15/11/2022
Elastic and plastic behaviour
CE4013
Dr Diana Petkova
Lecture outline
Stress and strain
◦ direct , shear, hydrostatic
Elastic behaviour: Hooke’s law
◦ Constants: E, G, K
◦ Relationship between E and G, E and K
(Poisson’s ratio)
◦ Elastic materials
◦ Energy
Plasticity and Strain hardening
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Elasticity: definition/revision
To obtain information about a material we’ll
conduct a standard tensile test.
The test piece is subjected to stress, and as a result
it will change its shape. If the stress is removed and
the material returns to its original shape the
deformation is known as elastic deformation.
Ceramics, glasses, thermosetting polymers are elastic up to
their fracture stress. Metals are elastic up to a certain point.
Thermoplastic materials are viscoelastic.
Stress & strain
A force is applied normal (perpendicular) to the
face of the sample and the force is transmitted
through the element and balanced by an equal/
opposite force. To eliminate the geometrical
factors of the sample we introduce:
Baron Cauchy
1789 -1857 Stress=Force/Area [N/mm2 or MPa]
In this case use the smallest area, So
Strain= change in length/ original length
[no dimension but usually presented in
microstrain or strain value x10-6]
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Direct stress and strain: σ & ε
Tensile and compressive stresses are called
direct stresses
The stress σ across the plane (perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the sample) is of the same
[Link] the stress diagram would show
uniform (rectangular) distribution.
Direct stress and strain: σ & ε
As load is applied longitudinal strain can
be determined
L
=
Loriginal
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Shear stress and strain: τ & γ
If the force is applied parallel to the face of
an element (below), 3 other forces are
required to maintain equilibrium. These
forces would form 2 balanced moments!
The forces create a state of shear in the
element
Shear stress and strain: τ & γ
The average shear stress can be calculated
F
=
A
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Shear stress and strain: τ & γ
If the element shears by a distance x, the shear strain
is then x
= = tan
L
Hydrostatic pressure
For a 3 dimensional analysis a volumetric stress and
strain can be defined as caused by hydrostatic
pressure.
The state produced by applying equal tensile or
compressive forces to all six faces of a cubic
element.
Any plane in the cube now carries the same state
of stress (force on face by area A)
change in volume V
= =
original volume V
= volumetric strain
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Thermal stresses
Not only forces could lead to the development of
stresses. Materials expand at a different rate under
elevated temperatures and when combined, thermal
stress could appear.
When a material is heated it [Link] calculate
the change in length a coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE) is used:
L = Loriginal T
= coefficient of thermal expansion [/ C ]
T = temperature difference
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Thermal stresses
Example: Calculate the change in length
when a steel bar of 100mm is heated to
150°C (α=12x10-6/°C)
L = Loriginal T
= coefficient of thermal expansion [/ C ]
T = temperature difference
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Thermal stresses
Example: Calculate the change in length
when a steel bar of 100mm is heated to
150°C (α=12x10-6/°C)
L = Loriginal T
= coefficient of thermal expansion [/ C ]
T = temperature difference
L = Loriginal T
L = 100 12 10−6 (150 − 20)
L = 0.156mm
L 0.156
thermal = = = 1.56 10−3
Loriginal 100
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Stress in real structures
Usually different structural elements would
have complex distribution of stress. It can be
described as a combination of tension,
compression and shear (note the orientation of
the shear stresses in relation to the coordinate
system).
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Example: State of the stresses metals
undergo during deformation
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Elastic behaviour: So far
We introduced:
stress and strain
tensile/ compressive = direct
shear = tangential
stress states
Next: describe the relationship between
stress and strain
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Elastic behaviour:
Hooke’s law (Robert Hooke)
The law states that the strain developed
Robert Hooke in a material is directly proportional to
1635-1703
the stress producing it, in other words:
proportional to
Ut tensio sic vis= the power of any spring is in the same proportion with the tension thereof.
