LESSON 1

Types of Network based on size

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the
area it covers and its physical architecture. The three primary
network categories are LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network
differs in their characteristics such as distance, transmission
speed, cables and cost. Basic types

LAN (Local Area Network)

Group of interconnected computers within a small area. (room,

building,campus) Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share
files, folders, printers, applicationsand other devices. Coaxial or
CAT 5 cables are normally used for connections.Due to short
distances, errors and noise are minimum. Data transfer rate is
10 to 100 mbps.

Example: A computer lab in a school.MAN

(Metropolitan Area Network)

Design to extend over a large area. Connecting number of

LAN's to form larger network, so that resources can be shared.
Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km. Owned by organization or
individual. Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.

Example: Organization with different branches located in the

city.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

Are country and worldwide network. Contains multiple LAN's

and MAN's. Distinguished in terms of geographical range. Uses
satellites and microwave relays. Data transfer rate depends
upon the ISP provider and varies over the location.Best
example is the internet.

Other types
WLAN (Wireless LAN)

A LAN that uses high frequency radio waves for

communication. Provides short range connectivity with high
speed data transmission.

PAN (Personal Area Network)

Network organized by the individual user for its personal use.

SAN (Storage Area Network)

Connects servers to data storage devices via fiber-optic cables.

E.g.: Used for daily backup of organization or a mirror copy

A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything

that can carry information from a source to a destination.

Classes of transmission media

Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a
medium from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors

(normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the
receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference.
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications

is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a
metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of
insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the
quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or
crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for

registered jack)

Applications:

Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice

and data channels. Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and
l00Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency

ranges than those in twisted pair cable. coax has a central core
conductor of solid or stranded wire (usuallycopper) enclosed in
an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The
outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise
and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit.This
outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and
the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-

Neill Concelman(BNe), connector.

Applications:

Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone

networks,digital telephone networks Cable TV networks also
use coaxial cables. Another common application of coaxial
cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs

Fiber-Optic Cable

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits

signals in the form of light. Light travels in a straight line as long
as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray of
light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.

Bending of lightray

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A

glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense
glass or plastic.

Propagation Modes

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light

source move through the core in different paths. How these
beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the
core, as shown in Figure.
In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains
constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves
through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches
the interface of the core and the cladding. The term step index
refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to
the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber. A
second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber,
decreases this distortion of the signal through the cable. The
word index here refers to the index of refraction.

Single-Mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly

focused sourceof light that limits beams to a small range of
angles, all close to the horizontal.
Fiber Construction

The subscriber channel (SC) connector, The straight-tip (ST)

connector,MT-RJ(mechanical transfer registered jack) is a

connector

Applications:

Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks Because

its widebandwidth is cost-effective. Some cable TV companies
use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable,thus
creating a hybrid network. Local-area networks such as
100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and1000Base-X also use
fiber-optic cable

Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over

metallic cable (twisted pair or coaxial).

1. Higher bandwidth.
 2. Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission
distance is significantly
3. greaterthan that of other guided media. A signal can
run for 50 km without
4. requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km
for coaxial or twisted
pair cable.
5. Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
Electromagnetic noise cannot
affect fiber-optic cables.
6. Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant
to corrosive
materials than copper.
7. Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than
copper cables.
8. Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are
more immune to
tapping than copper cables. Copper cables create
antenna effects that can
9. easily be tapped.

Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of

optical fiber.

1. Installation and maintenance

2. Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is
unidirectional.
If weneed bidirectional communication, two fibers are
needed.
3. Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more
expensive than those
 of other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is
not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be
justified.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without

using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often
referred to as wireless communication.

Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in

several ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-
sight propagation, as shown in Figure
Radio Waves

Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz

and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves. Radio waves are
omni directional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they
are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending
and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending
antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna. The omni directional property has a disadvantage,
too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are
susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send
signals using the same frequency or band.

Omni directional Antenna

Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out

signals in all directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and
the purpose of transmission, we can have several types of
antennas. Figure shows an omnidirectional antenna.
Applications:

The Omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them

useful for multicasting, in which there is one sender but many
receivers. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless
phones, and paging are examples of multicasting.

Microwaves

Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300

GHz are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. The
sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of
antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair
of aligned antennas

Unidirectional Antenna

Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals

in one direction. Two types of antennas are used for microwave
communications: the parabolic dish and the horn

Applications:
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as
cellular telephones,satellite networks, and wireless LANs
satellite networks, and wireless LANs

Infrared

Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz

(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-
range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies,
cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic
prevents interference between one system and another; a
short - range communication system in one room cannot be
affected by another system in the next room. When we use our
infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote by our neighbors. Infrared signals useless for long -
range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared
waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain
infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

Applications:

Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a

closedarea using line-of-sight propagation.

