW) of electricity

44
Systems of hydroelectric power plants
Run-of-the-River Hydroelectric System
System uses the river’s natural flow and requires little or no impoundment. It may involve
a diversion of a portion of the stream through a canal or penstock, or it may involve
placement of a turbine right in the stream channel. Run-of-the-river systems are often
low-head.
Impoundment Hydroelectric System
The dam that holds water in a reservoir. The water is released when needed through a
penstock, to drive the turbine. Most large, high-head hydropower facilities use
impoundments.
Note: There are low-head and high head hydropower systems, generally, low-head
is less than 20 feet high.
Pump Storage Hydroelectric System
Works like a battery, storing the electricity generated by other power sources like solar,
wind, and nuclear for later use. It is a configuration of two water reservoirs at different
elevations that can generate power (discharge) as water moves down through a turbine;
this draws power as it pumps water (recharge) to the upper reservoir.

You may watch this YouTube video for further understanding:

Hydropower 101
Student Energy
[Link]

45
3.3.3 Diesel Power Plant
A generating station in which diesel engine is used as the prime mover for the generation of
electrical energy.
*Diesel engine is an excellent prime mover for electric power generation in capacities of 101 to
5070 HP. These are widely used in hotels, utility companies, municipalities and private
industries.
In a diesel power station, diesel engine is used as the prime mover. The diesel burns
inside the engine and the products of this combustion act as the “working fluid” to produce
mechanical energy. The diesel engine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. As the generation cost is considerable due to high price of diesel,
therefore, such power stations are only used to produce small power.
Although steam power station and hydro-electric plants are invariably used to generate
bulk power at cheaper cost, yet diesel power stations are finding favor at places where demand
of power is less, sufficient quantity of coal and water is not available and the transportation
facilities are inadequate. These plants are also used as standby sets for continuity of supply to
important points such as hospitals, radio stations, cinema houses and telephone exchanges.
Advantages:
i. The design and layout of the plant are quite simple.
ii. It occupies less space as the number and size of the auxiliaries is small.
iii. It can be located at any place.
iv. It can be started quickly and can pick up load in a short time.
v. There are no standby losses.
vi. It requires less quantity of water for cooling.
vii. The overall cost is much less than that of steam power station of the same capacity.
viii. The thermal efficiency of the plant is higher than that of a steam power station.
ix. It requires less operating staff.

Disadvantages:
i. The plant has high running charges as the fuel (i.e., diesel) used is costly.
ii. The plant does not work satisfactorily under overload conditions for a longer period.
iii. The plant can only generate small power.
iv. The cost of lubrication is generally high.
v. The maintenance charges are generally high.
Schematic Arrangement
1. Diesel generator set (Stationary diesel engine)
2. Fuel supply system
3. Air intake system
4. Exhaust system
5. Cooling system
6. Lubricating system
7. Engine starting system

46
 Figure 3.3.3 Schematic Arrangement of Diesel Power Plant

3.3.4 Gas Turbine Power Plant

A generating station which employs gas turbine as the prime mover for the generation of
electrical energy.
In a gas turbine power plant, air is used as the working fluid. The air is compressed by the
compressor and is led to the combustion chamber where heat is added to air, thus raising its
temperature. Heat is added to the compressed air either by burning fuel in the chamber or using
air heaters. The hot and high-pressure air from the combustion chamber is then passed to the
gas turbine where it expands and does the mechanical work. The gas turbine drives the
alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Sometimes, the compressor, gas turbine and the alternator are mounted on the same
shaft so that a part of mechanical power of the turbine can be utilized for the operation of the
compressor. Gas turbine power plants are being used as standby plants for hydroelectric
stations, as a starting plant for driving auxiliaries in power plants etc.
Advantages:
i. It is simple in design as compared to steam power station since no boilers and their
auxiliaries are required.
ii. It is much smaller in size as compared to steam power station of the same capacity. This
is expected since gas turbine power plant does not require boiler, feed water
arrangement etc.
iii. The initial and operating costs are much lower than that of equivalent steam power
station.

47
 iv. It requires comparatively less water as no condenser is used.
v. The maintenance charges are quite small.
vi. Gas turbines are much simpler in construction and operation than steam turbines.
vii. It can be started quickly from cold conditions.
viii. There are no standby losses. However, in a steam power station, these losses occur
because boiler is kept in operation even when the steam turbine is supplying no load.

