LECTURE BY AR .

BIRRAH AGHA
SEMESTER -2 – SPRING 25
 HAZARDS
A Hazard is a threat. A future source of danger. It has the
potential to cause harm to:

• People - death, injury, disease and stress

• Human activity – economic, educational, etc.
• Property - property damage, economic loss
• Environment - loss of fauna and flora, pollution, loss of
amenities.

Some examples of hazards are:

• Earthquakes,
• Volcanic eruptions,
• Cyclones,
• Floods,
• Landslides, and other such events
LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA
 HAZARDS
• Environmental events become hazards once they threaten
to affect society and/or the environment adversely.
• A physical event, such as a volcanic eruption, that does
not affect human beings is a natural phenomenon but not
a natural hazard.
• A natural phenomenon that occurs in a populated area is
a hazardous event. A hazardous event that causes
unacceptably large numbers of fatalities and/or
overwhelming property damage is a natural disaster.
• In areas where there are no human interests, natural
phenomena do not constitute hazards, nor do they result in
disasters.

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

 DISASTERS
“Disaster is an undesirable occurrence resulting from forces that are
largely outside human control, strikes quickly with little or no
warning.

• It causes or threatens serious disruption of life and property

including death and injury to a large number of people.
• It requires mobilization of efforts in excess of that which are
normally provided by statutory emergency services
• For a long time, disasters were considered as consequences of
natural forces; and human beings were treated as innocent and
helpless victims in front of the mighty forces of nature.
• However natural forces are not only the causes of disasters, but
also, they can be caused by human activities.

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

 EARTH QUAKES
• Earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and
highly destructive of all-natural disasters.

• Earthquakes that are of tectonic origin have proved

to be the most devastating and their area of
influence is also quite large. These earthquakes result
from a series of earth movements brought about by
a sudden release of energy during the tectonic
activities in the earth’s crust.

• As compared to these, the earthquakes associated

with volcanic eruption, rock falls, landslides,
subsidence, particularly in the mining areas,
impounding of dams and reservoirs, etc. have
limited area of influence and the scale of damage.

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS
The idea of an earthquake is often associated with
fear and horror due to the scale, magnitude, and
suddenness at which it spreads disasters on the
surface of the earth without discrimination. It
becomes a calamity when it strikes the areas of high-
density of population.

It not only damages and destroys the settlements,

infrastructure, transport, communication network,
industries, and other developmental activities but
also robs the population of the material and socio-
cultural gains that they have preserved over
generations. It renders them homeless, which puts an
extra pressure and stress, particularly on the weak
economy of the developing countries.

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

 EARTHQUAKE CAUSES
1. TECTONIC PLATE MOVEMENTS 1. TECTONIC PLATE MOVEMENTS

i. Divergent Boundaries ii. Convergent Boundaries

• Here, tectonic plates move apart • At these boundaries, tectonic plates move towards
from each other. This movement each other. This can happen between oceanic plates,
creates a gap that allows magma continental plates, or one of each. When they collide,
to rise from the mantle, forming new one plate is forced below the other in a process called
crust. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a subduction.
classic example of this. • These areas are known for generating powerful
earthquakes, often leading to tsunamis, especially when
• Earthquakes in these areas are involving oceanic plates.
usually less violent because the
stress buildup is lower compared to iii. Transform Boundaries
other boundaries. • At transform boundaries, plates slide horizontally past
each other. The friction prevents them from sliding
smoothly and stress builds up until it's released as an
earthquake.
• The San Andreas Fault in California is a well-known
transform fault.

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

 EARTHQUAKE CAUSES
2. VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 3. OTHER NATURAL CAUSES
i. Magma Movement i. Glacial Movements
• The movement of magma within a volcano i. The melting and movement of
can lead to earthquakes. As magma forces glaciers can lead to seismic activity.
its way through the crust, it fractures the As glaciers melt, the reduced weight
rock, causing seismic activity. on the crust can cause it to
ii. Volcanic Eruptions rebound, leading to earthquakes.
• Explosive volcanic eruptions can generate ii. Landslides
significant seismic activity, as the sudden i. Large landslides, especially those
release of pressure impacts the surrounding underwater, can trigger
crust. earthquakes. The sudden
displacement of massive amounts of
earth creates seismic waves.

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

EARTHQUAKE CAUSES
3. HUMAN ACTIVITIES
i. Mining
• Large-scale mining operations, especially those that
involve blasting, can induce seismic activity. The
removal of large amounts of rock alters the stress
distribution in the Earth's crust.
ii. Reservoir-Induced Seismicity
• The filling of large reservoirs behind dams can lead
to earthquakes. The added weight of the water
changes the stress on the crust below and around
the reservoir.
iii. Geothermal Energy Extraction
i. The extraction of geothermal energy involves injecting
water into hot, dry rock to produce steam. The change
in pressure and temperature can induce seismic activity.
iv. Oil and Gas Extraction
• Activities like hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and the
injection of wastewater into disposal wells can alter
underground pressure and lead to earthquakes.

