CLASSUPON ACADEMY

CHEM NOTES

3 Classification of
Elements and
Periodicity in Properties

1. Why Do We Need To Classify Elements?

At present, 118 elements and millions of their compounds have been discovered. It is not possible
to characterise, analyse and remember them, individually at all. So efforts were being made by
various workers from time to time to develop a technique so that this huge problem can be solved.
Periodic table is the best discovery of scientists in this millennium. The periodic table provides a
systematic and extremely useful framework for organizing the vast behaviour of elements into
simple and logical patterns.
2. Genesis of Periodic Classification
(a) Dobereiner’s Triads: In 1817, German chemist, Johann Dobereiner first recognised a
significant relation between the properties of elements and their atomic weights. He pointed
out that there were sets of three elements (called triads) which showed similar chemical
properties and that the atomic weight of the middle element was approximately the arithmetic
mean of the atomic weights of the other two members.
Table 3.1: Dobereiner’s Triads

Element Atomic weight Element Atomic weight Element Atomic weight

Li 7 Cl 35.5 Ca 40

Na 23 Br 80 Sr 88

K 39 I 127 Ba 137

Dobereiner’s triads could not be extended to other known elements, hence it was discarded.
It, however, for the first time indicated that the properties of elements are related to their
atomic weights.
(b) Newland’s Law of Octaves: In 1865, English chemist John Newlands proposed his Law
of Octaves. Upon arranging the elements in order of their increasing atomic weights, he
observed that the eighth element was a sort of repetition with the first, ninth element over
the second and so on. He stated that “The eighth element, starting from a given one, is a kind
of repetition of the first, like the eighth note of an octave in music.” This system worked very
well for the lighter elements.

88 Xam idea Chemistry–XI

 Limitations
This classification, however, suffered from a number of defects and hence was not accepted.
(i) It provided no place for unknown elements.
(ii) Many elements placed in the same group showed no resemblance in properties.
(iii) It was applicable only upto calcium.

(c) Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the
periodic function of their atomic masses.
Characteristics of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Mendeleev arranged the 63 elements discovered by that time into periods and groups.
(i) There were 7 horizontal rows called as periods and 8 vertical columns called as groups
present in original Mendeleev’s periodic table. With discovery of inert gases, a new group
called as zero group was introduced as 9th group. The groups are numbered from I to
VIII and zero.
(ii) Each group from group I to VII is further sub-divided into two sub-groups ‘A’ and ‘B’.
(iii) The group VIII consists of three vertical columns, each containing group of three elements.
(iv) Many gaps were left in the periodic table for undiscovered elements and by studying the
properties of adjacent elements he predicted the properties of undiscovered elements
to be filled in the gaps when discovered in future. For example, both Gallium (Ga) and
Germanium (Ge) were not discovered at that time. He left a gap under Aluminium and a
gap under silicon and called these elements as “eka-Aluminium” and “eka-silicon”. These
elements were discovered later on and were placed in the above gaps.

Defects of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

(i) Position of hydrogen is not correctly decided. Although it is placed in group 1, it resembles
in properties with both group IA and VIIIA.
(ii) No separate position of isotopes is given in the periodic table, as the isotopes have different
atomic masses and atomic mass is taken as criteria for arrangement of elements.
(iii) Dissimilar elements are placed together in one group. There is no similarity in properties
of sub group A and B elements except valency, but they have been placed in one group.
(iv) The arrangement of elements in the increasing order of their atomic weight is not strictly
followed in certain cases like Argon (40) is placed before Potassium (39).
(v) The fourteen elements each of Lanthanoids (from Lanthanium 57 to Lutetium 71) and
actinoids (from Actinium 89 to lawrencium 103) are placed together in one group. No
justification was given for it.
(vi) No attempts have been made to separate metals from non-metals in his periodic table.

3. Long Form of Periodic Table:

Moseley, the English physicist showed that atomic number is more fundamental property of an
element than its atomic mass. Therefore, the position of an element in the periodic table depends
on its atomic number rather than its atomic mass.
Modern Periodic Law
The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 89

 Representative elements Noble
(p-block elements) gases
Representative elements
GROUP NUMBER
(s-block elements)
18
GROUP 0
NUMBER I 2
H He
1 1 2 1s1 13 14 15 16 17 2
1s
IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
3 4 Transition elements 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2 (d-block elements)
2s1 2s2 2s 2p 2s 2p 2s 2p 2s 2p 2s 2p 2s22p6
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

GROUP NUMBER
11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6
3s1 II B 3s 3p 3s 3p 3s 3p 3s 3p 3s 3p 3s 3p
2
3s III B IV B V B VI B VII B VIII IB
PERIOD NUMBER

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4s1 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 4s 4p 4s 4p 4s 4p 4s 4p 4s 4p 4s24p6
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 5 1 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 10 1 10 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xn
5s1 5s2 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d85s1
1 2 2 2 4 1 5 2 5 1 7 1
4d10 4d 5s 4d 5s 5s 5p 5s 5p 5s 5p 5s 5p 5s 5p 5s25p6
10 1 10 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

