Physical Layer

3
CHAPTER
Cabling: Fiber
Optics

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 Chapter Outline
3-1 Introduction 3-6 Safety
3-2 The Nature of Light 3-7 Troubleshooting Fiber Optics:
3-3 Fiber Attenuation and Dispersion The OTDR
3-4 Optical Components Summary
3-5 Optical Networking Questions and Problems

Objectives
● Describe the advantages of glass fiber ● Describe the components of a fiber-optic
over copper conductors system
● Describe the differences in how ● Describe the issues involved in optical
light travels in single-mode fiber and networking, including fiber-to-the-
multimode fiber business and fiber-to-the-home
● Define the terms attenuation and ● Describe the new networking develop-
dispersion as they relate to fiber-optic ments associated with optical Ethernet
cabling ● Understand the safety issues involved in
working with fiber optics

Key Terms
refractive index DL FTTH
infrared light LED FTTB
optical spectrum distributed feedback FTTD
cladding (DFB) laser optical Ethernet
numerical aperture dense wavelength division fiber cross-connect
multimode fiber multiplexing (DWDM) IDC
pulse dispersion vertical cavity surface IC fibers
emitting laser
graded-index fiber GBIC
(VCSEL)
single-mode fiber SFP
tunable laser
long haul XENPAK, XPAK, X2,
fiber, light pipe, or glass
mode field diameter XFP, SFP+
isolator
scattering logical fiber map
received signal level
absorption physical fiber map
(RSL)
macrobending mm
fusion splicing
microbending sm
mechanical splice
dispersion backbone
index-matching gel
zero-dispersion optical link budget
SC, ST, FC, LC, MT-RJ
wavelength visual fault locator (VFL)
SONET/SDH
dispersion compensating optical time-domain
STS
fiber reflectometer (OTDR)
FTTC
fiber Bragg grating event

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 Recent advances in the development and manufacture of fiber-optic systems have
made them the latest frontier in the field of optical networking. These systems
are being used extensively for both private and commercial data links and have
replaced a lot of copper wire. The latest networking technologies to benefit from
the developments in optical networking are Gigabit Ethernet and 10 Gigabit
Ethernet.

3-1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents a thorough introductory examination of fiber optics and
optical networking. The material presented examines the fundamentals of fiber
optics through system design. You might choose to focus on Section 3-5, “Optical
Networking,” if the students have already had an introduction to fiber optics.

A fiber-optic network is surprisingly simple, as shown in Figure 3-1. It is composed

of the following elements:

● A fiber-optic transmission strand can carry the signal (in the form of a modu-
lated light beam) a few feet or even hundreds or thousands of miles. A cable
may contain three or four hair-like fibers or a bundle of hundreds of such
fibers.
● A source of invisible infrared (IR) radiation—usually a light-emitting diode
(LED) or a solid-state laser—light beam can be modulated by digital data or
an analog signal.
● A photosensitive detector converts the optical signal back into an electrical
signal at the receiver.
● Efficient optical connectors are at the light-source-to-cable interface and
at the cable-to-photo detector interface. These connectors are critical when
splicing the optical cable due to the fact that excessive loss can occur at
connections.

The advantages of optical communication links compared to copper conductors are

enormous and include the following:

● Extremely wide system bandwidth: The intelligence is impressed on the

light by varying the light’s amplitude. The best LEDs have a 5 ns response
time and provide a maximum bandwidth of about 100MHz. With laser light
sources, however, data rates over 10Gbps are possible with single-mode fiber.
The amount of information multiplexed on such a system—in the hundreds of
gigabits per second—is indeed staggering.
● Immunity to electrostatic interference: External electrical noise and light-
ning do not affect energy in a fiber-optic strand. However, this is true only
for the optical strands and not the metallic cable components or connecting
electronics.

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 Source-to-fiber connection

Input Modulator
signal
Light
source

Transmitter

Optical fiber

Light
detector
Output
signal

Fiber-to-detector connection

Receiver

FIGURE 3-1 Fiber-optic communication system. (From Modern Electronic Communication 9/e,
by J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 781. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

● Elimination of crosstalk: The light in one glass fiber does not interfere with,
nor is it susceptible to, the light in an adjacent fiber. Recall that crosstalk
results from the electromagnetic coupling between two adjacent copper wires.
● Lower signal attenuation than with other propagation systems: Typical
attenuation of a 1GHz bandwidth signal for optical fibers is 0.03 dB per
100 feet, compared to 4.0 dB for RG-58U coaxial.
● Lower costs: Optical fiber costs are continuing to decline, and the costs of
many optical systems are decreasing as fiber is used more and more.
● Safety: In many wired systems, the potential hazard of short circuits requires
precautionary designs. In addition, the dielectric nature of fiber optics
eliminates the spark hazard.
● Corrosion: Given that glass is basically inert, the corrosive effects of certain
environments are not a problem.
● Security: Due to its immunity to electromagnetic coupling and radiation,
optical fiber can be used in most secure environments. Although interception
and tapping are possible, they are very difficult to do.

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 This chapter examines optical networking. Section 3-2, “The Nature of Light,”
presents an overview of optical fiber fundamentals, including a discussion on
wavelengths and types of optical fibers. Section 3-3, “Fiber Attenuation and
Dispersion,” examines the two distance-limiting parameters in fiber-optic
transmission: attenuation and dispersion. Optical components are presented in
Section 3-4, “Optical Components,” including the various types of connectors
currently used on fiber. Section 3-5, “Optical Networking,” provides an overview
of SONET and FDDI, as well as optical Ethernet. It also includes a discussion
on setting up a building and campus distribution for fiber. Safety is extremely
important when working with fiber. A brief overview of safety is presented in
Section 3-6, “Safety.” Section 3-7 “Troubleshooting Fiber Optics” examines traces
obtained from OTDR tests.
Table 3-1 outlines the CompTIA Network+ objectives related to this chapter and
identifies the chapter section that covers each objective. At the end of each chapter
section you will find a review with comments on the Network+ objectives presented
in that section. These comments are provided to help reinforce your understanding of
each Network+ objective. The chapter review also includes “Test Your Knowledge”
questions to help you understand key concepts before you advance to the next
section of the chapter. At the end of the chapter you will find a complete set of
questions as well as sample certification exam-type questions.

TABLE 3-1 Chapter 3 CompTIA Network+ Objectives

Domain/Objective Domain/Objective Description Section Where
Number Objective Is Covered

1.0 Networking Fundamentals

1.2 Explain the characteristics of network topologies and network 3-5
types.
1.3 Summarize the types of cables and connectors and explain which 3-2, 3-4, 3-5
is the appropriate type for a solution.
1.6 Explain the use and purpose of network services. 3-5
1.7 Explain basic corporate and datacenter network architecture. 3-5
2.0 Network Implementations
2.1 Compare and contrast various devices, their features, and their 3-2, 3-5
appropriate placement on the network.
2.2 Compare and contrast routing technologies and bandwidth 3-4
management concepts.
2.3 Given a scenario, configure and deploy common Ethernet 3-2, 3-5
switching features.
2.4 Given a scenario, install and configure the appropriate wireless 3-4
standards and technologies.

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 Domain/Objective Domain/Objective Description Section Where
Number Objective Is Covered

3.0 Network Operations

3.1 Given a scenario, use the appropriate statistics and sensors to 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5
ensure network availability.
3.2 Explain the purpose of organizational documents and policies. 3-5
3.3 Explain high availability and disaster recovery concepts and 3-4, 3-5
summarize which is the best solution.
4.0 Network Security
4.3 Given a scenario, apply network hardening techniques. 3-4
4.5 Explain the importance of physical security. 3-5
5.0 Network Troubleshooting
5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common cable connectivity issues 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6
and select the appropriate tools.
5.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common wireless connectivity 3-3
issues.
5.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot general networking issues. 3-6

3-2 THE NATURE OF LIGHT

This section provides an introduction to the basics of light refraction and reflection.
The concepts presented in this section are important because many of them are used
when fiber is described in the literature or data sheets. Key concepts are multimode
fiber, single-mode fiber, and pulse dispersion.
Before you can understand the propagation of light in a glass fiber, it is necessary
to review some basics of light refraction and reflection. The speed of light in free
space is 3 × 108 meters per second but is reduced in other media, including fiber-
optic cables. The reduction as light passes into denser material results in refraction
of the light. Refraction causes the light wave to be bent, as shown in Figure 3-2(a).
The speed reduction and subsequent refraction are different for each wavelength,
as shown in Figure 3-2(b). The visible light striking the prism in this figure
causes refraction at both air/glass interfaces and separates the light into its various
frequencies (colors), as shown. This same effect produces a rainbow, with water
droplets acting as prisms to split the sunlight into the visible spectrum of colors
(that is, the various frequencies). Refractive Index
The amount of bend provided by refraction depends on the refractive index of the The ratio of the speed of
two materials involved. The refractive index, n, is the ratio of the speed of light light in free space to its
in free space to the speed in a given material. It is slightly variable for different speed in a given material
frequencies of light, but for most purposes, a single value is accurate enough.

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 Projected path of
incident ray

Free Refracted
space light
ray Red

Green
Incident Sunlight
Denser Violet
light
material
ray
(b)

(a)

FIGURE 3-2 Refraction of light. (From Modern Electronic Communication 9/e, by

J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 782. Copyright ©2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

In the fiber-optics industry, spectrum notation is stated in nanometers (nm) rather

than in frequency (Hz) simply because it is easier to use, particularly in spectral-
width calculations. A convenient point of commonality is that 3 × 1014Hz, or
300THz, is equivalent to 1 μm, or 1000 nm. This relationship is shown in
Figure 3-3. The one exception to this naming convention is when discussing dense
wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM), which is the transmission of several
Infrared Light optical channels, or wavelengths, in the 1550 nm range, all on the same fiber. For
Light extending from DWDM systems, notations and channel separations are stated in terahertz (THz).
680 nm up to the Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) systems are discussed in Section 3-5.
wavelengths of the An electromagnetic wavelength spectrum chart is provided in Figure 3-3. The
microwaves
electromagnetic light waves just below the frequencies in the visible spectrum
Optical Spectrum extending from 680 nm up are called infrared light waves. Whereas visible light
Light frequencies from has a wavelength from approximately 430 nm up to 680 nm, infrared light extends
the infrared on up from 680 nm up to the microwaves. The frequencies from the infrared on up are
termed the optical spectrum.
These are the commonly used wavelengths in today’s fiber-optic systems:

● Multimode fiber: 850 and 1310 nm

● Single-mode fiber: 1310 and 1550 nm
● Fiber-to-the-home/fiber-to-the-business: 1600–1625 nm

Cladding
Figure 3-4 shows the typical construction of an optical fiber. The core is the portion
Material surrounding of the fiber strand that carries the transmitted light. The cladding is the material
the core of optical fiber,
surrounding the core. It is almost always glass; plastic cladding of a glass fiber is
which must have a lower
index of refraction
available but rarely used. In any event, the refraction indexes for the core and the
to keep the light in the cladding are different. The cladding must have a lower index of refraction to keep
core the light in the core. A plastic coating surrounds the cladding to provide protection.
Figure 3-5 shows examples of fiber strands from a fiber bundle.

