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CONSEQUENCE
ANALYSIS

POOL & JET FIRE SCENARIOS

Mehboob Shaikh

M Tech | B Eng. | CFPS | CFI | AMIE

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POOL FIRE

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Evaluation Process for Pool Fire

Release Rate

Pool Size

Flame Height

Fire Duration

Heat Transferred

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Example- 01 : Radiation from a Burning Pool

A high molecular weight hydrocarbon liquid escapes from a pipe leak at a

volumetric rate of 0.1 m3/s. A circular dike with a 25 m diameter contains the leak.
If the liquid catches on fire, estimate the thermal flux at a receiver 50 m away from
the edge of the diked area. Assume a windless day with 50% relative humidity.
Estimate the thermal flux using the point source model.

Additional Data:

I. Heat of combustion of the liquid: 43,700 KJ/kg

II. Heat of vaporization of the liquid: 300 KJ/kg

III. Boiling point of the liquid: 363 K

IV. Ambient temperature: 298 K

V. Liquid density: 730 Kg/ m3

VI. Heat capacity of liquid (constant): 2.5 KJ/Kg-K

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Solution:

Philosophy of Analysis :

I. This typical pool fire have resulted from release of flammable material having
high molecular weight from a Process equipment.
II. If the material is liquid, stored at a temperature below its normal boiling point,
the liquid will collect in a pool. The geometry of the pool is dictated by the
surroundings (i.e., diking), but an unconstrained pool in an open, flat area is
possible, particularly if the liquid quantity spilled is inadequate to completely fill
the diked area.
III. If the liquid is stored under pressure above its normal boiling point, then a
fraction of the liquid will flash into vapor, with unflashed liquid remaining to
form a pool in the vicinity of the release.
IV. The analysis must also consider spill travel. Where can the liquid go and how far
can it travel?
V. Once a liquid pool has formed, an ignition source is required. Each release has a
finite probability of ignition and must be evaluated.
VI. The ignition can occur via the vapor cloud (for flashing liquids), with the flame
traveling upwind via the vapor to ignite the liquid pool.
VII. For liquids stored below the normal boiling point without flashing, the ignition
can still occur via the flammable vapor from the evaporating liquid. Both of these
cases may result in an initial flash fire due to burning vapors—this may cause
initial thermal hazards
VIII. Once an ignition has occurred, a pool fire results and the dominant mechanism
for damage is via thermal effects, primarily via radiative heat transfer from the
resulting flame.
IX. If the release of flammable material from the process equipment continues, then
a jet fire is also likely. If the ignition occurs at the very beginning of the release,
then inadequate time is available for the liquid to form a pool and only a jet fire
will result.

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Step : 01 : Determine Vertical Burning Rate and Mass Burning Rate

The Vertical burning rate is given by ;

Where ;
Ymax = Vertical level of liquid level decrease ( m/s)
Hc = Net heat of Combustion ( KJ/kg)
H = Modified heat of vaporization with an adjustment for heating liquid
from an ambient temp. to boiling temp.

Given by ;

= 300 + 2.5 (363- 298)

= 462 KJ/kg
Hence, Vertical Burning rate,

43,700
Ymax = 1.27 x 10^(-6) x
462

Ymax = 1.20 x 10^(-4) m/s

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Mass Burning Rate is given by;

mB = Density x Vertical Burning Rate

mB = 730 x 1.20 x 10^(-4)
mB = 0.0876 kg / m^2.s

Step : 02 : Determine Maximum Steady State Pool Diamter.

In most cases, pool size is fixed by the size of the release and by local
physical barriers(e.g., dikes, sloped drainage areas).

For a continuous leak, on an infinite flat plane, the maximum diameter is

reached when the product of burning rate and surface area equals the
leakage rate.

Hence, equibrium diameter is given by;

Where;

Dmax = Equibrium Diameter (m)

VL = Volumetric Leakage rate ( m3/s)
Y = Burning Rate ( m/s)

0.10
Dmax = 2 √
3.14 𝑥 1.20 𝑥 10^(−4)

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Dmax = 32. 6 m

Since this is larger than the diameter of the diked area, the pool will be
constrained by the dike with a diameter of 25 m.

Hence area of Pool = 3.14x (25)^4 / 4 = 491 SM

Step : 03 : Determine Flame Height ( Thomson Method)

For Circular Pool Fire, Height to Diameter Ratio is given by;

Where;

H = Visible flame height (m)

D = Equivalent pool diameter (m)
mB = Mass burning rate (kg/m2 s)
pa = Air density (1.2 kg/m3 at 20 C and 1 atm.)
g = Acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

0.0876 0.61
= 42 ( )
1.2 𝑥 √9.81𝑥 25
𝐻
= 1.59
𝐷

F
H = 39.7 Mtr.