Disadvantages:
i. There is a problem for starting the unit. It is because before starting the turbine, the
compressor has to be operated for which power is required from some external source.
However, once the unit starts, the external power is not needed as the turbine itself
supplies the necessary power to the compressor.
ii. Since a greater part of power developed by the turbine is used in driving the
compressor, the net output is low.
iii. The overall efficiency of such plants is low (about 20%) because the exhaust gases from
the turbine contain sufficient heat.
iv. The temperature of combustion chamber is quite high (3000 oF) so that its life is
comparatively reduced.

Schematic Arrangement
1. Compressor
2. Regenerator
3. Combustion chamber
4. Gas turbine
5. Alternator
6. Starting motor

3.3.5 Geothermal Power Plant

It is the facility in which the electrical energy is produced from hot spring, steam vent or geyser.
Geothermal energy – is heat energy naturally occurring with the earth. It comes from two
words “geo” meaning earth and “thermal” meaning concerning heat.
Steam-dominated geothermal field - Refers to a geothermal plant with its well producing all
steam as the well-bore product
Liquid-dominated geothermal field - Refers to a geothermal plant in which the well-bore
product is practically all hot water (pressurized)
Fumarole - is a crack in the earth through which geothermal substance passes.
Magma - A molten metal within the earth which is basically nickel-iron in composition whose
stored energy heats the surrounding water thereby producing steam or hot water. Its
temperature reaches as high as 1200oC.

48
Well-bore product - The effluent coming out from the geothermal well produced after drilling.
This can be purely steam or hot water, or a mixture of both.
SOURCES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
1) Hydrothermal Fluids
- Basically made up of hot water, steam and minerals. It is the only form of energy
currently being tapped for significant commercial heat and electric energy supply.
2) Geopressurized Brines
- Represent a special subset of hydrothermal fluids typically found at depths
exceeding 3 km and is characterized as hot water existing at pressures above
the normal hydrostatic gradient and containing dissolved methane.
3) Hot Dry Rock
- Is a water free, impermeable rock at high temperature and practically drilling
depth to extract energy, high pressure water maybe injected through one or more
wells to create new or to enhance existing natural fracture system with limited
access to ground water flow.
4) Magma
- Is characterized by or partially molten rock with temperatures reaching as high as
1200 degree Celsius
TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT
1) Dry or Superheated Geothermal Plant
- The Geothermal source is vapor dominated where steam directly runs the
turbine.

Figure [Link] Superheated Geothermal Plant

2) Separated Steam or “Single Flashed Geothermal Power Plant”
- The geothermal source is hot water dominated which employs the use of steam
separator that re-injects hot water of the steam that goes to the turbine.

49
 Figure [Link] Separated Steam Geothermal Plant

3) Separated Steam/Hot-Water-Flash or “Double Flash Geothermal Power Plant”

- A flasher is employed and located at the hot water end of the steam separator
whose purpose is to further extract the steam which were not extracted in the
separator and such steam is then directed to the turbine’s low pressure side.

Figure [Link] Double Flash Geothermal Plant

50
4) Single Flashed Plant with Pumped Wells
- This employs down-hole pump in production wells for better steam recovery

Figure [Link] Single Flash with Pumped Wells Geothermal Plant

5) Binary Geothermal Plant
- This uses two working fluids, one is the steam from the production well, the other
is feedwater where the heat exchanger serves the function of the boiler.

Figure [Link] Binary Geothermal Plant

51
GROUP ACTIVITY – Research and Design (Project)
No. of Members: 10 – 15 (depending on the number of students)
Activity 1:
For the power plants enumerated under Section 3.3 (Steam Power Plant, Hydroelectric Power
Plant, Diesel Power Plant, Gas Turbine Power Plant and Geothermal Power Plant)
a) Brief illustration of process flow
b) Brief explanation of how the equipment works and its importance to the system of
the power plant.
c) 5 Local and 5 International Sites
d) Current Issues and Improvements

Activity 2:
For the RE power plants (Wind Power Plant, Solar Power Plant, Nuclear Power Plant, Biomass
Power Plant, Ocean Power Station)
a) Brief illustration of process flow(s)
b) Brief explanation of how the equipment works and its importance to the system of
the power plant.
c) Advantages and Disadvantages
d) 5 Local and 5 International Sites
e) Current Issues and Improvements