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 Visible light
Vio B lue Grn Yel Orng Red
Ultraviolet Infrared
Fiber optics
Far Near Near Middle Far

*200 300 390 455 492 577 597 622 770 850 1310 1620 1800 6000 40000

Gamma
rays
Long
Cosmic Micro- electrical
X rays Radio waves oscillations
rays waves

* 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017
1m 10 2 10 4 10 6 Meters

Wavelength
3000Hz—Audio
1000 kHz AM broadcast
Frequency 3 { 107Hz—Radio/30MHz/VHF
3 { 108Hz—Radio/300MHz/UHF
3 { 109Hz—Microwave radio/3GHz
3 { 1011Hz
* values in this row
are in nanometers 3 { 1014 Hz

FIGURE 3-3 The electromagnetic wavelength spectrum. (From Modern Electronic

Communication 9/e, by J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 784. Copyright ©2008 Pearson
Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

Protective
jacket

Cladding
Core

FIGURE 3-4 Single-fiber construction. (From Modern Electronic Communication 9/e, by

J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 785. Copyright ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

Another measure of a fiber’s light acceptance is numerical aperture, which is a

basic specification provided by the manufacturer that indicates the fiber’s ability to Numerical Aperture
accept light and shows how much light can be off-axis and still propagate. A measure of a fiber’s
ability to accept light
Several types of optical fibers are available, and there are significant differences in
their characteristics. The first communication-grade fibers (in the early 1970s) had
light-carrying core diameters about equal to the wavelength of light. They could
carry light in just a single waveguide mode.

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 FIGURE 3-5 Fiber strands (focal point/Shutterstock).

The difficulty of coupling significant light into such a small fiber led to the
development of fibers with cores of about 20 to 100 μm. These fibers support
many waveguide modes and are called multimode fibers. The first commercial
Multimode Fiber fiber-optic systems used multimode fibers with light at 800–900 nm wavelengths.
A fiber that supports A variation of multimode fiber, termed graded-index fiber, was subsequently
many optical waveguide developed and afforded greater bandwidth capability.
modes
As the technology became more mature, the single-mode fibers were found to provide
lower losses and even higher bandwidth. This led to their use at 1300 nm, 1550 nm,
and up to 1625 nm in many telecommunication and fiber-to-the home applications.
The new developments have not made old types of fiber obsolete. The application now
determines the type used. The following major criteria affect the choice of fiber type:
● Signal losses
● Ease of light coupling and interconnection
● Bandwidth
Figure 3-6 illustrates a fiber with three modes (that is, multimode) of propagation:
● The lowest-order mode is traveling along the axis of the fiber.
● The middle-order mode is reflected twice at the interface.
● The highest-order mode is reflected many times and makes many trips across
the fiber.
As a result of these variable path lengths, the light entering the fiber takes a variable
length of time to reach the detector. This results in a pulse-broadening or dispersion

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 characteristic, as shown in Figure 3-6. This effect, termed pulse dispersion,
limits the maximum distance and rate at which data (pulses of light) can be Pulse Dispersion
practically transmitted. In addition, the output pulse has reduced amplitude as well Stretching of received
as increased width. The greater the fiber length, the more pronounced this effect. pulse width because of
multiple paths taken by
As a result, manufacturers rate their fiber in bandwidth per length. For example,
the light
the rating 400MHz/km means the fiber can successfully transmit pulses at the rate
of 400MHz for 1 kilometers, 200MHz for 2 kilometers, and so on. In fact, current
networking standards limit multimode fiber distances to 2 kilometers. Longer
transmission paths are attained by locating regenerators at appropriate locations.
Step-index multimode fibers are rarely used in networking due to their very high
amounts of pulse dispersion and minimal bandwidth capability.

High-order mode

Output
Input pulse
pulse Low-order mode Middle-order mode

FIGURE 3-6 Modes of propagation for step-index fiber. (From Modern Electronic
Communication 9/e, by J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 787. Copyright ©2008 Pearson
Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

Graded-Index Fiber
In an effort to overcome the pulse-dispersion problem, graded-index fiber was
developed. In the manufacturing process for this fiber, the index of refraction is Graded-Index Fiber
tailored to follow the parabolic profile shown in Figure 3-7. This results in low- Fiber in which the index
order modes traveling through the constant-density material in the center. High- of refraction is gradually
order modes see a lower index of refraction material farther from the core, and thus varied with a parabolic
the velocity of propagation increases away from the center. Therefore, all modes, profile
even though they take various paths and travel different distances, tend to traverse
the fiber length in about the same amount of time. These fibers can therefore handle
higher bandwidths and/or provide longer transmission distances before pulse
dispersion effects destroy intelligibility and introduce bit errors.

Low-order
mode ray

Input Output
pulse pulse
Middle-order High-order
mode ray mode ray

FIGURE 3-7 Modes of propagation for graded-index fiber. (From Modern Electronic
Communication 9/e, by J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 788. Copyright ©2008 Pearson
Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

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 Graded-index multimode fibers with 50 μm-diameter cores and 125 μm cladding are
used in many telecommunication systems at up to 300Mbps over 50 km ranges without
repeaters. Graded-index fiber with up to a 100 μm core is used in short-distance applica-
tions that require easy coupling from the source and high data rates, such as for video
and high-speed local area networks (LANs). The larger core affords better light coupling
than the 50 μm core and does not significantly degrade the bandwidth capabilities.
In the telecommunications industry, there are two commonly used core sizes for
graded-index fiber: 50 μm and 62.5 μm. Both have 125 μm cladding. The large
core diameter and the high numerical aperture (NA) of these fibers simplify input
cabling and make it possible to use relatively inexpensive connectors. Fibers are
specified by the diameters of their core and cladding. For example, the fibers just
described would be called 50/125 fiber and 62.5/125 fiber.

Single-Mode Fibers
A technique used to minimize pulse dispersion effects is to make the core extremely
Single-Mode Fiber small—on the order of a few micrometers. This type of fiber accepts only a low-
Fiber cables with core order mode, thereby allowing operation in high-data-rate long-distance systems.
diameters of about This fiber is typically used with high-power, highly directional modulated light
7–10 μm, in which light sources such as lasers. Fibers of this variety are called single-mode (or monomode)
follows a single path fibers. Core diameters of only 7–10 μm are typical. Figure 3-8 provides a graphical
summary of the three types of fiber discussed in this section, including typical
dimensions, refractive index profiles, and pulse-dispersion effects.
Single-mode fibers are widely used in long-haul and wide area network (WAN)
Long Haul
applications. They permit transmission of about 10Gbps and repeater spacing of up
Refers to transmission
to 80 km. These bandwidth and repeater spacing capabilities are constantly being
of data over hundreds or
thousands of miles upgraded with new developments.

Input light Fiber Refractive index (n) Cable side view Output
pulse cross section profile showing light path light pulse

(a)
Core
7–10 m Single-mode step index

(b)
Core
50–100 m Multimode step index

(c)
Core
50–85 m Multimode graded index

FIGURE 3-8 Types of optical fiber. (From Modern Electronic Communication 9/e, by
J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 789. Copyright ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

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 When describing the core size of single-mode fibers, the term mode field diameter
Mode Field
is commonly used. Mode field diameter is the actual guided optical power
distribution diameter. In a typical single-mode fiber, the mode field diameter is Diameter
approximately 1 μm larger than the core diameter. The actual value depends on The actual guided
the wavelength being transmitted. In fiber specification sheets, the core diameter optical power
distribution, which is
is stated for multimode fibers, but the mode field diameter is typically stated for
typically a micron or
single-mode fibers. so larger than the core
diameter; single-mode
fiber specifications
Section 3-2 Review typically list the mode
field diameter
This section covers the following Network+ exam objectives.
1.3 Summarize the types of cables and connectors and explain which is
the appropriate type for a solution.
This section introduces the concept of multimode fiber and examines the three
modes of operation.
2.1 Compare and contrast various devices, their features, and their
appropriate placement on the network.
This section examines single-mode fibers, which are widely used in long-haul
and WAN applications. They permit transmission of about 10Gbps and
repeater spacing of up to 80 kilometers. These bandwidth and repeater spacing
capabilities are constantly being upgraded with new developments.
2.3 Given a scenario, configure and deploy common Ethernet switching
features.
This section examines the concept of refractive index, which is the ratio of the
speed of light in free space to its speed in a given material.
3.1 Given a scenario, use the appropriate statistics and sensors to ensure
network availability.
The concept of bandwidth of the various fiber cables are examined in this section.
5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common cable connectivity issues and
select the appropriate tools.
This section examines the various limitations on distance for various types of fiber.

Test Your Knowledge

1. What light waves are just below the frequencies in the visible spectrum?
a. Sub-light waves
b. Infrared light waves
c. Refractive waves
d. Multimode waves
e. Polar waves

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 2. What is the name for the material surrounding the core of an optical
waveguide?
a. Cladding
b. Aperture
c. Mode field
d. Step-index
e. Graded-index
3. True or false: Single-mode fiber cables have a core diameter of about
7–10 micrometers.
True

3-3 FIBER ATTENUATION AND DISPERSION

The two distance-limiting parameters in fiber-optic transmission, attenuation
and dispersion, are presented in this section. Students need to become familiar
with these concepts. A good understanding of these topics will make it easier for
students to work with system design issues (covered in Section 3-6).
There are two key distance-limiting parameters in fiber-optic transmissions:
attenuation and dispersion.

Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of power introduced by fiber. This loss accumulates as
the light is propagated through the fiber strand. The loss is expressed in dB/km
Scattering
(decibels per kilometer) of length. The attenuation, or loss, of the signal is due
An attenuation factor
to the combination of four factors: scattering, absorption, macrobending, and
caused by refractive
index fluctuations, microbending. There are also two types of attenuation: intrinsic and extrinsic.
which accounts for 96% Scattering is the primary loss factor over the three wavelength ranges. Scattering
of attenuation loss in telecommunication systems accounts for 96% of the loss and is the basis of the
attenuation curves and values, such as that shown in Figure 3-9, and industry data
sheets. Scattering known as Rayleigh scattering is caused by refractive index fluctua-
Absorption
tions. Rayleigh scattering decreases as wavelength increases, as shown in Figure 3-9.
Light interaction with
the atomic structure of The second loss factor, absorption, is a composite of light interaction with the
the fiber material; also atomic structure of the glass. It involves the conversion of optical power to heat.
involves the conversion One portion of the absorption loss is due to the presence of OH hydroxoyl ions
of optical power to heat dissolved in the glass during manufacture. They cause the water attenuation or OH
peaks, shown in Figure 3-9, and other attenuation curves.
Macrobending Macrobending is loss caused by the light mode breaking up and escaping into the
Loss due to light breaking cladding when the fiber bend becomes too tight. As the wavelength increases, the
up and escaping into the loss in a bend increases. Although losses are in fractions of a dB, the bend radius in
cladding small splicing trays and patching enclosures should be minimal.

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 Microbending is a type of loss caused by mechanical stress placed on the fiber
strand, usually in terms of deformation resulting from too much pressure being Microbending
applied to the cable. For example, excessively tight tie wraps or clamps contribute Loss caused by very
small mechanical
to this loss. This loss is noted in fractions of a decibel.
deflections and stress on
the fiber
Attenuation
in db/km MM fiber

2.5 to 4.5

OH peaks

0.6 to 1.2 SM fiber

0.35 to 0.55

0.25 to 0.4

850 1310 1550

Wavelength in nanometers

Multimode Multimode Single-mode

Single-mode

FIGURE 3-9 Typical attenuation of cabled fiber strands. (From Modern Electronic Communication
9/e, by J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 792. Copyright ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

Dispersion
Dispersion, or pulse broadening, is the second of the two key distance-limiting
Dispersion
parameters in a fiber-optic transmission system. It is a phenomenon in which the
light pulse spreads out in time as it propagates along the fiber strand. This results Broadening of a light
pulse as it propagates
in a broadening of the pulse. If the pulse broadens excessively, it can blend into the
through a fiber strand
adjacent digital time slots and cause bit errors. Figure 3-10 illustrates the effects of
dispersion on a light pulse.
There are three types of dispersion:

● Modal dispersion: The broadening of a pulse due to different path lengths

being taken through the fiber by different modes.
● Chromatic dispersion: The broadening of a pulse due to different
propagation velocities of the spectral components of the light pulse.
● Polarization mode dispersion: The broadening of a pulse due to the
different propagation velocities of the X and Y polarization components
of the light pulse.

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 Distance
Digital
time
slots

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Detected bits
and intersymbol
interference (ISI) as
distance increases
1 ? 1 ? 1 ? 1 ?

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
bit bit bit bit
error error error error

FIGURE 3-10 Pulse broadening or dispersion in optical fibers. (Adapted from Modern Electronic
Communication 9/e, by J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 793. Copyright ©2008 Pearson
Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

Modal dispersion occurs predominantly in multimode fiber. From a light source,

the light rays can take many paths as they propagate along the fiber. Some light rays
travel in a straight line, but most take variable-length routes. As a result, the rays
arrive at the detector at different times, and the result is pulse broadening (refer to
Figures 3-6 and 3-7). The use of graded-index fiber greatly reduces the effects of
modal dispersion and therefore increases the bandwidth to about 1GHz/km. On the
other hand, single-mode fiber does not exhibit modal dispersion, given that only a
single mode is transmitted.
A second, equally important, type of dispersion is chromatic. Chromatic dispersion
is present in both single-mode and multimode fibers. Basically, the light source
(whether laser or LED) produces several different wavelength light rays when
generating the light pulse. The light rays travel at different velocities, and as a
result, these rays arrive at the receiver detector at different times, causing the
broadening of the pulse.
Zero-Dispersion
Wavelength There is a point at which dispersion is actually at zero, and it is determined by
The point at which the refractive index profile. It happens near 1310 nm and is called the zero-
dispersion is zero dispersion wavelength. By altering the refractive index profile, this zero-dispersion
wavelength can be shifted to the 1550 nm region. Such fibers are called dispersion

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 shifted. This is significant because the 1550 nm region exhibits a lower attenuation
than occurs at 1310 nm. This becomes an operational advantage, particularly to
long-haul carriers, because with minimum attenuation and minimum dispersion in
the same wavelength region, repeater and regenerator spacing can be maximized.
Polarization mode is the type of dispersion found in single-mode systems, and it
becomes a particular concern in long-haul and WAN high-data-rate digital and
high-bandwidth analog video systems. In a single-mode fiber, the single propa-
gating mode has two polarizations, horizontal and vertical, or X axis and Y axis.
The index of refraction can be different for the two components; this affects their
relative velocity, as shown in Figure 3-11.

Amount of
chromatic
Refractive pulse
Cross index Input dispersion Output
section profile pulse pulse

FIGURE 3-11 Polarization mode dispersion in single-mode fiber. (From Modern Electronic
Communication 9/e, by J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 794. Copyright ©2008 Pearson
Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

Dispersion Compensation
A considerable amount of fiber in use today was installed in the 1980s and early
1990s. This cable was called the Class IVa variety. These cables were optimized to
operate in the 1310 nm region, which means their zero-dispersion point was in the Dispersion
1310 nm wavelength. Due to continuous network expansion needs in recent years, Compensating Fiber
it is often desired to add transmission capacity to the older fiber cables by using Fiber that acts as an
the 1550 nm region, particularly because the attenuation at 1550 nm is less than at equalizer, canceling
1310 nm. One major problem arises at this point: The dispersion value is higher at dispersion effects and
1550 nm, which severely limits its distance capability. yielding close to zero
dispersion in the 1550 nm
To overcome this problem, a fiber called dispersion compensating fiber was region
developed. This fiber acts as an equalizer, with negative dispersion canceling
positive dispersion. The fiber consists of a small coil normally placed in the
equipment rack just prior to the optical receiver input. This introduces some Fiber Bragg Grating
insertion loss (3–10 dB) and may require the addition of an optical-line amplifier. A short strand of
A relatively new device is a fiber Bragg grating. This technology involves etching modified fiber that
changes the index
irregularities onto a short strand of fiber, which changes the index of refraction
of refraction and
and, in turn, reflects slower wavelengths to the output before the faster ones. minimizes intersymbol
This results in a compressed, or narrower, light pulse, minimizing intersymbol interference
interference (ISI).

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 Section 3-3 Review

This section covers the following Network+ exam objectives.

3.1 Given a scenario, use the appropriate statistics and sensors to ensure
network availability.
This section examines the issues of increasing bandwidth in certain fiber-optic
cables.
5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common cable connectivity issues and
select the appropriate tools.
There are two key distance-limiting parameters in a fiber-optic transmission
system: attenuation and dispersion. Knowledge of the properties of fiber optics
is critical for planning a network installation or upgrade.
5.4 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common wireless connectivity issues.
This section examines polarization mode dispersion—the broadening of a
pulse due to the different propagation velocities of the X and Y polarization
components of the light pulse.

Test Your Knowledge

1. Which of the following terms refers to broadening of a light pulse as it
propagates through a fiber strand?
a. Pulse shaping
b. Diffusion
c. Absorption
d. Dispersion
2. Which of the following is caused by refractive index fluctuations and
accounts for 96% of attenuation loss?
a. Scattering
b. Absorption
c. Dispersion
d. Diffusion
3. Which of the following refers to loss due to light breaking up and
escaping into the cladding?
a. Microbending
b. Scattering
c. Macrobending
d. Absorption

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 3-4 OPTICAL COMPONENTS DL
The basic components used in optical networking are presented in this section. Diode laser, the
preferred light source
Students should know what an attenuator does, the basic issues related to a tunable
for moderate-band to
laser, and how wave division multiplexing works. In addition, they need to under- wideband fiber-optic
stand at least the basic connectors used in optical networking. communication systems
Two kinds of light sources are used in fiber-optic communication systems: the LED
diode laser (DL) and the high-radiance light-emitting diode (LED). In designing an
Light-emitting
optimum system, the special qualities of each light source should be considered. diode, a light source
Diode lasers and LEDs bring different characteristics to systems: used in fiber-optic
communication systems
● Power levels that operate at a slower
bit rate and require more
● Temperature sensitivities modest levels of fiber-
● Response times coupled optical power

● Lifetimes
Distributed
● Characteristics of failure Feedback (DFB)
Laser
The diode laser is a preferred source for moderate-band to wideband systems. It A relatively stable laser
offers a fast response time (typically less than 1 ns) and can couple high levels of that is suitable for use
useful optical power (usually several mW) into an optical fiber with a small core in DWDM systems
and a small numerical aperture. The DL is usually used as the source for single-
mode fiber because LEDs have a low input coupling efficiency. Dense Wavelength
Division Multiplexing
Some systems operate at a slower bit rate and require more modest levels of
(DWDM)
fiber-coupled optical power (50–250 μW). These applications allow the use
A system that
of high-radiance LEDs. The LED is cheaper, requires less complex driving circuitry
incorporates the
than a DL, and needs no thermal or optical stabilizations. propagation of several
The light output wavelength spread, or spectrum, of DLs is much narrower than wavelengths in the
that of LEDs: about 1 nm compared with about 40 nm for an LED. Narrow spectra 1550 nm range for a
single fiber
are advantageous in systems with high bit rates since the dispersion effects of the
fiber on pulse width are reduced, and thus pulse degradation over long distances is Vertical Cavity
minimized. Surface Emitting
Another laser device, called a distributed feedback (DFB) laser, uses techniques Laser (VCSEL)
that provide optical feedback in the laser cavity. This enhances output stability, A laser that offers the
which produces a narrow and more stable spectral width, in the range 0.01–0.1 nm. simplicity of an LED and
This allows the use of more channels in dense wavelength division multiplexing the performance of a
(DWDM) systems. Another even more recent development is an entirely new class laser
of laser semiconductors called vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs).
These lasers can support a much faster signal rate than LEDs, including Gigabit
Tunable Laser
networks. They do not face some of the operational and stability problems that
A laser in which the
plague conventional lasers, however.
fundamental wavelength
VCSELs offer the simplicity of LEDs and the performance of lasers. Their primary can be shifted a few
wavelengths of operation are in the 750–850 nm region and the 1310 nm region. nanometers, which is
ideal for traffic routing
Most lasers emit a fixed wavelength, but there is a class called tunable lasers in in DWDM systems
which the fundamental wavelength can be shifted a few nanometers—but not from

