Human endocrine system

• Chemical co-ordination: A process of communicating hormones throughout the body

by using chemicals known as hormones.

• Hormones: hormones are secreted by endocrine glands, usually made up of proteins and
regulate metabolic actions. (easily broken down by enzymes)

• Target organ: Specific cells that respond to given hormones.

• Endocrine gland: A vascular gland that secretes hormones which are carried in the
bloodstream.

How do exo and endocrine differ?

Secretions of exocrine glands are carried in ducts. (salivary glands, liver, pancreas)
Secretions of endocrine glands are carried in bloodstream and do not contain ducts. (adrenal
gland)

Exocrine glands:
1. Hypothalamus:
• Situated above the pituitary gland.
• Secretes ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
What is ADH?

Osmoreceptors in blood vessels of the hypothalamus detect an increase of osmolarity of the blood. AHD
helps to conserve water. Water is reabsorbed back into the blood via the kidney.

2. Pituitary gland: (master gland)

Hormones secreted:
• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Stimulates thyroid gland to release more thyroxin.

• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Females: stimulates formation of eggs.
Males: Stimulates sperm formation.

• Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Stimulates ovulation from the ovary and the formation of the corpus luteum.

• Prolactin:
Stimulates production of milk in female mammary glands. Also responsible for maternal instinct.

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH):

Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete cortisone and aldosterone.

• Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH)

Stimulates testes to secrete testosterone.

• Growth hormone:
Promotes skeletal and muscular growth by stimulating the synthesis of proteins
3. Thyroid gland:
Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid (functions):

• Increases basal metabolic rate:

(Amount of energy the body needs to keep functioning at rest)

• Promotes healthy functioning of the heart.

• Promotes normal functioning of the nervous system.

Keeping thyroxin in the blood constant:

This is done by a process of negative feedback: The negative feedback

mechanism will ensure that thyroxin is always kept at the correct level (set
point).

• Pituitary gland detects a decrease of thyroxin in the blood and

secretes more THS (thyroid stimulating hormone).

• TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) stimulates the thyroid to secrete

more thyroxin.

• Higher levels of thyroxin will stop further production of TSH (thyroid

stimulating hormone) from pituitary.

Homeostasis:

Internal environment:

Tissue fluid and blood fluid are extracellular fluids and from the internal
environment. (eg. pH, oxygen, CO2 etc).

The process of maintaining the internal environment in a constant optimal

state, despite constant changes in the environmental temperature.

- This is done by detecting changes from the set point or norm and
correcting them. (negative feedback)

The negative feedback system is made up of an:

- Receptor: Detects change from set point and signals the control
centre.

- Control centre: processes the information and activates

corrective mechanisms that is sent to the effector.

- Effector: corrects the change, returning conditions to set point.

4. Pancreas

The pancreas functions both as an exocrine and endocrine gland.

- Exocrine function: secretion of pancreatic juice, which flows along the pancreatic duct into the
duodenum where it helps chemical digestion.
-
- Endocrine function: Secretes glucagon and insulin by groups of cells called islets of Langerhans. Passes
directly into the blood.
Islets of Langerhans:
Two different cells that secrets different hormones:

• Alpha cells secrete glucagon.

• Beta cells secrete insulin.

Functions of these hormones:

Controlling the level of blood sugar/glucose in the blood.

Healthy glucose concentration is between 3.5 and

5.5mmol/litre of blood.

• Insulin lowers blood glucose levels.

• Glucagon will raise blood glucose levels.

These have an antagonistic effect on each other.

How insulin lowers blood sugar levels:

• After eating carbohydrates, glucose is absorbed and

How glucagon increases blood sugar levels? transported to the blood raising blood glucose levels.
As this blood passes through the pancreas, beta cells
When waking up in the morning or after exercise, blood
detect the rise in blood glucose and secretes insulin
glucose is low.
into the blood.
• As blood passes through the pancreas, the alpha
cells detect low glucose levels and secrete glucagon • Insulin goes to the main target organs (muscles and
in the blood. liver) where it makes the cell membranes more
permeable to glucose, resulting in glucose to leave
• The target cells are the liver cells, where glucagon the blood and enter the cells.
causes the breakdown of stored glycogen into
glucose.
• As this process of taking glucose out of the blood
takes place, blood sugar levels are lowered.
• As a result, the liver releases glucose into the blood,
rising blood glucose levels.
• The lower level of glucose is detected by insulin
• The increased glucose level signals glucagon secreting cells which then stop releasing insulin into
secreting cells to stop releasing glucagon into the the blood.
blood.