Activity 3:
Power Plant Design
Particulars and Guides will be sent separately on the 6th Week

Reminders:
1. Use your own words in the explanations (based on your understanding).
2. Indicate your references in APA Form. You may include video links.
3. Document formats will be sent along with the Activity 3 instructions. (Week 6)

3. Stay healthy and keep safe! Happy learning at your own pace!

52
 MODULE 4: POWER PLANT OPERATION
Section 4.1 POWER PLANT OPERATION COMPUTATIONS

ENERGY
Energy = Work = Force * distance
Units:
1 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛−𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑘𝑔−𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
1 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 = 1 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 2

1 Watt-second = 1 Newton-meter = 1 Joule

Formulas:
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝟏 𝒂𝑸
𝐭= 𝐭 = 𝒍𝒏 [ + 𝟏] 𝐏 = 𝑷𝑶 𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑸𝝎𝒉
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂 𝑷𝑶

where, 𝑄 – flow rate or discharge rate, 𝑚3 /𝑠

𝜔 – specific weight of water, N/𝑚3 or lbsf/𝑓𝑡 3
ℎ – effective head (static head), m
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑁 𝑙𝑏𝑠𝑓
𝝎 = 𝝆 ∗ 𝒈 = 1000 ∗ 9.8 = 9810 = 62.3
𝑚3 𝑠2 𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3

EFFICIENCIES
Thermal Efficiency The ratio of heat equivalent of mechanical energy transmitted to the
turbine shaft to the heat of combustion.
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
Thermal Efficiency, 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙 =
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Overall Efficiency The ratio of heat equivalent of electrical output to the heat of combustion
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Overall Efficiency, 𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Overall Efficiency = Thermal Efficiency * Electrical Efficiency

EFFICIENCY It is the output divided by the input energy.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝜂=
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Other Formulas:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑜 𝑉
𝑄= η𝑡𝑜𝑡 = P𝑜 = 𝜔ℎ ∗ η𝑔𝑒𝑛 * η𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 E𝑜 = 𝑉𝜔ℎ ∗ η𝑔𝑒𝑛 * η𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑡

where, η – efficiency, %
P – output/input power
E – output/input energy

53
4.1.1 A standard equation for calculating energy production for Hydroplants:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 ∗ 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 ∗ 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
11.8
Power = the electric power in kilowatts or kW
Head = the distance the water falls (measured in feet)
Flow = the amount of water flowing (measured in cubic feet per second or cfs)
Efficiency = How well the turbine and generator convert the power of falling water into electric
power. This can range from 60% (0.60) for older, poorly maintained hydroplants to 90% (0.90)
for newer, well maintained plants.
11.8 = Index that converts units of feet and seconds into kilowatts

4.1.2 Steam/Gas/Diesel Power Plant

Conversion Factors
1 kWh = 3,600 kJ = 3,413 BTU = 860 kcal
1 HP-h = 2,545 BTU
1 Quad = 1015 BTU
Efficiency
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝐸𝑃
𝑒𝑂 = mf =
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝐻𝑉

𝑘 ∗ 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑂 𝑘 ∗𝑃𝑂 𝑚𝑓
𝑒𝑂 = 𝑒𝑏 ∗ 𝑒𝑡 ∗ 𝑒𝑔 = = 𝑚𝑓 fuel rate =
𝑚𝑓 ∗ 𝐻𝐻𝑉 ∗ 𝐻𝐻𝑉 𝑡
𝑡

where, TEP – total energy produced

𝑒𝑂 – overall efficiency
𝑒𝑏 – boiler efficiency
𝑒𝑡 – turbine efficiency
𝑒𝑔 – generator efficiency

Heat Rate (HR)

𝑄𝐴 𝑚𝑓∗𝐻𝐻𝑉
𝐻𝑅 = =
𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑜 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑜

where, HR – energy chargeable per unit work, BTU/kWh or kcal/kWh

QA – heat added/supplied to the system, BTU or kcal
mf – mass of fuel, kg or lbs
HHV – high heating value of the fuel, BTU/lb or kcal/kg
kWhO – output energy

54
4.1.3 Tidal Power Plant
Power
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟗 𝑯𝟐 𝑨
where, 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 – average power, MW
𝐻 – tidal head, m
𝐴 – area, km2
4.1.4 Wind Power Plant
Power
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒅𝟐 𝑽𝟑
where, 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 – average power, W
𝑑 – diameter of the blade, ft
𝑉 – wind velocity, miles per hour