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 a modulation point of view, as in frequency modulation. Figure 3-12 shows an
example of a tunable laser diode module. The primary market for these devices
is network operations environments that involve DWDM. Traffic routing is often
made by wavelength, and, as such, wavelengths or transmitters must be assigned
and reassigned to accommodate dynamic routing or networking, bandwidth on
demand, seamless restoration (serviceability), optical packet switching, and so on.
Tunable lasers are used along with either passive or tunable WDM filters.
A technique that is now being used to combine multiple channels with different
wavelengths for transmission over fiber-optic cables is coarse wavelength division
multiplexing (CWDM). CWDM channels have 20 nm separation and use low-cost
lasers that don’t require cooling. This technology is useful for up to 70 kilometers.
The wavelengths used in this technology are 1620 nm, 1590 nm, 1570 nm, 1550 nm,
1530 nm, 1510 nm, 1490 nm, and 1470 nm.

Fiber

r
se
La
ble dule
na o
Tu de M
Dio

FIGURE 3-12 A tunable laser diode module.

Intermediate Components
A typical fiber-optic telecommunication link (refer to Figure 3-1) is a light source
or transmitter and light detector or receiver interconnected by a strand of optical
Fiber, Light Pipe, or fiber, light pipe, or glass. An increasing number of specialized networks and
Glass system applications have various intermediate components along the span between
Terms used to describe a the transmitter and the receiver. A brief review of these devices and their uses is
fiber-optic strand provided in the list that follows:

● Isolators: An isolator is an inline passive device that allows optical power to

Isolator flow in one direction only.
An inline passive device
that allows optical power
● Attenuators: Attenuators are used to reduce the received signal level (RSL).
to flow only in one They are available in fixed and variable configurations.
direction
● Branching devices: Branching devices are used in simplex systems where a
Received Signal Level single optical signal is divided and sent to several receivers, such as point-to-
(RSL) multipoint data or a CATV distribution system.
The input signal level to
● Splitters: Splitters are used to split, or divide, the optical signal for distribu-
an optical receiver
tion to any number of places.

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 ● Wavelength division multiplexers: Wavelength division multiplexers
combine or divide two or more optical signals, each having a different
wavelength. They are sometimes called optical beam splitters.
● Optical-line amplifiers: Optical-line amplifiers are analog amplifiers.
Placement can be at the optical transmitter output, midspan, or near the
optical receiver.

Detectors
The devices used to convert the transmitted light back into an electrical signal are
a vital link in a fiber-optic system. This important link is often overlooked in favor
of the light source and fibers. However, simply changing from one photodetector to
another can increase the capacity of a system by an order of magnitude.
The important characteristics of light detectors are as follows:

● Responsivity: This is a measure of output current for a given light power

launched into the diode.
● Response speed: This determines the maximum data rate capability of the
detector.
● Spectral response: This determines the responsivity that is achieved relative
to the wavelength at which responsivity is specified.

Fiber termination kits provide many common tools for terminating and joining
optical fibers. They are typically joined either in a permanent fusion splice or with
a mechanical splice (for example, connectors and camsplices). The connector
allows repeated matings and unmatings. Above all, these connections must lose as
little light as possible. Low loss depends on correct alignment of the core of one
fiber to another or to a source or detector. Losses for properly terminated fusion
and mechanical splices are typically 0.2 dB or less. Signal loss in fibers occurs
when two fibers are not perfectly aligned within a connector. Axial misalignment
typically causes the greatest loss—about 0.5 dB for a 10% displacement. Figure 3-13
illustrates this condition as well as other loss sources.
Angular misalignment, illustrated in Figure 3-13(b), can usually be well controlled in
a connector. Most connectors leave an air gap, as shown in Figure 3-13(c). The amount
of gap affects loss because light leaving the transmitting fiber spreads conically.
The losses due to rough end surfaces shown in Figure 3-13(d) are often caused by
a poor cut, or “cleave,” but can be minimized with polishing or by using prepol-
ished connectors. Polishing typically takes place after a fiber has been placed in a
connector. The source of connection losses shown in Figure 3-13(d) can, for the
most part, be controlled by a skillful cable splicer. Four other situations can cause
additional connector or splice loss, although in smaller values, as shown in
Figure 3-13(e), (f), (g), and (h). These situations are related to the nature of the
fiber strand at the point of connection and are beyond the control of the cable
splicer. The effect of these losses can be minimized somewhat through the use
of a rotary mechanical splice, which by the joint rotation will get a better core
alignment.

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 (a) Axial misalignment (b) Angular misalignment

(c) Air gap (d) Rough surfaces

(e) Numerical aperture differences (f) Core-size differences

(g) Core concentricity or offset (h) Core ellipticity

FIGURE 3-13 Sources of connection loss. (From Modern Electronic Communication 9/e, by
J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 806. Copyright ©2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

With regard to connectorization and splicing, there are two techniques to consider
for splicing. Fusion splicing is a long-term method in which two fibers are fused
Fusion Splicing or welded together. The two ends are stripped of their coating, cut or cleaved, and
A long-term splicing inserted into the splicer. The ends of the fiber are aligned, and an electric arc is fired
method in which two across the ends, melting the glass and fusing the two ends together. There are both
fibers are fused or manual and automatic fusion splicers; the choice usually depends on the number of
welded together
splices to be done on a given job, technician skill levels available, and, of course,
budget. Typical insertion losses of less than 0.1 dB—frequently in the 0.05 dB
range—can be consistently achieved.
Mechanical splices can be permanent and an economical choice for certain fiber-
Mechanical Splice splicing applications. Mechanical splices join two fibers together, but they differ
A splice in which from fusion splices in that an air gap exists between the two fibers. This results
two fibers are joined in a glass–air–glass interface, causing a severe double change in the index of
together with an air refraction. This change results in an increase in insertion loss and reflected power.
gap, requiring an index-
The condition can be minimized by applying an index-matching gel to the joint.
matching gel to provide
a good splice
The gel is a jellylike substance that has an index of refraction much closer to
that of glass than to that of air. Therefore, the index change is much less severe.
Index-Matching Gel Mechanical splices have been universally popular for repair and for temporary or
A jellylike substance laboratory work. They are quick, cheap, easy, and appropriate for small jobs.
that has an index of
refraction much closer
Considering that the core diameter of a single-mode fiber is only 9 μm, it is easy to
to that of glass than to understand that dirty optical cables can easily degrade data performance. Problems
that of air can result from a dirty fiber cable endface or loose contamination preventing good
physical glass-to-glass contact.

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 The best method for splicing depends on the application, including the expected
future bandwidth (for example, Gigabit), traffic, the job size, and economics. The
loss in a mechanical splice can be minimized by using an optical time-domain
reflectometer (OTDR) to properly align the fiber while making the splice.

Fiber Connectorization
There are several choices on the market for fiber connectorization, including SC, ST,
FC, LC, and MT-RJ. The choice of the connector is typically dictated by the hardware SC, ST, FC, LC, MT-RJ
being used and the fiber application. Figure 3-14 provides examples of SC, ST, FC, Typical optical fiber
LC, and MT-RJ connectors connectors

(a) SC connector (b) ST connector

(c) MT-RJ connector

(d) LC connector (e) FC connector

FIGURE 3-14 Typical fiber connections. [(a), (b), and (c) from Modern Electronic
Communication 9/e, by J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 808. Copyright ©2008 Pearson
Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. (d) and (e) from Black Box Corporation.]

Some general features of fiber connectors are as follows:

● They are easy and quick to install.

● They offer low insertion loss. A properly installed connector has as little as
0.25 dB insertion loss.
● They provide a high return loss (greater than 50 dB). This is increasingly
important in Gigabit networks, DWDM systems, high-bandwidth video, and
so on.
● They offer repeatability.
● They are economical.

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 In preparing fiber for splicing or connectorization, only the coating is removed
from the fiber strand. The core and the cladding are not separable. The 125 μm
cladding diameter is the portion that fits into the splice or connector, and therefore
most devices can handle both single-mode and multimode fiber.
Is it not advisable to splice together fibers of different core sizes. The one absolute
rule is do not splice single- and multimode fiber together! Similarly, good profes-
sional work does not allow different sizes of multimode fiber to be spliced together.
However, in an emergency, different sizes can be spliced together if the following
is considered: When transmitting from a small- to large-core diameter, there will be
minimal, if any, increase in insertion loss. However, when the transmission is from
a larger to a smaller core size, there will be added insertion loss, and a considerable
increase in reflected power should be expected.
Industrial practice has confirmed the acceptability of different core size inter-
changeability for emergency repairs in the field, mainly as a result of tests with
50 μm and 62.5 μm multimode fiber for a local area network.
Two additional concepts associated with fiber are APC and UPC. The difference
between these two types of connectors is the fiber endface. An angled physical
contact (APC) endface is polished and has an 8-degree angle. An ultra-physical
contact (UPC) endface is polished and has no angle. APC and UPC connectors are
easily identified by their color: APC adapters are green, and UPC adapters are blue.
Sometimes it may be necessary to verify that light is passing through an uncon-
nected fiber. To do so, the fiber must not be connected to anything at either end.
A light meter is sometimes used for this purpose. The function of a light meter
is to shine light down a fiber, providing a safe way to visually verify that light is
propagating down a fiber.

Section 3-4 Review

This section covers the following Network+ exam objectives.