This is another example of the negative control feedback

system.
5. Adrenal glands:
A Pyramid shaped adrenal gland is found above each kidney. Each
adrenal gland is made up of the inner medulla and the outer
cortex.

Adrenal cortex:

Secretes a group of (steroid-fat) hormones, Aldosterone and

cortisol.

Aldosterone: 6. Gonads (reproductive organs):

Causes reabsorption of sodium ions from filtrate in kidney and
Ovaries:
stimulates movement of potassium ions into the filtrate. This
allows to regulate electrolytic levels for osmoregulation. The ovaries secrete oestrogen and prolactin.

Functions of oestrogen: (on its own)

Cortisol: • Rapid increase of physical growth during puberty.

Cortisol increases the body’s ability to resist stress, it is also anti-

• Appearance of secondary sex characteristics of
inflammatory and anti-allergic.
females at puberty.

Adrenal medulla: • Maturation of reproductive organs and keeping

The medulla secretes the hormone, adrenalin. them in a functional state.

Adrenalin is the flight or fight hormone and is secreted under Increased oestrogen levels inhibit the release of FSH
situations of sudden danger so that the body can cope with (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing
emergency. hormone). Without FSH (follicle stimulating
hormone) no egg matures therefore, no pregnancy.
Effects of adrenalin:

1. Blood pressure is increased because of vasoconstriction.

More blood flow to skeletal and cardiac muscle. Functions of progesterone:

2. Blood sugar levels increased because liver glycogen is • Together with oestrogen, Promotes cyclic changes
converted to glucose. This provides fuel for extra energy. in the endometrium during menstrual cycle.

3. Blood oxygen level increased because breathing rate and • Helps maintain the endometrium in a functional
depth is increased. Rate, because breathing muscles are state during pregnancy.
stimulated. Depth, because bronchial tudes dilate. Extra
oxygen is used for increased respiration which = • During pregnancy, progesterone helps keep the
increased energy. smooth muscle of the uterus wall relaxed.

4. Heart rate is increased. More glucose and oxygen

Testis:
pumped to muscles. Therefor more energy available for
Secrete a hormone known as testosterone.
muscle activity.
• Rapid increase in the rate of physical growth
5. Skeletal muscle tone is increased enabling the muscles to during puberty.
respond quicker.
• Development of secondary sex characteristics of
males at puberty.
These are the five most significant effects, there are a few more
such as:

• Dilation of pupils. Better vision in emergency. • Maturation of reproductive organs and keeping
• Increased sweating for cool down of body. them in a functional state.
• Reduction of digestive system activity.
• Increased mental alertness for better decision making. • Sex drive.
Disorders related to growth hormone Diabetes (diabetes mellitus):
(GH): A chronic disease characterised by high levels of glucose in the
blood.
• Hypersecretion: over secretion of GH.
• Hyposecretion: under secretion of GH. Type 1 diabetes (insulin required):

Usually starts in childhood and accounts for 5-10% of all diagnosed

In prepubertal children: cases.

Hypersecretion of GH results in overdevelopment of the • Tiredness

skeleton. This is known as gigantism. Usually caused by a • Production of large quantities of dilute urine containing
tumour in the pituitary gland. glucose.

Hyposecretion of GH results in underdevelopment of the • Great thirst due to loss of lots of liquid.

skeleton. This is known as pituitary dwarfism: It is an auto immune disease as the body’s immune system destroys the
insulin producing beta cells in the pancreas. As a result, the pancreas cannot
• Can be as short as 91-122cm tall.
produce insulin.
• Are not mentally retarded but are usually
sexually immature. Glucose therefore remains in the blood instead of moving into the cells, this
is known as hyperglycaemia.
This can be treated by injections of synthetic GH.
This disease can be controlled by proper diabetic management and regular
In adults: exercise.