Sample Problems
1. Mechanical Energy is supplied to a d.c. generator at the rate of 4200 J/s. The generator
delivers 32.2 A at 120 V.
a. What is the percentage efficiency of the generator?
b. How much energy is lost per minute of operation?
Solution:
a. Input Power = Pi = 4200 J/s = 4200 W
Ouput Power = Po = EI = 120(32.2) = 3864 W
Efficiency = Po/Pi x 100 = 92%
b. Power Lost = Pl = Pi – Po = 336W
Energy lost per minute (t=60s): Pl x t = 336(60) =20160 J
2. A steam power station has an overall efficiency of 20% and 0.6kg of coal is burnt per kWh of
electrical energy generated. Calculate the calorific value of fuel.
Let x – calorific value of fuel
Heat produced by 0.6 kg of coal = 0.6x kcal
Heat equivalent of 1 KWh = 860 kcal
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
860
0.2 = ; x = 7166.67 kcal/kg
0.6 𝑥

55
3. A 100 MW steam station uses coal of calorific value 6400 kcal/kg. Thermal efficiency of the
station is 30% and electrical efficiency is 92%. Calculate the coal consumption per hour when
the station is delivering its full rated output.
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑥 𝜂𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 0.3 𝑥 0.92 = 0.276
Units generated/hour = (100 x 103) * 1 = 105 KWh
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 105 𝑥 860 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 311.6 𝑥 106 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 0.276
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 311.6 𝑥 106 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
Coal consumption/hour = = = 𝟒𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟕. 𝟓 𝒌𝒈
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 6400 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔

4. A large hydroelectric power station has an effective head available at the turbine of 300m and
average flow of 1,300 m3/s. Find the available electric power in MW if the turbine and generator
efficiencies are 0.9 and 0.95, respectively.
𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
P𝑜 = 𝜔ℎ ∗ η𝑔𝑒𝑛 * η𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 where, 𝑄 =
𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑚3 𝑁
P𝑜 = 1300 (9810 3 ) (300𝑚) ∗ 0.95 * 0.9 = 3271 MW
𝑠 𝑚

5. The effective water head in a 100 MW station is 220m. The turbine and generator efficiencies
are 0.85 and 0.95, respectively. If the station operated at full load for 15 hours per day, how
much water m3 is used.
𝑉
P𝑜 = 𝜔ℎ ∗ η𝑔𝑒𝑛 * η𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏
𝑡
𝑉 𝑁
100MW = (9810 3 ) (220𝑚) ∗ 0.95 * 0.85
60𝑚𝑖𝑛 60𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚
15ℎ𝑟 ∗ ∗
1ℎ𝑟 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
V = 3.098 * 106 m3
6. How many gigacalories are there in 17.2x10 10 BTU? (2015 BP)
17.2*1010 BTU * (860 kcal / 3413 BTU) * (106 Gcal / 1 kcal) = 43340.2 Gcal
7. A certain country has a power coal reserve that contains 105x1015 kcal of energy. Coal has a
heating value of 7000 kcal/kg. Find the quantity of coal in metric tons.
TEP = 105 * 1015 kcal
HHV = 7000 kcal/kg mf = TEP / HHV = 15*1012 kg
1 ton = 1000kg mf = 15 * 104 MT
8. A diesel power plant has an output of 50kW and overall efficiency of 30%. The fuel used has
a heating value of 12,500 kcal/kg. What is the rate of fuel consumption in kg/h?
PO = 50 kW ; 𝑒𝑂 = 0.3 ; HHV = 12,500 kcal/kg
860 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑘 ∗𝑃𝑂 ( 𝑘𝑊ℎ )(50,000𝑘𝑊) 𝑚𝑓 𝒌𝒈
𝑒𝑂 = 𝑚𝑓 ; 0.3 = 𝑚𝑓 ; = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟔
∗ 𝐻𝐻𝑉 ∗12,500 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔 𝑡 𝒉
𝑡 𝑡

56
9. The maximum tidal head is 7m. How much average power in MW per square km of tidal bay
area that can be generated in this location?
H = 7m ; 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.219 𝐻 2 𝐴
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒
= 0.219 (7)2 ; MW/km2 = 10.731
𝐴