1.3 Summarize the types of cables and connectors and explain which is
the appropriate type for a solution.
This section examines the various fiber terminations, including LC, ST, SC,
and MT-RJ. Figure 3-13 shows issues with connection loss, and Figure 3-14
shows different types of connectors.
2.2 Compare and contrast routing technologies and bandwidth
management concepts.
This section introduces tunable lasers, which are used along with either passive
or tunable wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) filters to accommodate
dynamic routing or networking, bandwidth on demand, seamless restoration
(serviceability), optical packet switching, and so on.
2.4 Given a scenario, install and configure the appropriate wireless
standards and technologies.
One technique being used to combine multiple channels with different
wavelengths for transmission over fiber-optic cables is coarse wavelength
division multiplexing (CWDM).

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 3.1 Given a scenario, use the appropriate statistics and sensors to ensure
network availability.
Diode lasers and LEDs bring different characteristics to systems, including
power levels, temperature sensitivities, response times, lifetimes, and
characteristics of failure.
3.3 Explain high availability and disaster recovery concepts and
summarize which is the best solution.
This section introduces the concept of attenuators, which are used to reduce
the received signal level (RSL). They are available in fixed and variable
configurations.
4.3 Given a scenario, apply network hardening techniques.
Diode lasers and LEDs bring different characteristics, such as power levels, to
systems.
5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common cable connectivity issues and
select the appropriate tools.
This section discusses using an OTDR to properly align the fiber while making a
splice. The concept of fusion splicing is also examined.

Test Your Knowledge

1. What is fusion splicing?
a. A temporary method for splicing fiber
b. An inexpensive alternative to mechanical splicing
c. A type of splicing that requires index-matching gel
d. A long-term method in which two fibers are fused or welded
together
2. True or false: The function of an attenuator is to reduce the received signal
level.
True

3-5 OPTICAL NETWORKING

This section provides an overview of optical networking, including concepts such
as fiber-to-the-home and fiber-to-the-business. This section also introduces optical
Ethernet, which provides high-speed data delivery with fiber-optic links. This
section also includes discussions on some important issues encountered when
designing a fiber-optic network.
The need for increased bandwidth is pushing the fiber-optic community into optical
networking solutions that are almost beyond the imagination of even the most

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 advanced networking person. Optical solutions for long-haul, wide area, metro-
politan, campus, and local area networks are available. Cable companies are already
using the high-bandwidth capability of fiber to distribute cable programming as
well as data throughout their service areas.
The capital cost differences between a fiber system and a copper-based system
are diminishing, and the choice of networking technology for new networks is
no longer just budgetary. Fiber has the capacity to carry more bandwidth, and as
the cost of fiber infrastructure decreases, fiber is more and more being chosen to
carry data. Of course, the copper infrastructure is already in place, and new devel-
opments are providing increases in data speed over copper (for example, CAT6,
CAT6a, CAT7, and CAT8). However, optical fiber is smaller and easier to install in
already crowded ducts and conduits. In addition, security is enhanced because it is
difficult to tap optical fiber without detection. Will fiber replace copper in computer
networks? For many years, a hybrid solution of fiber and copper is expected.

Defining Optical Networking

Optical networks are becoming a major part of data delivery in homes, in busi-
nesses, and for long-haul carriers. The telecommunications industry has been using
fiber to carry long-haul traffic for many years in order to provide high-bandwidth
capabilities to the home. Developments in optical technologies are reshaping the
way we will use fiber in future optical networks.
But there is a new slant with optical networks. DWDM and tunable lasers have
changed the way optical networks can be implemented. It is now possible to
transport many wavelengths over a single fiber. Lab tests at AT&T have success-
fully demonstrated the transmission of 1022 wavelengths over a single fiber. This
transport of multiple wavelengths opens up possibilities for routing or switching
many different data protocols over the same fiber but on different wavelengths.
The development of cross-connects that allow data to arrive on one wavelength and
leave on another opens other possibilities.
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH) were the North American and international standards for the long-haul
optical transport of telecommunication for many years. SONET/SDH defined a
SONET/SDH standard for the following:
Synchronous Optical
Network/Synchronous ● Increase in network reliability
Digital Hierarchy;
protocol standards for ● Network management
optical transmission
in long-haul ● Defining methods for the synchronous multiplexing of digital signals such as
communication DS-1 (1.544Mbps) and DS-3 (44.736Mbps)
● Defining a set of generic operating/equipment standards
● Flexible architecture

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 SONET/SDH specifies the various optical carrier (OC) levels and the equivalent
electrical Synchronous Transport Signal (STS) used for transporting data in a fiber- STS
optic transmission system. Optical network data rates are typically specified in Synchronous Transport
terms of the SONET hierarchy. When a digital signal is carried over SONET, the Signal, an electrical
signal used for
signal is essentially enveloped or encapsulated within the optical carrier. Table 3-2
transporting data in a
lists the most common data rates. The table shows the capacity, not equivalence. fiber-optic transmission
It merely states that OC-1 is capable of carrying 28 DS-1s or 1 DS-3. With the system
conversion overhead, it yields a bit rate of 51.84Mbps when carrying one DS-3
signal.

TABLE 3-2 SONET Hierarchy Data Rates*

Signal Bit Rate Capacity
OC-1 (STS-1) 51.840Mbps 28 DS-1s or 1 DS-3
OC-3 (STS-3) 155.52Mbps 84 DS-1s or 3 DS-3s
OC-12 (STS-12) 622.080Mbps 336 DS-1s or 12 DS-3s FTTC
OC-48 (STS-48) 2.48832Gbps 1344 DS-1s or 48 DS-3s Fiber-to-the-curb, an
optical architecture
OC-192 (STS-192) 9.95328Gbps 5376 DS-1s or 192 DS-3s that provides high
bandwidth to a location
*OC: Optical carrier—DS-1: 1.544Mbps; with proximity to the
STS: Synchronous Transport Signal—DS-3: 44.736Mbps home and provides a
high-speed data link, via
The architectures of fiber networks for the home include providing fiber-to-the- twisted-pair, using VDSL
curb (FTTC) and fiber-to-the-home (FTTH). FTTC, which is being deployed today,
FTTH
provides high bandwidth to a location with proximity to the home and provides
Fiber-to-the-home, an
a high-speed data link, via copper (twisted-pair), using VDSL (very high-speed
optical architecture that
digital subscriber line). This is a cost-effective way to provide large bandwidth connects directly to the
capabilities to a home. Currently, the Google Fiber project is at the forefront of home
FTTH. It has deployed FTTH in several cities, including Kansas City, Austin,
Provo, Salt Lake City, Charlotte, Atlanta, Durham, and Nashville.
Another optical architecture is fiber-to-the-business (FTTB), in which a fiber FTTB
connection to a business provides for the delivery of all current communication Fiber-to-the-business,
technologies, including data, voice, video, and conferencing. An additional optical an optical architecture in
architecture is fiber-to-the-desktop (FTTD). This setup requires the computer to which a fiber connection
have a fiber network interface card (NIC). FTTD is useful in applications such as to a business provides
computer animation work that has high bandwidth requirements. for the delivery of all
current communication
Conventional high-speed Ethernet networks are operating over fiber. This configu- technologies
ration, called optical Ethernet, uses the numerics listed in Table 3-3 for describing
the types of network configuration. Fiber helps eliminate the 100 meter distance FTTD
limit associated with unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) copper cable. This is possible Fiber-to-the-desktop,
an optical architecture
because fiber has lower attenuation loss. In a star network, the computer and the
that requires a computer
switch are directly connected. If fiber is used in a star network, an internal or
to have a fiber NIC
external media converter is required. The media converter converts the electronic
signal to an optical signal and vice versa. A media converter is required at each end,
as shown in Figure 3-15. The media converter is typically built in to the NIC.
Optical Ethernet
A technology associated with fiber-to-premises is a smart jack, which is a network Ethernet data running
interface device (NID) that provides the connection point and also has built-in diag- over a fiber link
nostic capabilities.

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 TABLE 3-3 802.3 Physical Media Types for Optical Ethernet
Name Description
10BASE-F 10Mbps Ethernet over fiber; a generic specification for fiber
10BASE-FB 10Mbps Ethernet over fiber; part of the IEEE 10BASE-F specification;
segments can be up to 2 km in length
10BASE-FL 10Mbps Ethernet over fiber; segments can be up to 2 km in length;
replaces the FOIRL specification
10BASE-FP A passive fiber star network; segments can be up to 500 m in length
100BASE-FX A 100Mbps multimode fiber technology; uses a 1300 nm wavelength;
transmission distances can be up to 2 km
100BASE-SX A lower-cost alternative to 100BASE-FX; uses LEDs instead of lasers
and can be used for shorter distances (up to 300 meters)
1000BASE-LX Gigabit Ethernet standard that uses fiber strands using long-
wavelength transmitters
1000BASE-SX Gigabit Ethernet standard that uses short-wavelength transmitters
10GBASE-R 10 Gigabit (10.325Gbps) Ethernet for LANs
10GBASE-SR 10 Gigabit Ethernet; physical layer standard for use with multimode
fibers for a short range of 300 to 400 m
10GBASE-LR 10 Gigabit Ethernet; physical layer standard for use with single-mode
fibers for a long range of 10 km
10GBASE-ER 10 Gigabit Ethernet; physical layer standard for use with single-mode
fibers for extended range or reach up to 40 km
10GBASE-W 10 Gigabit (9.95328Gbps) Ethernet for WANs using OC-192 and SONET
framing
10GBASE-SW 10 Gigabit Ethernet; physical layer standard for WAN connection;
designed for longer-distance connections, like SONET, with extra
encapsulation support; maximum distance of 80 km

Media Fiber Media Ethernet

PC
converter converter hub/switch

FIGURE 3-15 An example of connecting a PC to an Ethernet hub or switch via fiber. (From
Modern Electronic Communication 9/e, by J.S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 820. Copyright
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

Two important issues must be considered when designing a fiber network:

● Building distribution
● Campus distribution

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 The following subsections discuss techniques for planning the fiber plant, the distri-
bution of the fiber, and the equipment and connections used to interconnect the
fiber. The first example is for a building distribution, and the second is for a campus
distribution.