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Step : 04: Determine View Factor:

For the point source model, the view factor is given by;

Where;

FP = Point source view factor.

X = Distance from the point source to the target.

Above Expression assumes that all radiation arises from a single point
and is received by an object perpendicular to this.
This view factor must only be applied to the total heat output, not to the
flux.

The key difference between heat flow and heat flux is that heat flow refers to
the exchange of thermal energy between Fphysical systems, whereas heat flux refers
to energy flow between physical systems per unit of area per unit of time

Receptor
39.7 M

X
19.86 M

25 M 50 M
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From the right triangle formed & applying pythagorus theorem,

X^2 = ( 19.9) ^2 + ( 12.5+50) ^ 2

X^2 = 4302 SM

X = 65.59 M

Hence,

View Factor ( Fp) = 1 / 4 x 3.14 x (65.59)^2 = 1.85 x 10 ^( -5) m^(-2)

Step : 05: Determine Atmospheric Transmisivity:

The atmospheric transmissivity, 𝜏a, is an important factor. Thermal

radiation is absorbed and scattered by the atmosphere. This causes a
reduction in radiation received at target locations.

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Where;

Τ = Atmospheric transmissivity (fraction of the energy transmitted: 0

to 1);
Pw = Water partial pressure (Pascals, N/m2);
Xs = Path length, distance from the flame surface to the target (m).

An expression for the water partial pressure as a function of the relative

humidity and temperature of the air,

Where ;

Pw = Water partial pressure (Pascals, N/m2);

(RH) = Relative humidity (percent);
Ta = Ambient temperature (K).

Hence, Firstly Partial Pressure of water is ;

Pw = 101325 x 0.5 x e^ ( 14.4114 – 5328/298)
Pw = 1580 Pa.
Therefore, Atm. Tranmisivity is;
= 2.02 x ( 1580 x 65.59) ^ (-0.09)
= 0.71
Atm. Transmisivity = 0.71

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Step : 06: Determine Received Thermal Flux :

For Point Source Model,

Where;

Er= Thermal flux received at the target (energy/area)

Τ = Atmospheric transmissivity, provided(unitless)
Qr = Total energy rate from the combustion (energy/time)
Fp = Point source view factor (length2)
n = Fraction of the combustion energy radiated, typically 0.15 to 0.35
mB = Mass burning rate, provided (mass/area-time)
Hc = Heat of combustion for the burning liquid (energy/mass)
A = Total area of the pool (length2)

Er = (0.71) ( 0.35) ( 0.0876) ( 43700) ( 491) (1.85 x 10^-5)

Er = 8.64 KJ/ M2.s

Er= 8.64 KW/SM

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JET FIRE

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Evaluation Process for Jet Fire

Estimate Discharge Rate

Estimate Flame Size

Estimate Heat Transfer

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Philosophy of Analysis :

I. If the fuel is a liquid, the combination of orifice size and pressure drop across the
orifice determines the degree of atomization (i.e., the distribution of droplet
sizes) of the liquid based on a Critical Weber number.
II. Sufficiently small droplet sizes (e.g., less than 0.004 in. [0.1 mm] diameter)
ensure that the fuel is burned completely in the spray, but larger drop sizes (e.g.,
greater than 0.04 in. [1 mm]) can result in some of the fuel “raining” out from
the spray to form a liquid pool.
III. Assumption of a vertical flame will provide a conservative result, since the
vertical flame will provide the largest radiant heat flux at any receptor point.

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Example- 02 : Radiation from a Jet Fire

A 25-mm hole occurs in a large pipeline resulting in a leak of pure

methane gas and a flame. The methane is at a pressure of 100 bar gauge.
The leak occurs 2-m off the ground. Determine the radiant heat flux at a
point on the ground 15 m from the resulting flame. The ambient
temperature is 298 K and the humidity is 50% RH.

Additional Data:

Heat capacity ratio, k, for methane: 1.32

Heat of combustion for methane: 50,000 kJ/kg
Flame temperature for methane: 2200 K
Solution :

L Receptor

2M

15M

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Step : 01: Determine Height of the flame :

Assume a vertical flame for a conservative result and that the release
hole is represented by a nozzle. The height of the flame is calculated
using below expression;

Where ;

L = Length of the visible turbulent flame measured from the break point
(m)
dj = Diameter of the jet, that is, the physical diameter of the nozzle (m)
CT = Fuel mole fraction concentration in a stoichiometric fuel-air mixture
(unitless)
Tf, Tj = Adiabatic flame temperature and jet fluid temperature,
respectively (K)
𝛼 = Moles of reactant per mole of product for a stoichiometric fuel-air
mixture (unitless)
Ma = Molecular weight of the air (mass/mole)
Mf= Molecular weight of the fuel (mass/mole)
Combustion reaction of stoichiometric methane mixture in air,

Air: 79% N2 + 21% O2

Attention: there is not fuel neither oxygen in flue gas.