10. A wind generator with an efficiency of 0.85 has a blade diameter of 20m. If the wind velocity
is 30 kph. How much power is obtainable from the generator?
d = 20m ; V = 30 kph ; η = 0.85
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2.46 ∗ 10−3 𝑑 2 𝑉 3
d = 20m (3.28ft/1m) = 65.6 ft
V = 30 kph (1 mi/1.609km) = 18.65 kph
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2.46 ∗ 10−3 𝑑 2 𝑉 3 = 2.46 ∗ 10−3 (65.6)2 (18.65)3 = 68,671.94 𝑊
Po = Pin(η) = 68,671.94 (0.85) = 58,371 W

SELF-ASSESSMENT 4
1. A power plant gets water from a dam with a height of 122.45 meters at the rate of 1,000 cubic
meters per minute. If the output of the plant is 15MW, what is the efficiency?
2. A wind generator with an efficiency of 80% has a blade diameter of 20m. If the wind velocity
is 35kph, how much power is obtainable from the generator?
3. A 100MW power plant has a heart rate of 2.88*106 cal per kWh. It is a base load plant and
runs at full load 24 hours a day. How many tons of coal is needed per day?
4. A coal fired power plant consumes 100,000 lbs of coal per hour. The heating value of the coal
is 12,000 BTU per pound. The overall plant efficiency is 30%. What is the kW output of the
plant?
5. To produce one kWh a power plant burns 0.9 lb of coal with a heating value of 13,000 BTU
per lb. What is the heat rate of the plant?

57
 MODULE 5: POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
Section 5.1 Power Plant Economics

LOAD DURATION CURVES

These are used to estimate the expected maximum load of the powerplant.

Two basic parameters to consider in planning a powerplant:

• Total power output to be installed (KW)
This can be determined by:
1. First KW Demand estimation
2. Growth of demand anticipated
3. Reserve capacity required
• Size of generating units
This will depend on:
1. Variation of load during 24 hours, considering seasons, weekdays,
weekends and holidays
2. Total capacity of units connected to the electric grid
3. Minimum start-up and shut-down period of the units
4. Maintenance programme planned
5. Plant efficiency vs. size of unit
6. Price and space demand per KW vs. size of unit
LOCATION OF POWER PLANTS
1) For conventional base load thermal power plants, factors are to be
considered:
2) Availability of cooling water
3) Availability of fuel
4) Distance from the center of gravity of load demand
5) Cost of land
6) Character of soil
7) Main wind direction and water currents in cooling water source in order to
minimize air and water pollution, and other ecological considerations
8) With coal-fired stations, disposal of ash
9) If far from the town, accommodation for staffs
10) Rail and road connections
11) Security considerations
Additional for hydroelectric power plants, it is usually predetermined by the
availability of water and the water head which is utilized, and for nuclear power
plants, density of population and danger of earthquakes.

58
Section 5.1 Power Generation Economics

Method of determining the per unit (KWhr) cost of production of electrical energy

Definition of Terms:
❑ Interest – the cost of use of money; difference of money borrowed and money returned
❑ Depreciation – the decrease in value of the power plant equipment and building due to
constant use

ANNUAL DEPRECIATION – Reduction in value of the plant every year

Cost of Electrical Energy

❑ Fixed Cost – cost which is independent of maximum demand and units generated
In other books, there is also SEMI FIXED COST, it is the cost which depends upon
maximum demand but it is independent of units generated.

❑ Running Cost or Operation and Maintenance Cost (O&M) – cost which depends only
upon the number of units generated

Cost per KWhr is determined by:

1. Fixed Cost
2. O&M Cost
3. Fuel Cost dependent on the amount of electricity generated
4. KWhr of electricity sent out per year

DETERMINING DEPRECIATION
Depreciation – is a reduction in the value of the equipment and other property of the plant
every year

Depreciation charge – suitable amount set aside annually so that by the time of life span of the
plant is over, the collected amount equals the cost of replacement of the plant

Methods of determining annual depreciation charge:

1. Straight line method

𝑃−𝑆
Annual depreciation charge =
𝑛
where,
P – initial cost of equipment
S – scrap or salvage value after the useful life of the plant
n – useful life of equipment in years

59
2. Diminishing Value Method
Value of equipment after n years = P(1 – x)n = Scrap Value

Depreciation for the first year = xP

where,
P – capital cost of equipment
S – scrap or salvage value after the useful life of the plant
n – useful life of equipment in years
x – annual unit depreciation