Building Distribution
Figure 3-16 shows an example of a simple fiber network for a building. Fiber lines
consist of a minimum of two fibers: one for transmitting and one for receiving.
Fiber networks work in full-duplex mode, which means the links must be able to
simultaneously transmit and receive—hence the need for two fibers on each link.
This is also referred to as duplex operation.
Item A is the main fiber feed for the building. This is called a building distribution
(BD) fiber. The two fibers for the BD link terminate into a main fiber cross-connect
(item B). A fiber cross-connect is an optical patch panel used to connect fiber
cables to the next link at the fiber distribution panel. A fiber cross-connect typically Fiber Cross-Connect
uses mechanical splices to make the fiber connections. An optical patch panel
used to interconnect
fiber cables
B
Main
A Fiber IC
Main Fiber Cross-Connect Fiber
Feed (BD) F Cross-Connect

Active
Equipment
F.O. K Horizontal
Jumper H Distribution
D IC
E L
Fiber
G Cross-Connect
C
Active
Equipment M
F.O. Active
Router Jumper Equipment
Switch I J Horizontal
PBX Distribution
Building Automation
F.O. – Fiber Optic N
IC – Interconnect

FIGURE 3-16 A simple fiber distribution panel for a building.

Figure 3-17 shows an example of a fiber patch panel.

In Figure 3-16, items C and E represent the active equipment in the main
distribution closet in the building. The active equipment could be a router, switch,
or telephone PBX (private branch exchange). Item D shows the jumpers connecting
the main fiber cross-connect (item B) to the active equipment (item C).

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 FIGURE 3-17 An example of a fiber patch panel.

In Figure 3-16, items F and G show the two fiber pairs patched into the main
fiber cross-connect connecting to the IDC. These fibers (F and G) are called the
IDC interconnect (IC) fibers. The fibers terminate into the IDC fiber cross-connects
Intermediate (items H and I).
distribution closet
Items J and K in Figure 3-16 are fiber jumpers that connect the fiber cross-connect
IC Fibers to the IDC active equipment. The active equipment must have a GBIC or some
Interconnect fibers other interface for the optical–electrical signal conversion.
A general rule for fiber is that the distribution in a building should be limited to
“two deep.” This means that a building should have only the main distribution and
the intermediate distribution that feeds the horizontal distribution to the work area.
These distributions are also known as IDF/MDF (intermediate distribution frame/
main distribution frame).
Figure 3-18 illuminates the two-deep rule. Figure 3-18(a) shows an example of a
building distribution that meets the two-deep rule. The IDC is at the first layer, and
the horizontal distribution (HD) is at the second layer. Figure 3-18(b) illustrates a
fiber distribution that does not meet the two-deep rule. In this example, the HD and
work area are three deep—that is, three layers from the building’s main distribution.
The active equipment needs some type of fiber-optic transceiver for transmitting and
GBIC receiving higher-speed signals over fiber-optic lines. There are transceiver types to
Gigabit Interface use for each media type such as Ethernet transceivers and wireless transceivers. A
Converter, a
Gigabit interface converter (GBIC; pronounced “gee-bick”) shown in Figure 3-19(a),
hot-swappable fiber-
is a hot-swappable fiber-optic transceiver. It is very important to not select or install
optic transceiver
incorrect transceivers.
To increase port density on the active network equipment, the industry has been
moving toward using a mini-GBIC or SFP (small form-factor pluggable). The
SFP
SFP shown in Figure 3-19(b) is less than half the size of the GBIC shown in
Small form-factor Figure 3-19(a). These modules are used to connect to other fiber-optic systems such
pluggable
as 1000BASE-SX, which operates with multimode fiber in a short wavelength, and
1000BASE-LX, which operates with the single-mode fiber in a longer wavelength.
GBIC and SFP modules are designed to plug into interfaces such as routers and
switches.

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 MD – Main Distribution
MD IC – Intermediate Closet Main
HD – Horizontal Distribution Distribution
2 Deep Max

IC IC

IC 1A IC 1B
HD HD HD Work Area
Outlet (WA) 1st
WA WA IC 2A IC 2B IC 2C IC 2D
(a)
2nd

HD HD HD HD

3rd
Work Work Work Work
Area Area Area Area

(b)

FIGURE 3-18 Examples of the “two deep” rule: (a) the distribution meeting the requirement;
(b) the distribution not meeting the requirement.

FIGURE 3-19 The Cisco (a) GBIC, (b) SFP, (c) XENPAK, (d) X2, and (e) XFP optical-to-fiber
transceivers (courtesy of Cisco).

In the 10 Gigabit (10Gbps) Ethernet world, several versions of optical-to-fiber

transceivers have been developed. It all started with the XENPAK, shown in
Figure 3-19(c), transceivers, which were followed by the XPAK and the X2, shown
in Figure 3-19(d). These later transceiver modules are smaller than the XENPAK.
Then, an even smaller module called XFP was developed. The XFP, shown in

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 Figure 3-19(e), has lower power consumption than the XENPAK, XPAK, and X2,
XENPAK, XPAK, X2, but it still can deliver up to 80 kilometers in distance, which is the same as the older
XFP, SFP+ modules. With its small size, its lower power consumption, and its reachability,
10 Gigabit interface the XFP was thought to be the future of the 10 Gigabit transceiver. Recently, a
adapters new type of 10G transceiver has emerged, however: the SFP+. Its looks just like a
1000BASE SFP transceiver and is the same size. To be able to deliver 10 Gigabit
speed in its small form factor, the working distance that the SFP+ can deliver is
reduced to 40 kilometers. So, if distance is not of concern, SFP+ might be the
10 Gigabit transceiver of choice. These modules support 850, 1310, and 1550 fiber
wavelengths. Figure 3-19 shows examples of all these 1000BASE and 10GBASE
transceivers. A quad small form-factor plus (QSFP+) is a new compact, hot-
pluggable transceiver that has four SFP+ interfaces—that is 4 channels of 10Gbps
date rate, so it can transfer up to 40Gbps.
In regard to characteristics of fiber transceivers, an optical transceiver chip is an
integrated circuit (IC) that transmits and receives data using optical fiber rather
than electrical wire. Almost all modern optical transceivers provide bidirectional
data transmission by using two fibers to transmit data between switches, firewalls,
servers, routers, and so on. The first fiber is dedicated to receiving data from
networking equipment, and the second fiber is dedicated to transmitting data to the
networking equipment.
A new optical transceiver technology is now available that allows transceivers to
both transmit and receive data to/from interconnected equipment through a single
optical fiber. This technology first emerged in 2012 and has led to the development
of bidirectional (BiDi) transceivers. The primary difference between BiDi trans-
ceivers and traditional two-fiber fiber-optic transceivers is that BiDi transceivers are
fitted with WDM couplers, also known as diplexers, which combine and separate
data transmitted over a single fiber based on the wavelengths of the light. For this
reason, BiDi transceivers are also referred to as WDM transceivers.

Note
It is very important to avoid transceiver mismatch. Incorrectly selected transceivers can create
communication losses.

Campus Distribution
Figure 3-20 shows a map of the fiber distribution for a campus network. This
Logical Fiber Map map shows how the fiber is interconnected and data is distributed throughout the
A map that shows how campus and is called a logical fiber map. Figure 3-21 shows another style of map
fiber is interconnected often used to show the fiber distribution: a physical fiber map. This map shows the
and data is distributed routing of the fiber and also shows detail about the terrain, underground conduit,
throughout a campus
and entries into buildings. Both logical and physical maps (diagrams) are important
Physical Fiber Map and necessary for documentation and planning of a fiber network. This section
A map that shows the focuses on the documentation provided in the logical fiber map.
routing of fiber and also
shows detail about the
terrain, underground
conduit, and entries
into buildings

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 12/12 12/12 12 mm/12 sm
12 11 5 6

36 mm 12 mm/12 sm
48 sm
12 mm/12 sm
7 8
Telco 3
demarcation
(primary) 24 mm 12 mm/12 sm
A 48 sm
1
36/48 4
12/12 D
9 36 mm/48 sm 2
C Fiber Patch
12/12 Distribution
12 mm/12 sm
10 E Center

Telco demarcation
(secondary) Fiber Backbone
B

FIGURE 3-20 A logical fiber map.

The campus network in Figure 3-20 has two connections to the telco: the primary
telco demarcation (item A) in building 1 and the secondary telco demarcation
(item B) in building 2. These two telco connections provide for redundant Internet
and WAN data services. If something happens in building 1 that shuts down the
external data services, Internet and WAN data traffic can be switched to building 2.
Also, data traffic can be distributed over both connections to prevent bottlenecking.
Buildings 1 and 2 are interconnected with 36 multimode (mm) and 48 single-mode
(sm) fibers. This is documented on the line interconnecting buildings 1 and 2 (item mm
C) and written as 36/48 (item D). The dotted line between buildings 1 and 2 indi- Multimode
cates the backbone, or main fiber distribution for the campus network. The bulk
sm
of the campus network data traffic travels over these fibers. The campus backbone
Single-mode
(the dotted line) also extends from building 2 to building 4 and from building 3 to
building 5. Backbone
This setup enables the data to be distributed over the campus. For example, data The main fiber
distribution for a
traffic from the primary telco demarcation (item A) reaches building 12 by traveling
network
via fiber through buildings 1–3–5–11–12. If the building 3 connection is down, data
traffic from the primary telco demarcation can be routed through buildings 1–2–4–
7–6–5–11–12. What happens to the data traffic for building 12 if building 5 is out
of operation? In this case, data traffic to/from buildings 11 and 12 is lost.
Item E shows a fiber connection to/from buildings 4 and 10. This fiber bundle
provides an alternative data path from the primary telco demarcation to the other
side of the campus network.

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 LEGEND
Underground Singlemode Fiber Cable
Aerial Singlemode Fiber Cable
XY Fiber Backbone Splice Point ("XY" = splice point name)

Scale:

Date: 1/25/99

FIGURE 3-21 An example of a physical fiber map (courtesy of Palo Alto Utilities).

The cabling between buildings is a mix of multimode and single-mode fiber. The older
fiber runs a 12/12 cable (12 multimode/12 single-mode). Fiber cables are bundled
in groups of 12 fibers. For example, a 12/12 fiber has two bundles: one bundle of
multimode and one bundle of single-mode fiber. A 36/48 cable has three bundles
of multimode and four bundles of single-mode fiber. Each bundle of fibers is color-
coded, as listed in Table 3-4. For example, in a 36/48 fiber cable, the three bundles of
multimode are in loose tubes that are color-coded blue/orange/green. The four bundles
of single mode are in loose tubes that are color-coded brown/slate/white/red.