LESSON 2
NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a computer,
printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network. “Computer
network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said
to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information.
The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics,
microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites can also be
used. Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we
will see later. They are usually connected together to make
larger networks, with the Internet being the most well-known
example of a network of networks. There is considerable
confusion in the literature between a computer network and a
distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed
system, a collection of independent computers appears to its
users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a single model
or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of
software on top of the operating system, called middleware, is
responsible for implementing this model. A well-known
example of a distributed system is the World Wide Web. It runs
on top of the Internet and presents a model in which
everything looks like a document (Web page).

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Business Applications:

to distribute information throughout the company (resource

sharing). sharing physical resources such as printers, and tape
backup systems, is sharing information client-server model. It is
widely used and forms the basis of much network usage.
communication medium among employees.email (electronic
mail), which employees generally use for a great deal of daily
communication. Telephone calls between employees may be
carried by the computer network instead of by the phone
company. This technology is called IP telephony or Voice over
IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is used.Desktop sharing
lets remote workers see and interact with a graphicalcomputer
screen doing business electronically, especially with customers
and suppliers. This new model is called e-commerce (electronic
commerce) and it has grown rapidly in recent years.

2. Home Applications:

peer-to-peer communication,person-to-person communication

electronic commerce entertainment. (game playing,)

3. Mobile Users:

Text messaging or texting Smart phones, GPS (Global

Positioning System) m-commerce NFC (Near Field
Communication)

4. Social Issues:

With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom

brings with it many unsolved social, political, and ethical issues.
Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a
host of other applications allow people to share their views
with like-minded individuals. As long as the subjects are
restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not too
many problems will arise. The trouble comes with topics that
people actually care about, like politics, religion, or sex. Views
that are publicly posted may be deeply offensive to some
people. Worse yet, they may not be politically correct.
Furthermore, opinions need not be limited to text; high-
resolution color photographs and video clips areeasily shared
over computer networks. Some people take a live-and-let-live
view, but others feel that posting certain material (e.g., verbal
attacks on particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is
simply unacceptable and that such content must be censored.
Different countries have different and conflicting laws in this
area. Thus, the debate rages. Computer networks make it very
easy to communicate. They alsomake it easy for the people
who run the network to snoop on the traffic. This sets up
conflicts over issues such as employee rights versus employer
rights. Many people read and write email at work. Many
employers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor
employee messages, including messages sent from a home
computer outside working hours. Not all employees agree with
this, especially the latter part. Another conflict is centered
around government versus citizen’s rights. A new twist with
mobile devices is location privacy. As part of the process of
providing service to your mobile device the network operators
learn where you are at different times of day. This allows them
to track your movements. They may know which nightclub you
frequent and which medical center you visit.

Phishing ATTACK: Phishing is a type of social engineering

attack often Used to steal user data, including login credentials
and credit card numbers. It occurs when an attacker,
masquerading as a trusted entity, dupes a victim into opening
an email, instant message, or text message.
BOTNET ATTACK: Botnets can be used to perform distributed
denial-ofservice attack (DDoS attack), steal data, send spam,
and allows the attacker to access the device and its connection.

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on

four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness,
and jitter.

1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct

destination. Data must be received by the intended device or
user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data

that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are
unusable.

3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

Data Delivered late are useless. Inthecase of video and audio,
timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in
the same order that they are produced, and without significant
delay. This kind of delivery is called real time transmission.

4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

It is the unevendelay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30
ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others
with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

A data communications system has five components:

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be

communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data
message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the

message. It can be acomputer, workstation, telephone handset,
television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the

physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio
waves.

5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data

communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may
be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking
French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

Data Representation
Data Flow

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-

duplex, or full duplexes shown in Figure.

Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional,

as on a one- way street. Only one of the two devices on a link
can transmit: the other can only receive (Figure a). Keyboards
and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.

Half-Duplex In half-duplex mode, each station can both

transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
(Figure b). Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both
half- duplex systems.

Full-Duplex In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and

receive simultaneously (Figure c).One common example of full-
duplex communication is the telephone network. When two
people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk
and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when
communication in both directions is required all the time.
Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.

The most important of these are performance, reliability, and
security.

Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways,

including transit time and response time. Transit time is the
amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between
an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network
depends on several factors, including the number of users, the
type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected
hardware, and the efficiency of the software. Performance is
often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay. We often need more throughput and less delay.
However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to
send more data to the network, we may increase throughput,
but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the
network.

Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network

reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.

Security: Network security issues include protecting data from

unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.

Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network
attributes.

Type of Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A

link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one
device to another.

There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and

multipoint.

Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a

dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the
link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or
cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible When you change
television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television's control system.

Multipoint A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is

one in which more than two specific devices share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use
the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If
users must take turns, it is timeshared connection.
 OSI MODEL
1. What Is the OSI Model?

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven

layers that computer systems use to communicate over a
network. The OSI model is divided into seven distinct layers,
each with specific responsibilities, ranging from physical
hardware connections to high-level application interactions.