(Note! If annual depreciation is 10%, annual unit depreciation is 0.1)

3. Sinking Fund Method

Cost of replacement = P – S

Sinking fund factor =

where,
P – Initial value of equipment
S – scrap or salvage value after the useful life of the plant
n – useful life of equipment in years
r – annual rate of interest expressed as decimal
q – sinking fund, annual depreciation charge

IMPORTANCE OF HIGH LOAD FACTOR

Load factor has a vital role in determining the cost of energy

Advantages

▪ Reduces cost per unit generated

Higher load factor, lower generation cost
(Higher load factor means for a given maximum demand; the number of units
generated is more)
▪ Reduces variable load problems
Higher load factor, less variations in the load demands at various times
(Frequent use of regulating devices installed can be avoided)

PROBLEMS
1. A transformer costing P90,000 has a useful life of 20 years. Determine the annual
depreciation charge using straight line method. Assume the salvage value of the equipment to
be P10,000.
𝑃−𝑆 90,000−10,000
Annual depreciation charge = = = P 4,000
𝑛 20

60
2. A distribution transformer costs P2,000,000 and has a useful life of 20 years. If the salvage
value is P10,000 and rate of annual compound interest is 8%, calculate the amount to be saved
annually for replacement of the transformer after the end of 20 years by sinking fund method.

𝑟 0.08
𝑞 = (𝑃 − 𝑆 ) ( 𝑛
) = (2,000,000 − 10,000) ( )
(1 + 𝑟 ) − 1 (1 + 0.08)20 − 1
q = P43,485.90

3. The equipment in a power station costs P15,600,000 and has a salvage value of P60,000 at
the end of 25 years. Determine the depreciated value of the equipment at the end of 20 years
on the following methods:
a. straight line method b. diminishing value method
c. sinking fund method at 5% compounded interest annually
Given:
P = 15,600,000; S = 60,000; n = 25 years

𝑃−𝑆 15,600,000−60,000
a. Annual depreciation charge = = = P 621,600
𝑛 25
Value of equipment after 20 years = P – Annual depreciation * 20
= 15,600,000 – 621,600*20 = P3,168,000

1 1
𝑆 𝑛 60,000 25
b. Annual unit depreciation, x = 1 − ( )
𝑃 =1− (15,600,000) = 0.199

Value of equipment after 20 years = P(1 – x)20 = 15,600,000(1 – 0.199)20 = P184,405.95

𝑟 0.05
c. 𝑞 = (𝑃 − 𝑆) (( ) = (15,600,000 − 60,000) ((1+0.05)25 −1) = P325,601.19
1+𝑟)𝑛 −1

(1+𝑟 )𝑛 −1 (1+0.05)20 −1
Sinking fund at the end of 20 years = q * = 325,601.19 * = P10,766,314
𝑟 0.05
Value of plant after 20 years = 15,600,000 – 10,766,314 = 4,833,686

4. A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000KW. Calculate the cost per unit
generated from the following data:
Capital cost = P 95 x106; Annual load factor = 40%; Interest & depreciation = 12%
6
Annual cost of fuel and oil = P 9 x10 ; Taxes, wages and salaries etc = P 7.5 x106

TEP = MD * LF * 8760 = 50000(0.4)(8760) = 175.2 MWh

Annual fixed charges:
Annual interest and depreciation = 12% * Capital cost = P11.4 x 106
Annual running charges:
Total annual running charges = annual cost of fuel and oil + taxes, wages etc
Total annual running charges = P 16.5 x106
Total annual charges = P 11.4x106 + P 16.5x106 = P27.9x106
Cost per unit: (P 27.9x106)/(175.2 MWh) = P 0.16/MWh

61
5. A generating plant has a maximum capacity of 100 KW and costs P160,000. The annual fixed
charges are 12% consisting of 5% interest, 5% depreciation and 2% taxes. Find the fixed
charges per kWh if the load factor is 50%.

TEP = MD * LF * 8760 = 100(0.5)(8760) = 438,000 KWh

Fixed charges = 0.12(160,000) = 19,200
Fixed charges/KWh = 19,200/438,000 = 0.0438

6. A generating station has installed capacity of 300 MW, capacity factor of 50%, annual load
factor of 60%, annual cost of fuel, oil etc of P 9x107, capital cost of P 1x109, annual interest and
depreciation of 10%. Calculate the minimum reserve capacity of the station and the cost per
KWh generated.