The main treatment is daily insulin injections as well as testing blood glucose
Over secretion of GH leads to Acromegaly, a condition
levels frequently.
where the bones of the face, hands and feet are
enlarged. Short term effects:

• Extreme thirst
• Nausea
Disorders related to the thyroid: • Vomiting
• Dehydration
Hypothyroidism: Producing too little thyroxin, • Dizziness
causing a low metabolism. • Coma

• In adults, hypothyroidism results in Long term goals of treatment to prevent:

myxoedema, a condition of mental and physical • Blindness
sluggishness, with low blood pressure a slow • Kidney failure
heart rate and respiratory rate and a low body • Amputation of limbs
temperature. • Increased risk of heart attack or stroke

• In children, this leads to cretinism, a condition Future cures include pancreas transplant and use of stem cells to
in which a child does not grow physically, has produce functional beta cells.
immature sexual development and is mentally
retarded.
Type 2 diabetes (non-insulin required):

Hypothyroidism can be treated with iodine supplements Starts in adulthood. Develops when the body does not produce
or synthetic iodine. Once abnormalities have developed enough insulin or doesn’t use it correctly. This may be due to faulty
in a child, they cannot be reversed. receptor sites which aid in transport of glucose – this is known as
insulin resistance.
Hyperthyroidism: Producing too much thyroxin
Warning signs:
causes a high metabolic rate.
• Frequent urination
• The body temperature is high and sweating
increases. • Blurred vision
• Numbness in hands or feet
• Slow healing wounds
• The heart and respiratory rate and blood
pressure increases. A high diet high in carbohydrates (junk food), lack of exercise and
increasing age increase chance of developing type 2 diabetes.
• There are muscular tremors and nervousness.
Can be treated by losing weight and exercising, following a diet
high in fats and low in carbs or oral drugs or insulin.

• Sufferers often have a swollen thyroid gland,

known as an exophthalmic goitre.
Uses of hormones in sports: Erythropoietin: (EPO)
Growth hormone (GH): • A naturally occurring hormone produces in the kidney to regulate
red blood cell formation.
• Harder to detect than other PEDs

• Unnatural EPO levels can increase oxygen carrying capacity of

• Claims that GH enhances physical
blood.
performance not supported by scientific
research.
• Can provide a 10-15% performance increase in endurance sports.
Anabolic steroids:
• Not easy to detect.
• Illegal or banned by sport organisations.
• Vert dangerous as it thickens the blood which can cause heart
• Testosterone used by males or oestrogen attacks or strokes.
and progesterone used by females.

• Helps grow muscle Other hormones used:

Human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) and luteinising hormone (LH) –

• Recover faster
increase the body’s production of testosterone.

• Aggressive affects Insulin: works with GH to control blood sugar levels.

The value of cortisol and adrenalin during sporting

Androgenic anabolic steroids (AAS):
action:
• Derivatives of the male hormone
testosterone. • Adrenalin: increases the heart rate, force of muscle contraction
and respiration. Also stimulates the CNS making the mind more
• Increases protein synthesis. alert. The body sweats for colling of muscles and eyes dilate to
take in more surroundings.
• Gynecomastia development (female
breast tissue in men) • Cortisol: increases glucose levels in the blood making it
available for energy. Saves energy for physical activity.
• Shrunken testicles (temporarily stops digestion, growth and the immune system)

• Baldness Cortisol has a catabolic effect (breakdown) on muscle tissue. With

elevated cortisol levels, recovery will slow down. Rest between
• Infertility workouts is important.

• Women can develop deeper voices,

enlarged clitoris and increased body hair.
Stress system:
• Both men and women can suffer from Relies on adrenalin and cortisol.
liver, heart and mental disorders.
When stressed, adrenalin will work first – getting the body ready for
action. Shortly after, cortisol is released and works for a long time keeping
Female hormones also have anabolic effects the body in a state of action.
although not as marked as male hormones.
The rise of cortisol has a negative effect on the body such as:
• Athletes returning to training after • Weakened activity of the immune system
pregnancy often feel stronger.
• Reduced bone formation (osteoporosis)
• Oral contraceptives reduce menstrual loss
and lessen chance of iron deficiency. • Reduced production of protein

• Reduced ability to remember information that had been

stored