TABLE 3-4 The Fiber Color-Coding for the 12 Fibers in a Bundle

Bundle Color
1/2 Blue/orange
3/4 Green/brown
5/6 Slate/white
7/8 Red/black
9/10 Yellow/violet
11/12 Rose/aquamarine

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 In the Figure 3-20 example, the newer fiber cabling installations were run with a
36/48 and 24/48 mix. Why the difference? The main reason is economics. The cost
per foot (meter) of the new fiber is lower, so more fiber can be placed in a cable for
the same cost per foot.
The fiber connecting the buildings is typically run either in PVC conduit, which
makes it easy to add or remove fiber cables, or in trenches or tunnels. Running
fiber in trenches is very expensive and significantly increases the installation cost.
(Note that network administrators need to be aware of any trenches being dug
on campus.) Even if the budget doesn’t allow for buying fiber at the time, it is
important to at least have a conduit and pull line installed.
Fiber provides substantially increased bandwidth for building and campus networks
and can easily handle the combined traffic of PCs, switches, routers, video, and
voice services. Fiber has great capacity, enabling fast transfer of data, minimizing
congestion problems, and providing tremendous growth potential for each of the
fiber runs.
Another important application of optical Ethernet is extending the reach of the
Ethernet network from the local and campus network out to the metropolitan
and wide area networks. Essentially, optical networking is introducing Ethernet
as a viable WAN technology. Extending Ethernet into a WAN is a seamless inte-
gration of the technologies. The Ethernet extension into the WAN simply requires
optical adapters such as a GBIC and two fiber strands: one for transmitting and
one for receiving. Conventional high-speed Ethernet LANs operating over fiber
use the numerics listed in Table 3-3, earlier in this chapter, to describe the network
configuration.

Optical Link Budget

Now that you have learned how to design optical networks and interconnect the
optical links, you need to know how to ensure that the signals will arrive at the
destination with the desired received signal level (RSL). This section demonstrates
the steps required for calculating an optical link budget. Basically, an optical link
budget begins with the transmitter output power and then subtracts the losses. Optical Link Budget
Losses can be from fiber splices or from patch panels, pig-tails, or multiplexers. A set of calculations
used to verify that the
You need to use the manufacturer specifications to determine the transmit power proper received signal
and subtract losses due to cable losses, splice losses, connector losses, and extra level (RSL) is received
losses from any mechanical or WDM devices. Figure 3-22 provides an example of
a link budget calculation.

Link Budget calculation

+ Transceiver Output Power
- Cable losses
- Splice losses
- Connector losses
- Extra losses
= Total Link Budget

FIGURE 3-22 An optical link budget calculation.

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 A positive result for the total link budget indicates that the proper signal level will
be received at the receiver. A negative result indicates that the signal level is not
sufficient to properly drive the receiver.
To practice calculating a link budget, try this example. Provide a link budget calcu-
lation given the following:

Transceiver output power of –15 dBm

6 splices at 0.1 dB each
2 connectors at 0.3 dB each
Total link budget = –15 dBm – (6 × 0.1) – (2 × 0.3)
= –15 dBm – 0.6 dB – 0.6 dB = –16.2 dBm

Next, compare the total link budget to the desired RSL, which is the minimum
signal level required to meet the desired bit error rate (BER) for the receiver. In this
case, the desired RSL is –18 dBm; therefore, the system has 1.8 dB of extra margin.

Note
dBm is a unit of level used to indicate that a power level is expressed in decibels (dB) with
reference to 1 milliwatt (mW).

Section 3-5 Review

This section covers the following Network+ exam objectives.

1.2 Explain the characteristics of network topologies and network types.
This section speculates on whether fiber will replace copper in computer
networks. Industry experts expect that, for many years, a hybrid solution of fiber
and copper will be used.
1.3 Summarize the types of cables and connectors and explain which is
the appropriate type for a solution.
To increase port density on the active network equipment, the industry has been
moving toward using a mini-GBIC or SFP (small form-factor pluggable).
1.6 Explain the use and purpose of network services.
Almost all modern optical transceivers provide bidirectional data transmission
by using two fibers to transmit data between switches, firewalls, servers, routers,
and so on.
1.7 Explain basic corporate and datacenter network architecture.
This section addresses the fact that fiber has the capacity to carry more
bandwidth, and as the cost of fiber infrastructure decreases, fiber is more and
more being chosen to carry data.
2.1 Compare and contrast various devices, their features, and their
appropriate placement on the network.
If fiber is used in a star network, an internal or external media converter is
required. The media converter converts the electronic signal to an optical signal

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 and vice versa. A media converter is required at each end, as shown in
Figure 3-15. The media converter is typically built in to the NIC.
2.3 Given a scenario, configure and deploy common Ethernet switching
features.
This section introduces the concept of duplex operation. Fiber lines consist
of a minimum of two fibers: one for transmitting and one for receiving. Fiber
networks work in the full-duplex mode, which means that the links must be able
to simultaneously transmit and receive—hence the need for two fibers on each
link. This is also referred to as duplex operation.
3.1 Given a scenario, use the appropriate statistics and sensors to ensure
network availability.
This section discusses the idea that active equipment must have a GBIC or some
other interface for the optical–electrical signal conversion.
3.2 Explain the purpose of organizational documents and policies.
A general rule for fiber is that the distribution in a building should be limited
to “two deep.” This means that a building should have only the main distri-
bution and the intermediate distribution that feeds the horizontal distribution to
the work area. These distributions are also known as IDF/MDF (intermediate
distribution frame/main distribution frame).
3.3 Explain high availability and disaster recovery concepts and
summarize which is the best solution.
This section introduces the concept of using two telco connections to provide for
redundant Internet and WAN data services. If something happens in building 1
that shuts down the external data services, Internet and WAN data traffic can be
switched to building 2.
4.5 Explain the importance of physical security.
This section addresses the fact that security is enhanced with fiber-optic systems
because it is difficult to tap optical fiber without detection.
5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common cable connectivity issues and
select the appropriate tools.
This section mentions that fiber helps eliminate the 100 meter distance limit
associated with UTP copper cable. This is possible because fiber is subject to
lower attenuation loss.

Test Your Knowledge

1. What does a logical fiber map show? (Select all that apply.)
a. How data is distributed throughout a campus
b. The routing of the fiber
c. Terrain and underground conduits
d. How the fiber is interconnected

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 2. What does a physical fiber map show? (Select all that apply.)
a. The routing of the fiber
b. The LAN connections
c. Terrain issues
d. Router placement
3. Which of the following is an optical-to-fiber interface used with
10 Gigabit Ethernet?
a. GBIC
b. 10GBIC
c. XENPAK
d. ZENPAK

3-6 SAFETY
As the first paragraph of this section states, any discussion of fiber optics or optical
networking is not complete unless it addresses safety issues. Students need to
understand that they must be careful when working with fiber-optic cable. Have an
open discussion with the class about safety, even if you only advise the students not
to look into the end of a fiber.
Any discussion of fiber optics or optical networking is not complete unless it
addresses safety issues, even if only briefly. As the light propagates through a fiber,
two factors further attenuate the light if there is an open circuit:

● A light beam disperses or fans out from an open connector.

● If a damaged fiber is exposed on a broken cable, the end will likely be
shattered, which will considerably disperse the light. In addition, there would
be a small amount of attenuation from the strand within the cable, plus any
connections or splices along the way.

However, two factors can increase the optical power at an exposed fiber end:

● There could be a lens in a pigtail that could focus more optical rays down the
cable.
● In newer DWDM systems, there are several optical signals in the same fiber;
although separate, they are relatively close together in wavelength. The
optical power incident on the eye is then multiplied.

There are two factors to be aware of:

● The human eye can’t see fiber-optic communication wavelength, so

there is no pain or awareness of exposure. However, the retina can still be

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 exposed and damaged. (Refer to Figure 3-3, which shows the electromagnetic
spectrum.)
● Eye damage is a function of the optical power, wavelengths, source or spot
diameter, and duration of exposure.

Those working on fiber-optic equipment should keep in mind these warnings:

● Do not ever look into the output connector of energized test equipment. Such
equipment, particularly OTDRs, can have higher powers than the communi-
cation equipment itself.
● If you need to view the end of a fiber, always turn off the transmitter, particu-
larly if you don’t know whether the transmitter is a laser or LED, given that
lasers are higher-power sources. If you are using a microscope to inspect a
fiber, the optical power will be multiplied.

From a mechanical point of view, consider the following:

● Good work practices are detailed in safety, training, and installation manuals.
(Read and heed!)
● Be careful with machinery, cutters, snips, chemical solvents, and epoxies.
● Fiber ends are brittle and can break off easily, including the ends cut off from
splicing and connectorization. These ends are extremely difficult to see and
can become “lost” and/or easily embedded in your finger. You won’t know
until your finger becomes infected. Always account for all scraps.
● Use safety glasses specifically designed to protect the eyes when working
with fiber-optic systems.
● Obtain and use an optical safety kit.
● Keep the work area clean and orderly.

In all cases, be sure the craft personnel have the proper training for the job!

Section 3-6 Review

This section covers the following Network+ exam objectives.