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

 EARTHQUAKE MITIGATION
•Building Codes and Construction Standards
•Implementing and enforcing strict building codes to ensure
structures are earthquake-resistant.
•Early Warning Systems
•Developing and deploying early warning systems to provide
advanced notice of an impending earthquake.
•Public Education and Preparedness
•Educating the public about earthquake preparedness,
including emergency plans, drills, and survival kits.
•Seismic Retrofitting
•Strengthening existing buildings and infrastructure to withstand
seismic activity through retrofitting.
•Land-Use Planning
•Avoiding construction in high-risk areas, such as near fault lines
or on unstable soil.
•Research and Monitoring
•Investing in scientific research and monitoring to better
understand seismic activity and predict future earthquakes.

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

 EARTHQUAKE MITIGATION
Building Codes and Construction Standards
•Design and Engineering
• Buildings and infrastructure should be
designed and engineered to withstand
seismic forces.
• Use of flexible materials and shock absorbers
to allow buildings to move without collapsing.
•Enforcement
• Strict enforcement of building codes and
construction standards to ensure compliance.

Seismic Retrofitting
•Strengthening Existing Structures
• Retrofitting involves adding or improving
structural elements to existing buildings to
make them more resistant to seismic activity.
• Common retrofitting techniques include
adding steel braces, reinforcing walls, and
installing base isolators.

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

 TSUNAMI
A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves caused by the
displacement of a large volume of water, usually due to an
underwater earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide. These
waves can travel across entire ocean basins and cause
significant destruction when they reach coastal areas.

CAUSES OF TSUNAMIS

• Underwater Earthquakes
• Volcanic Eruptions
• Landslides
• Meteorite Impacts

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

 LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

TSUNAMI
Volcanic Eruptions Landslides Underwater Earthquakes
Volcanic eruptions, especially Large landslides, either The most common cause of
those that occur underwater or under the sea or along tsunamis is underwater
near coastlines, can displace coastal areas, can displace earthquakes, particularly those that
water and generate tsunamis. water and generate occur at subduction zones where
The collapse of a volcanic tsunamis. The sudden tectonic plates collide. When one
cone or the explosive release movement of a large plate is forced under another, it
of volcanic material into the amount of earth and rock can cause a sudden displacement
ocean can also cause into the ocean creates of the ocean floor, displacing the
tsunamis. waves that can propagate water above and generating a
across the water. tsunami.
 LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

STRATEGIES TO REDUCE TSUNAMI

1.Public Education and Awareness
Educating communities about the risks of tsunamis,
signs of an impending tsunami (such as a rapid
receding of water), and appropriate evacuation
procedures. Regular drills and training can help
people respond quickly and effectively during an
emergency.

2.Coastal Planning and Zoning

Restricting construction in high-risk coastal areas and
enforcing land-use planning to minimize exposure to
tsunami hazards. Coastal areas can be designated
as buffer zones to absorb the impact of tsunamis.

3.Building Design and Construction

Designing and constructing buildings and
infrastructure to withstand the forces of a tsunami.
Elevated structures, seawalls, and barriers can help
protect against the impact of waves.
 LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

FLOOD
Floods occur commonly when water in the form of surface run-
off exceeds the carrying capacity of the river channels and
streams and flows into the neighboring low-lying floodplains.
Causes of Floods

• Sudden and Heavy rainfall for a considerably longer period

• Melting of ice and snow
• Storm surge in the coastal areas
• Reduction in infiltration rate due to overgrazing
• Indiscriminate deforestation
• Disturbances along the natural drainage channels
• Unconsolidated material in the water due to higher rate of
soil erosion
• Encroachment of rivers by the settlements
 FLOOD
Consequence and Control of Floods

• Floods seriously affect the national economy

and society
• Floods destroy valuable crops
• Floods also damage physical infrastructure
such as roads, rails, bridges, and human
settlements
• Millions of people are rendered homeless and
are also washed down along with their cattle
in the

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

FLOOD
Methods to Control the Floods

• Construction of flood
protection embankments in
the flood-prone areas
• Construction of dams
• fforestation
• Removal of human
encroachment from the river
channels
• Depopulating the flood plains
in the regions of flash floods
• The establishment of Cyclone
centers may provide relief in
coastal areas which are hit by
a storm surge

LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

 LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

DROUGHT
The term ‘drought’ is applied to an extended
period when there is a shortage of water
availability due to inadequate precipitation,
excessive rate of evaporation, and over-
utilization of water from the reservoirs and other
storages, including the groundwater.

Types of Droughts

• Meteorological Drought: This is a situation

when there is a prolonged period of
inadequate rainfall.

• Agricultural Drought: It is also known as soil

moisture drought, characterized by low soil
moisture that is necessary to support the
crops, thereby resulting in crop failures.
 DROUGHT
LECTURE BY AR .BIRRAH AGHA

The scarcity of water compels people to consume

contaminated water resulting in the spread of many
waterborne diseases like gastro-enteritis, cholera, hepatitis,
etc
Consequences of Drought

Droughts have both immediate as we ll as long-term

disastrous consequences on the social and physical
environments

Crop failure leads to scarcity of food grains and fodder

Inadequate rainfall, resulting in a shortage of water and

often a shortage in all three, i.e., food grains, fodder, and
water is most devastating
Large-scale death of cattle and other animals

Migration of humans and livestock is the most common

sight to be seen in the drought-affected areas