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Elastic constants: E (Young’s
modulus) Thomas Young 1773-1829
As we study stress strain curves of materials
we observe that for an elastic material the
Thomas Young
ratio of stress to strain is constant to a
1773-1829 certain point.
Therefore for direct stress and strain
the relationship can be expressed as:
Hooke's law = E
E is constant for the material; [MPa]
E= modulus of elasticity/Young's modulus
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Elastic constants: G & K
For shear stress and stress we observe the same
trend and therefore we introduce the shear modulus
G: = G
G= modulus of rigidity/shear modulus
= shear strain, defined as the change in the angle
formed by the faces under stress
The modulus of rigidity G of any given material is
less than one-half, but more than one-third of the
modulus of elasticity E of that material.
(1/3)E<G<(1/2)E
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Elastic constants: G & K
Bulk modulus of elasticity= elastic response
of the material to equilateral tension or
compression
p = K
K = bulk modulus of elasticity
p = equilateral tension or compression
= volumetric strain
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Elastic constants: ν
As the material is stretched in one
direction, it contracts in the other two
directions. The ratio of lateral to axial
Simeon Denis Poisson strain is called Poisson’s ratio=ν
1781-1840
Usually for construction materials ν is
between 0.15 and 0.3
lateral
=
axial
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Elastic constants: E, G and K
Relationship E to G:
E
G=
2(1 + )
Relationship E to K:
E
K=
3(1 − 2 )
Example: If Esteel =210GPa and the Poisson’s
ratio is 0.3 estimate the shear modulus
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Elastic constants: E, G and K
Relationship E to G:
E
G=
2(1 + )
Relationship E to K:
E
K=
3(1 − 2 )
Example: If Esteel =210GPa and the Poisson’s
ratio is 0.3 estimate the shear modulus
E 210 109 210 109
G= = = = 80.8 109 Pa = 80.8GPa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0.3) 2(1 + 0.3)
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Elastic properties in x,y,z directions
Isotropic materials: a material is isotropic if its mechanical
are the same in all directions, such as steel
Anisotropic materials: materials which elastic constants
differ according to the direction of stressing
A material is orthotropic (subdivision of anisotropic) if
its mechanical are independent in three mutually
perpendicular directions. Examples of orthotropic materials
are wood, many crystals, and rolled metals
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Stress strain curves of typical
construction materials
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Example: use of E in engineering
calculations
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Example: use of E in engineering
calculations
Calculate δ
(deflection) =
Pl 3
P=
L=
50 N
1000 mm
48EI E= 210000 N/mm2
Of a simply I= 2000 mm4
Rect CSA
supported beam width=
height=
3 mm
20 mm
with a point deflection= 2.480159 mm
load w= 1 N/mm
5wl 4 L= 1000 mm
Of a simply =
384 EI E=
I=
210000 N/mm2
2000 mm4
supported beam Rect CSA
width= 3 mm
with a UDL height= 20 mm
deflection=31.00198 mm
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Elastic range of materials
Yield point (yield stress)
For wrought iron and steels a sudden yield
occurs with little or no increase in load
Load at yield point
Yield stress=
Original CSA
◦ Units:
MPa
N/mm2
S235, S275, S355
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Stress strain curve:
energy
A force F acts through
a displacement dL and
therefore does work
F x dL.
Per unit volume:
FdL
dW = = d J / m3
AL
The work done per unit volume is the
area under the stress-strain curve
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Elastic range of materials
Proof stress (offset yield stress)
Most metals (except for steels) have no clear yield point. For those
the 0.2% proof strength can be expressed, corresponding to the
stress at point B. Line AB is drawn parallel to the linear part of the
curve from the 0.2% strain.
0.2% proof force
0.2 % proof strength=
Original CSA
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Elasticity
Example: mild steel
Elastic= up to upper
yield point
Lower yield point
= considerable amount of plastic strain
If the stress is increased>> further plastic
deformations and strain hardening
If the load is removed the elastic strain will
recover, when immediately loaded again the
deformations would be plastic (no yielding
plateau)
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