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𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒

Thus, Mole Fraction of Fuel =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

Hence,
No. of Moles of CH4 = 1
No. of Moles of O2 = 2
No. of Moles of N2 = 7.52 ( No. of moles of N2 = 3.76 x no. of moles of O2)

Therefore,

CT = 1/(1+2+7.52)
CT= 0.095
Hence,
𝐿 5.3 7.4 29
= √ (0.095 + (1 − 0.095) 16)
𝑑𝑗 0.095 1.00

𝐿
= 200
𝑑𝑗

L = 200 x 25
L = 5 mtr.

As shown in above figure; Since the flame base is 2 m off the ground, the
point source of radiation is located at 2 m + (5.00 m)/2 = 4.50 m above
the ground.

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Step : 02: Determine Discharge rate of methane :

The discharge rate of the methane is determined for choked flow of gas
through a hole,

But, What is the choked Flow in Gases ?

Pertaining to gases/steam – Critical flow is a choked flow condition

caused by increased gas velocity at the vena contracta. When velocity at
the vena contracta reaches sonic velocity, additional increases in dP by
reducing downstream pressure produce no increase in flow.

That means, As the upstream pressure P1 decreases (or downstream

pressure P2 decreases), This maximum occurs when the velocity of the
discharging gas reaches the sonic velocity. At this point, the flow
becomes independent of the downstream pressure and is dependent
only on the upstream pressure and its is given by;

In basic terms, as you decrease the outlet pressure, which increases the
pressure drop, choked flow results in no additional flow; meaning you
can’t get any more flow out of the fixed orifice.

What is Sonic Velocity ?

Simply stated, sonic velocity is the velocity of sound in that fluid (a

gas/vapor). It is a maximum that can be achieved by the fluid.

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As we know, flow is induced due to a pressure difference between the

upstream condition and the downstream condition. Holding the
upstream pressure constant, as you lower the downstream pressure, the
fluid velocity will increase. At a certain downstream pressure, the fluid
velocity will hit a maximum. Dropping the pressure any further will have
no affect on this value. This is the point where the fluid has reached sonic
velocity.
And the flow at this velocity is called “choked” flow or max. flow.

So, for this given case,

A = 4.91 x 10^-4 SM

Cd = 1 ( For Choked flow through hole)

K = Cp/Cv = Heat capacity ratio = 1.32 for methane

Hence,

2
( )^ (k+1/k-1) = 0.341
𝑘+1

1.32 𝑥 1 𝑥 16 𝑥 0.341
m = 1 x 4.91 x 10^-4 x 100 x 10^5 x √
0.082057 𝑥 298 𝑥 101325

m = 8.37 kg/s

The radiation path length is the length of the hypotenuse. Thus,

X^2 = ( 4.50)^2 + ( 15)^ 2 = 245 SM

X = 15.7 m

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Step : 03: Determine View Factor :

For the point source model, the view factor is given by;

Where;

FP = Point source view factor.

X = Distance from the point source to the target

Fp = 1/ ( 4 x 3.14 x (15.7)^2

Fp = 3.25 x 10^ -4 m2

Step : 04: Determine Atm. Transmisivity :

The atmospheric transmissivity, 𝜏a, is an important factor. Thermal

radiation is absorbed and scattered by the atmosphere. This causes a
reduction in radiation received at target locations.

Where;

Τ = Atmospheric transmissivity (fraction of the energy transmitted: 0

to 1);
Pw = Water partial pressure (Pascals, N/m2);
Xs = Path length, distance from the flame surface to the target (m).

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An expression for the water partial pressure as a function of the relative

humidity and temperature of the air,

Where ;

Pw = Water partial pressure (Pascals, N/m2);

(RH) = Relative humidity (percent);
Ta = Ambient temperature (K).