Capacity Factor = TEP/(IC*Pr)

Load Factor = TEP/(MD*Sr) **since no stated hours, Pr=Sr
Cap F/LF = MD/IC
MD = IC(Cap F/LD) = 300(0.5/0.6) =250 MW
Reserve capacity = IC – MD = 50 MW

TEP = MD*LF*8760 = 1314 x106 KWh

Annual fixed charges = 0.1(1x109) = P 1x108
Annual running charges = P 9 x107
Total annual charges = P10x107+ P9x107 = P19x107
Cost per KWh = P19x107/1314 x 106 KWh = P 0.145 / KWh

7. The maximum load on a thermal power plant of 60 MW capacity is 50 MW at an annual load

factor of 60%. The coal consumption is 1 kg per unit of energy generated at the cost of coal is
P600 per tonne of coal. Find the annual revenue earned if the energy is sold at P2 per KWh and
the capacity of the plant.

TEP = MD*LF*8760 = 50*0.6*8760 = 262.8 x106 KWh

Coal required per year = (262.8 x106)*1/1000 = 262.8 x103 tonnes
Cost of coal per year = 262.8 x103 * P600/tonne = P157,680 x103
Cost of energy sold = 262.8 x106 KWh * 2 = P525.6 x106

Revenue earned by the power plant per year = P525.6 x10 6 - P157.68 x106
Revenue earned by the power plant per year = P367.92 x106

8. It is proposed to supply a load with a maximum demand of 500MW and load factor of 70%.
Calculate the overall cost per kWh in a steam power plant given the following:
Capital cost per MW installed P3 ; Interest 6% ; Depreciation 6%
Operating cost (including fuel) per kWh P0.3
Transmission and Distribution cost per kWh P0.02

Capital Cost = P3 (500MW) = P 1500 * 106 per kWh

Interest = 0.06 (P1500 * 106) = P90 * 106
Depreciation = 0.06 (P1500 * 106) = P90 * 106
Annual fixed costs (interest + depreciation) = P180 * 10 6

Energy generated per year = average load * 8760 = LF * MD * 8760

Energy generated per year = 0.7 * 500MW * 8760 = 3,066 * 103 MWhr

62
 Running Cost per kWh = (operating cost/kWh) + (transmission and distribution cost/kWh)
Running Cost per kWh = P0.30 + P0.02 = P0.32

Overall cost/kWh = fixed cost/kWh + running cost/kWh

180∗ 106
= + 0.32 = 0.06 + 0.32
3066∗106
Overall cost/kWh = 0.38

SELF-ASSESSMENT 5
1. A power plant of 210MW installed capacity has the following particulars:
Capital Cost = P18,000/kW installed Interest and depreciation = 12%
Annual load factor = 60% Annual capacity factor = 54%
Annual running charges = P200 * 106
Energy consumed by power plant auxiliaries = 6%
Calculate the cost of power generation per kWh and the reserve capacity.

2. A generating station has an installed capacity of 50MW and delivers 220 * 10 6 units per
annum. If the annual fixed charge are P160 per kW installed capacity and running charges are
P0.4 per kWh, determine the cost per unit generated.

3. A generating station has an installed capacity of 300MW, annual load factor of 60%, annual
capacity factor of 50%, annual interest and depreciation of 10%, annual cost of fuel, oil etc is
P90Million, capital cost of P1000Million. What is the cost per kWh generated?

4.A generating plant has a maximum capacity of 200kW and costs P 1,800,000. The annual
fixed charges are 10% consisting of 4% interest, 4% depreciation and 2% taxes. Find the fixed
charges per kWh if the load factor is 60%?

5. The capital cost of a hydro power station of 65MW capacity is P1,000 per kW. The annual
depreciation charge are 12% of the capital cost. A royalty of P2 per kW per year and P0.02 per
kWh generated is to be paid for using the river water for generation of power. The maximum
demand on the power station is 50MW and annual factor is 62%. Annual cost of salaries,
maintenance charges etc is P6,500,000. If 15% of this expense is also chargeable as fixed
charges, calculate the generation cost in two part form.
**Note: Two Part Form is (Annual fixed charges *kW + Annual running charges *kWh)
***Just put the value on the annual fixed charges and annual running charges

63