5.2 Given a scenario, troubleshoot common cable connectivity issues and
select the appropriate tools.
This section mentions that if a fiber is damaged, there will be some attenuation.
5.5 Given a scenario, troubleshoot general networking issues.
This section examines safety considerations to keep in mind when working with
fiber.

afety 161

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 Test Your Knowledge
1. True or false: The human eye cannot see fiber-optic communication
wavelengths, so you should never look into the end of a fiber.
True
2. True or false: It is important to be very careful when working with fiber
ends. These ends are extremely difficult to see and can become lost and/or
easily embedded in your finger.
True

3-7 TROUBLESHOOTING FIBER OPTICS: THE OTDR

This section provides traces obtained from an OTDR from tests conducted on
multimode fiber. The traces are well documented with statements explaining the
cause or possible cause of an event (disturbance) in the trace.
Several techniques can be used to measure and troubleshoot fiber links. A common
technique is to use an optical power meter to determine power loss. Another tool
used is a visual fault locator (VFL), which shines light down the fiber to help locate
Visual Fault Locator broken glass. Figure 3-23 shows traces obtained from an optical time-domain
(VFL) reflectometer (OTDR) for two different sets of multimode fibers; this is called
A device that shines shooting the fiber. The OTDR sends a light pulse down the fiber and measures the
light down fiber to help reflected light. The OTDR enables an installer or a maintenance crew to verify the
locate broken glass quality of each fiber span and obtain some measure of performance. The X axis
Optical Time-Domain on the traces indicates the distance, and the Y axis indicates the measured optical
power value in decibels. Both OTDR traces are for 850 nm multimode fiber.
Reflectometer
(OTDR) In Figure 3-23(a), point A is a “dead” zone, or a point too close to the OTDR
A device that sends for a measurement to be made. The measured value begins at about 25 dB and
a light pulse down decreases as the distance traveled increases. An event, or a disturbance in the light
fiber and measures propagating down the fiber, occurs at point B. This is an example of what a poor-
the reflected light, quality splice looks like (in regard to reflection as well as insertion loss). It is most
providing a measure of likely a mechanical splice. The same type of event occurs at points C and D, which
performance for the are also most likely mechanical splices. Points F and G are most likely the jumpers
fiber and patch panel connections at the fiber end. The steep drop at point H is actually
the end of the fiber. Point I is typical noise that occurs at the end of an unterminated
fiber. Notice at point G that the overall value of the trace has dropped to about
Event 17 dB. There has been about 8 dB of optical power loss in the cable in a
A disturbance in the 1.7 kilometer run.
light propagating down
a fiber span that results An OTDR trace for another multimode fiber is shown in Figure 3-23(b); the hump
in a disturbance on the at point A is basically a dead zone. An OTDR cannot typically return accurate
OTDR trace measurement values in this region. This is common for most OTDRs, and the dead
zone varies for each OTDR. The useful trace information begins at point B, with a

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 measured value of 20 dB. Point C shows a different type of event, which is typical
of coiled fiber or fiber that has been tightly bound, possibly with a tie-wrap, or that
has had some other disturbance affecting the integrity of the fiber. Points D and F
are actually the end of the fiber. At point D, the trace level is about 19 dB, for a loss
of about 1 dB over the 150 meter run. Point G is just the noise that occurs at the end
of a terminated fiber.

dB

40

30
A B
C D FG

20

10
H
I

0
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 km
(a)

dB
0m

40

30
A D
B C
20

F
10 G

0
0.500 1.000 1.500 meters

(b)

FIGURE 3-23 An OTDR trace of an 850 nm fiber. (From Modern Electronic Communication 9/e,
by J. S. Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 814. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

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 Section 3-7 Review

Test Your Knowledge

1. What is a dead zone?
a. A point too far from the OTDR for a measurement to be made
b. A point too far from the OTDR for a calculation to be made
c. A point too close to the OTDR for a measurement to be made
d. The point where an event is likely to occur
2. Signal loss is characterized by which of the following? (Select all that
apply.)
a. It is not expected in fiber.
b. It is expected as the signal travels down a fiber.
c. It can result in crosstalk in a fiber.
d. It is measured in decibels.

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 SUMMARY
This chapter introduces the field of fiber optics and optical networking. The
chapter provides examples using fiber to interconnect LANs in both a building
and a campus network. The major topics that you should understand include the
following:

● The advantages offered by optical networking

● The properties of light waves
● The physical and optical characteristics of optical fibers
● Attenuation and dispersion effects in fiber
● The techniques commonly used to connect fiber
● The use of fiber optics in LANs, campus networks, and WANs
● System design of optical networks
● Safety considerations when working with fiber
● Analysis of OTDR waveforms

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Section 3-1
1. List the basic elements of a fiber-optic communication system.
Fiber
Optical light source
Photosensitive detection
Efficient optical connectors
2. List five advantages of an optical communications link.
The answers should include five of the following:
● Bandwidth
● Immunity to electrostatic interference
● Elimination of crosstalk
● Lower signal attenuation
● Lower costs
● Safety
● No corrosion problem
● Security

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 Section 3-2
3. Define refractive index.
The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in free space to its speed
in a given material.
4. What are the commonly used wavelengths in fiber-optic systems?
750 to 850 nm, 1310 nm, and 1530 to 1560 nm
5. What part of an optical fiber carries the light?
The core
6. What is a measure of a fiber’s light acceptance?
Numerical aperture
7. Define pulse dispersion.
Pulse dispersion is a stretching of the received pulse width because of the
multiple paths taken by the light.
8. What are the typical core/cladding sizes (in microns) for multimode fiber?
50/125 μm, 62.5/125 μm
9. What is the typical core size for single-mode fiber?
7 to 10 μm
10. Define mode field diameter.
Mode field diameter is the actual guided optical power distribution.

Section 3-3
11. What are the two key distance-limiting parameters in fiber-optic
transmissions?
Attenuation and dispersion
12. What are the four factors that contribute to attenuation?
Scattering, absorption, macrobending, and microbending
13. Define dispersion.
Dispersion is the broadening of an optical pulse as it propagates through a
fiber strand.
14. What are three types of dispersion?
Modal, chromatic, and polarization mode
15. What is meant by the term zero-dispersion wavelength?
The point where the dispersion is actually zero
16. What is a dispersion compensating fiber?
A dispersion compensating fiber acts like an equalizer, canceling dispersion
effects and yielding close to zero dispersion in the 1550 nm region.

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 Section 3-4
17. What are the two kinds of light sources used in fiber-optic communication
systems?
Diode laser (DL) and the light-emitting diode (LED)
18. Why are narrower spectra advantageous in optical systems?
Dispersion effects on the pulse width are reduced, and therefore pulse
degradation is minimized.
19. Why is a tunable laser important in optical networking?
Traffic routing can be made by wavelengths.
20. What is the purpose of an optical attenuator?
It reduces the received signal level (RSL).
21. List two purposes of optical detectors.
Optical detectors convert transmitted light back into an electrical signal and
monitor the output of laser diode sources.
22. What is the advantage of fusion splicing over mechanical splicing?
Fusion splicing is long term and has low insertion loss.

Section 3-5
23. Expand the following acronyms:
a. FTTC
Fiber-to-the-curb
b. FTTH
Fiber-to-the-home
c. FTTB
Fiber-to-the-business
d. FTTD
Fiber-to-the-desktop
24. What is the purpose of a GBIC?
A GBIC provides an optical interface for the optical–electrical signal
conversion for 1Gbps and lower frequencies.
25. What is the “two deep” rule?
This rule limits the fiber distribution in a building to two deep. This means
that a building should have only the main distribution and the intermediate
distribution that feeds the horizontal distribution to the work area.
26. What is the purpose of a logical fiber map?
It shows how fiber is interconnected and data is distributed.

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 27. What are the typical maximum lengths for multimode fiber and single-mode
fiber?
Multimode fiber: 2 kilometers
Single-mode fiber: 80 kilometers
28. What is a fiber cross-connect used for?
A fiber cross-connect is an optical patch panel used to connect fiber cables
to the next link. The fiber cross-connect typically uses mechanical splices to
make the fiber connections.
29. Provide a link budget calculation, given the following:
Transceiver output power of –16 dBm
2 splices at 0.1 dB each
2 connectors at 0.3 dB each
Determine the extra margin if the RSL is –20 dB.
Total link budget = –16 dBm – (2 × 0.1) – (2 × 0.3)
= –16 dBm – 0.2 dB – 0.6 dB = –16.8 dBm
In this case, the desired RSL is –20 dBm; therefore, the system has 3.2 dB of
extra margin.

Section 3-6
30. Why is safety an important issue in optical networking?
The eye can’t see fiber-optic communication wavelengths, so there is no
awareness of exposure, but the eye’s retina can be damaged.
31. A campus network is planning to replace outdated coaxial cables with fiber-
optic cables. Should the network use single-mode, multimode, or a combina-
tion of single- and multimode fibers in the ground? Why?
The best choice is to select a combination of multimode and single-mode
fibers. This enables maximum flexibility when designing the system and
connecting to various equipment.
32. The networking cables for a new building are being installed. You are asked
to prepare a study about which cable type(s) should be used. Discuss the
issues related to the cable selection.
At this point, both twisted-pair and fiber should be used. It may not be
practical to run fiber to the work area, but fiber should at least be run to the
closets (IDCs).

Section 3-7
33. Examine the OTDR trace provided in Figure 3-24. Explain the trace behavior
of points A, B, C, D, and E.

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 FIGURE 3-24 Figure for problem 33. (From Modern Electronic Communication 9/e, by J.S.
Beasley & G. M. Miller, 2008, p. 833. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle
River, NJ.)

A. Dead zone
B. Begins useful trace info
C. Splice
D. Termination at the fiber end
E. End of the fiber

Certification Questions
34. Which of the following are advantages of optical communication links?
(Select three.)
a. Extremely wide bandwidth
b. Elimination of crosstalk
c. Elimination of attenuation
d. Security
35. The stretching of a received pulse is due to which of the following? (Select
two.)
a. Multiple paths taken by the light waves
b. Misaligned connectors
c. Pulse dispersion
d. OTDR testing

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 36. The broadening of a pulse due to the different path lengths taken through the
fiber by different modes is called ____.
a. chromatic dispersion
b. polarization mode dispersion
c. modal dispersion
d. diffusion
37. The broadening of a pulse due to different propagation of the spectral compo-
nents of the light pulse is called ____.
a. chromatic dispersion
b. modal dispersion
c. polarization mode dispersion
d. diffusion
38. The broadening of a light pulse due to the different propagation velocities of
the X and Y polarization components of the light pulse is called ____.
a. modal dispersion
b. chromatic dispersion
c. diffusion
d. polarization mode dispersion
39. What is the data rate for OC-192?
a. 1.522Mbps
b. 155.52Mbps
c. 9.95Gbps
d. 2.488Gbps
40. Which of the following is an optical-to-fiber interface used with 1 Gigabit
Ethernet?
a. XENPAK
b. GBIC
c. 10GBIC
d. ZENPAK

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 41. What is the “two deep” rule relative to optical networking?
a. The horizontal distribution to the work floor can have only two 8P8C
connections.
b. The horizontal distribution to the work floor can have only two ST
connections to the fiber patch panel.
c. This is no longer an issue with high-speed single-mode fiber and wave
division multiplexing equipment.
d. A building should have only the main distribution and the intermediate
distribution that feeds the horizontal distribution to the work area.
42. Which type of fiber is preferred for use in modern computer networks?
a. Multimode
b. Polarized mode
c. Single-mode
d. All of these answers are correct.
43. What is the material surrounding the core of an optical waveguide called?
a. Aperture
b. Mode field
c. Step-index
d. Cladding
e. Graded-index

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