Each layer of the OSI model interacts with the layer directly
above and below it, encapsulating and transmitting data in a
structured manner. This approach helps network professionals
troubleshoot issues, as problems can be isolated to a specific
layer. The OSI model serves as a universal language for
networking, providing a common ground for different systems
to communicate effectively.

The OSI model was the first standard model for network
communications, adopted by all major computer and
telecommunication companies in the early 1980s. It was
introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer
and telecom companies, and was adopted by ISO as an
international standard in 1984.
The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler
TCP/IP model. However, the OSI 7-layer model is still widely
used, as it helps visualize and communicate how networks
operate.

Why Is The OSI Model Important?

The OSI model provides several advantages for organizations

managing networks and communications:

1. Shared understanding of complex systems: OSI offers a

universal language for networking, enabling different
network devices and software to communicate. By
dividingcommunication into seven distinct layers, it
allows network professionals to isolate and
troubleshoot problems effectively.

2. Faster research and development: Developers can focus

on improving specific layers without affecting others,
leading to more rapid innovations. This modular
approach enables specialization and enables different
teams to work on various aspects of network
communication simultaneously.

3. Flexible standardization: The model’ s layered approach

allows for the integration of new technologies at any
layer without disrupting the overall network structure.
This ensures compatibility across different devices and
protocols, ensuring long-term viability and scalability of
network infrastructure.
OSI Model Explained: The OSI 7Layers

We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer
that directly serves the end user, down to the physical layer.

7. Application Layer
The Application Layer serves as the interface between the end-
user applications and the underlying network services. This
layer provides protocols and services that are directly utilized
by end-user applications to communicate across the network.
Key functionalities of the Application Layer include resource
sharing, remote file access, and network management.

Examples of protocols operating at the Application Layer

include Hypertext Transfer Protocol

(HTTP) for web browsing, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for file
transfers, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for email
services, and Domain Name System (DNS) for resolving domain
names to IP addresses. These protocols ensure that user
applications can effectively communicate with each other and
with servers over a network.

6. Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer, also known as the syntax layer, is
responsible for translating data between the application layer
and the network format. It ensures that data sent from the
application layer of one system is readable by the application
layer of another system. This layer handles data formatting,
encryption, and compression, facilitating interoperability
between different systems.

One of the key roles of the Presentation Layer is data

translation and code conversion. It transforms data into a
format that the application layer can understand. For example,
it may convert data from ASCII to EBCDIC. It also includes
encryption protocols to ensure data security during
transmission and compression protocols to reduce the amount
of data for efficient transmission.

5. Session Layer
The Session Layer manages and controls the connections
between computers. It establishes, maintains, and terminates
connections, ensuring that data exchanges occur efficiently and
in an organized manner. The layer is responsible for session
checkpointing and recovery, which allows sessions to resume
after interruptions.

Protocols operating at the Session Layer include Remote

Procedure Call (RPC), which enables a program to execute a
procedure on a remote host as if it were local, and the session
establishment phase in protocols like NetBIOS and SQL. These
services enable reliable communication, especially in complex
network environments.

4. Transport Layer
The Transport Layer provides end-to-end communication
services for applications. It ensures complete data transfer,
error recovery, and flow control between hosts. This layer
segments and reassembles data for efficient transmission and
provides reliability with error detection and correction
mechanisms.

Protocols at this layer include Transmission Control Protocol

(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is connection-
oriented and ensures reliable data transfer with error checking
and flow control, making it suitable for applications like web
browsing and email. UDP is connectionless, offering faster,
though less reliable, transmission, suitable for applications like
video streaming and online gaming.

3. Network Layer
The Network Layer is responsible for data routing, forwarding,
and addressing. It determines the best physical path for data to
reach its destination based on network conditions, the priority
of service, and other factors. This layer manages logical
addressing through IP addresses and handles packet
forwarding.

Key protocols at this layer include the Internet Protocol (IP),

which is important for routing and addressing, Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP) for diagnostic and error-reporting
purposes, and routing protocols like Routing Information
Protocol (RIP) that manage the routing of data

across networks.
2. Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is responsible for node-to-node data

transfer and error detection and correction. It ensures that
data is transmitted to the correct device on a local network
segment.

This layer manages MAC (Media Access Control) addresses and

is divided into two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and
Media Access Control (MAC).

Protocols and technologies at this layer include Ethernet, which

defines the rules for data transmission over local area networks
(LANs), and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) for direct connections
between two network nodes. It also includes mechanisms for
detecting and possibly correcting errors that may occur in the
Physical Layer.

1. Physical Layer
The Physical Layer is responsible for the physical connection
between devices. It defines the hardware elements involved in
the network, including cables, switches, and other physical
components. This layer also specifies the electrical, optical, and
radio characteristics of the network.

Functions of the Physical Layer include the modulation, bit

synchronization, and transmission of raw binary data over the
physical medium. Technologies such as Fiber Optics and Wi-Fi
operate at this layer, ensuring that the data physically moves
from one device to another in the network