Hence, Firstly Partial Pressure of water is ;

Pw = 101325 x 0.5 x e^ ( 14.4114 – 5328/298)
Pw = 1580 Pa.
Therefore, Atm. Tranmisivity is;
= 2.02 x ( 1580 x 15.7) ^ (-0.09)
𝜏𝑎= 0.81

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Step : 05: Determine Received Thermal Flux :

For Point Source Model,

Where;

Er= Thermal flux received at the target (energy/area)

𝜏 = Atmospheric transmissivity, provided(unitless)
Qr = Total energy rate from the combustion (energy/time)
Fp = Point source view factor (length2)
n = Fraction of the combustion energy radiated, typically 0.15 to 0.35,
0.2 for methane
mB = Mass burning rate, provided (mass/area-time)
Hc = Heat of combustion for the burning liquid (energy/mass)
A = Total area of the pool (length2)

Er = (0.81) ( 0.2) ( 8.37) ( 5000) ( 491) (3.25 x 10^-4)

Er = 22.1 KJ /m2 s

Er = 22.1 kW/m2

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Example- 03 : Warehouse Pool Fire (Indoor)

A 55-gal (208-l) drum of diesel fuel is suddenly ruptured during a

warehouse accident. The fuel is released quickly across the concrete slab
and is ignited when it comes in contact with a piece of equipment.
Physical barriers limit the fuel spill to an area of 40 m2. Determine the
size of the resulting fire and the potential for damage to adjacent steel
structure and personnel. The closest equipment to the edge of the pool
is 5 m away at ground level. Assume a steel failure at 500°C (932°F).

5 Mtr

Pool Size 40 SM

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Solution :
Step : 01: Determine Heat Release rate from Pool :

Additional data from SFPE handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 3rd

edition, 2002, Page 3- 26

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For fire hazard analysis purposes, liquid pool fires will rarely be
significantly dangerous if they are smaller than about 0.2 m in diameter.
Thus, it will often only be necessary to treat pools burning in the radiative
regime.
In the radiative regime, it is found that data for most organic liquids can
be well correlated by Eqn Below;

Q = m” x ΔHc x ( 1- 𝒆−𝒌𝜷𝑫 ) x A

Where;
Q = Pool fire Heat release rate ( KW)
m”= Mass Burning Rate ( kg/m2- sec)
Hc = Effective Heat of Combustion ( kJ/kg)
A = Area of Dike ( m2)
Kb = Empirical Constant
D = Dia. Of Pool fire. ( m)

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Hence,
Diameter of Pool = 40 x 4/ 3.14 = 7.1 Mtr.

Q = m” x ΔHc x ( 1- 𝒆−𝒌𝜷𝑫 ) x A

Q = 0.054 x 43000 x ( 1- exp (-1.6 x 7.1) x 40

Q = 92878.98 KW or 88032.55 btu/sec

Step : 02: Determine Burning Duration :

𝟒𝑽
Tb = ∏
𝒙 𝑫𝟐 𝒙 𝒗

Where;

Tb = Burning Duration of Pool ( Sec)

V = Volume of Liquid ( m3)
D = Pool Dia. ( m)
V = Regression Rate ( m/sec)

V = m”/ p

Where;

m” = Mass Burning Rate ( kg/m2-sec)

p = Liquid density ( kg /m3)

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Therefore;

V = 0.054/ 810 = 0.000066 m/sec

Tb = 4 x 0.20 / ( 3.14 x 7.1^2 x 0.000066)

Tb = 76.57 Sec = 1.27 Min.

Step : 03: Determine Flame Height :

Using Thomson Equation;

For Circular Pool Fire, Height to Diameter Ratio is given by;

Where;

H = Visible flame height (m)

D = Equivalent pool diameter (m)
mB = Mass burning rate (kg/m2 s)
pa = Air density (1.18 kg/m3 at 25 C and 1 atm.)
g = Acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

H = 7.1 x 42 ( 0.054/1.18 √9.81x 7.1) ^ 0.61

H = 12.74 m

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Step : 04: Determine View Factor:

For the point source model, the view factor is given by;

Where;

FP = Point source view factor.

X = Distance from the point source to the target.

Above Expression assumes that all radiation arises from a single point
and is received by an object perpendicular to this.
This view factor must only be applied to the total heat output, not to the
flux.

The key difference between heat flow and heat flux is that heat flow refers to
the exchange of thermal energy between Fphysical systems, whereas heat flux refers
to energy flow between physical systems per unit of area per unit of time

Receptor
12.7 M

X
6.35 M

7.1 m 5M
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From the right triangle formed & applying pythagorus theorem,

X^2 = ( 6.35) ^2 + ( 3.55+5) ^ 2

X^2 = 113.425 SM

X = 10.65 M

Hence,

View Factor ( Fp) = 1 / 4 x 3.14 x (10.65)^2 = 7.01 x 10^-4

Step : 05: Determine Atmospheric Transmisivity:

The atmospheric transmissivity, 𝜏a, is an important factor. Thermal

radiation is absorbed and scattered by the atmosphere. This causes a
reduction in radiation received at target locations.

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Where;

Τ = Atmospheric transmissivity (fraction of the energy transmitted: 0

to 1);
Pw = Water partial pressure (Pascals, N/m2);
Xs = Path length, distance from the flame surface to the target (m).

An expression for the water partial pressure as a function of the relative

humidity and temperature of the air,

Where ;

Pw = Water partial pressure (Pascals, N/m2);

(RH) = Relative humidity (percent);
Ta = Ambient temperature (K).

Hence, Firstly Partial Pressure of water is ;

Pw = 101325 x 0.5 x e^ ( 14.4114 – 5328/298)
Pw = 1580 Pa.
Therefore, Atm. Tranmisivity is;
= 2.02 x ( 1580 x 10.65) ^ (-0.09)
= 0.84
Atm. Transmisivity = 0.84

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Step : 06: Determine Received Thermal Flux :

For Point Source Model,

Where;

Er= Thermal flux received at the target (energy/area)

Τ = Atmospheric transmissivity, provided(unitless)
Qr = Total energy rate from the combustion (energy/time)
Fp = Point source view factor (length2)
n = Fraction of the combustion energy radiated, typically 0.15 to 0.35
mB = Mass burning rate, provided (mass/area-time)
Hc = Heat of combustion for the burning liquid (energy/mass)
A = Total area of the pool (length2)

Er = (0.84) ( 0.35) ( 0.054) ( 43000) ( 40) ( 7.01 x 10^-4)

Er = 8.64 KJ/ M2.s

Er= 19.14 KW/SM

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Step : 07: Determine Surface Temprature of Target :

The incident heat flux from a fire onto the surface of a target will increase
the surface temperature of the target until steady-state conditions are
achieved.

Steady-state conditions will occur when the temperature of the target

reaches a level at which the incident heat flux equals the heat losses from
the target.

The energy balance for the target is approximated as:

Where;

q” = Incident heat flux to the target (kW/m2)

q′′rerad = Heat flux reradiated from the target to the surroundings
(kW/m2)
q′′Conv = Heat flux convected from the target to the surroundings
(kW/m2)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 ×10–11 kW/m2K4)
Ts = Surface temperature of the target (K)
T = Temperature of the surroundings (K)
Ta = Ambient temperature of the air around the target (K)
H= Heat transfer coefficient (0.015 kW/m2K can be used as a first
estimate)

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Assuming that the convective heat loss can be neglected, Above can be
solved explicitly for Ts:

Eliminating the convective heat transfer term will lead to higher

estimates of the surface temperature.

Hence,

19.4
Ts = [ + ( 298)4 ] ^ ( ¼)
5.67 𝑥 10−11

Ts = 769 K = 496 C

The resulting surface temperature of 452°C is below the failure criteria

temperature for steel of 500 to 550°C. Therefore, it can be concluded
that all steel structures 5 m or more from the fire will not be damaged
however because of very small difference in temprature safety of
equipment and employee might get compromised.

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Example- 04 : Process Jet Fire

A 10-cm diameter natural gas pipe is accidentally ruptured by a forklift.

The accident leads to the ignition of the gas and a vertical jet fire.
Determine the impact of the jet fire on structural steel components that
are 10 m above the fire and on 2-m-high process equipment that is 5 m
away at ground level. The pipe rupture occurs at ground level and the
gas release rate has been determined to be 0.8 kg/s

10 Mtr

5 Mtr

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Example- 05 : Storage Tank Fire

A full 24.4-m (80-ft) diameter floating roof gasoline storage tank suffers
the double accident of the sinking of the roof and the ignition of the
gasoline. Determine the radiant exposure to personnel on top of an
adjacent tank located 15.2 m (50 ft) away and the time available for
evacuation. Also determine the effect of the fire on communications
equipment located 76.2 m (250 ft) away at a height of 4.6m(15 ft) above
the lip of the tank.

15.2 Mtr

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Example- 06 : Flowing Pool Fire

A 5,000-gallon gasoline tanker truck rolls over and catches on fire. The
tank is penetrated and releases fuel at a rate of 0.032 m3/s (500 gallons
per minute). Assuming the ground is level and the resulting spill forms a
growing circular pool, determine the impact the fire will have on a
fiberglass process line that runs parallel to the road at a distance of 30.5
m (100 feet) away and 0.9 m (3 feet) off the ground.

0.9 Mtr

30.5 Mtr

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info@[Link] Design | Inspection | Training Mehboob Shaikh - +919146861270