6 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
14 2 2
6s1 6s 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 5d 6s 5d 6s 5d 6s 5d 6s 5d 6s 5d 6s 5d 6s 5d 6s 6s 6p 6s 6p 6s 6p 6s 6p 6s 6p 6s26p6
2 1 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 9 1 10 1 10 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

7 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
1 2
7s1 2
7s 6d 7s

Inner-transition elements (f-block elements)

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Lanthanoids Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
4f n5d 0-16s2 4f 25d 0 6s2 4f 35d 0 6s2 4f 45d 0 6s2 4f 55d 0 6s2 4f 65d 0 6s2 4f 75d 0 6s2 4f 75d 1 6s2 4f 95d 0 6s2 4f 105d 0 6s2 4f 115d 0 6s2 4f 125d 0 6s2 4f 135d 0 6s2 4f 145d 0 6s2 4f 145d 1 6s2

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

**Actinoids
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
5f n6 d 0-27s2
5f 06d 2 7s2 5f 26d 1 7s2 5f 36d 1 7s2 5f 46d 1 7s2 5f 66d 0 7s2 5f 76d 0 7s2 5f 76d 1 7s2 5f 96d 0 7s2 5f 106d 0 7s2 5f 116d 0 7s2 5f 126d 0 7s2 5f 136d 0 7s2 5f 146d 0 7s2 5f 146d 1 7s1

Fig. 3.1: Long form of the Periodic Table of the Elements with their atomic numbers and ground state outer electronic
configurations. The groups are numbered 1-18 in accordance with the IUPAC recommendations. This notation
replaces the old numbering scheme of IA-VIIA, IB-VIIB and VIII for s-, p- and d-block elements.

Main Features of the Long Form of the Periodic Table: The long form of the periodic table is
divided into vertical columns and the horizontal rows. The vertical columns constitute groups
while the horizontal rows constitute periods.
Groups
(i) There are sixteen vertical columns called groups which are numbered in the order IA, IIA,
IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, VIII, IB, IIB, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA, and zero. According to
the recommendation of International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), now
the groups are number from 1 to 18 in the above order.
(ii) Elements of 1, 2 and 13 to 17 are known as main group or representative elements. Elements
of group 1 and 2 are called as alkali metals and alkaline earth metals respectively.
(iii) The elements placed in the centre of the periodic table in groups 3 to 12 are called transition
elements or d-block elements.
(iv) Lanthanoids and actinoids are placed in the group 3 with lanthanum and actinium,
respectively and then extended at the bottom of the periodic table in two different rows which
are called f-block elements or inner transition elements.

90 Xam idea Chemistry–XI

 Periods
(i) The horizontal rows are called periods. There are seven periods in all, like Mendeleev’s
periodic table. These are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 from top to bottom.
(ii) The period number corresponds to the highest principal quantum number (n) of the element.
(iii) There are 2 elements in the first period and subsequent periods contains 8, 8, 18, 18 and 32
elements respectively. Thus, first period is called as shortest period and second and third
period are short periods. Fourth and fifth is known as long period and sixth is the longest
period.
(iv) The seventh period is incomplete but has a maximum tendency to have 32 elements.
Importance of Long Form of the Periodic Table
(i) The table removed several anomalies of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table like grouping of similar
elements separately and dissimilar elements together.
(ii) It explained the cause of periodicity on the basis of electronic configuration.
Defects of the Long Form of the Periodic Table: Although the long form of the periodic table is
almost an ideal arrangement of elements, yet it is not free from defects. The important defects are:
(i) No definite position of hydrogen has been assigned.
(ii) It does not include lanthanoids and actinoids in the main body of the periodic table.
(iii) It does not reflect the exact distribution of electrons in various s, p, d and f-orbitals.
(iv) The inclusion of three elements in the VIII group is not justified.
4. Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers > 100
Rules for Naming The New Elements
(i) The numerical roots are stung together in order of the digits (0 to 9) which make up the
atomic number of the new element.
(ii) The suffix ‘ium’ is then added at the end. For example element 120 is named by using roots
for 1, 2 and 0 which are unbinil and then adding ‘ium’ at the end, ‘unbinilium’ and its symbol
would be ‘Ubn’.
Table 3.2: Notations for IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements

Digit Name Abbreviation

0 nil n
1 un u
2 bi b
3 tri t
4 quad q
5 pent p
6 hex h
7 sept s
8 oct o
9 enn e

5. Relation between Electronic Configurations of Elements and The Periodic Table

(a) Electronic Configurations in Periods: The period indicates the value of n for the outermost
or valence shell. In other words, successive period in the periodic table is associated with the
filling of the next higher principal energy level (n = 1, n = 2, etc.). It can be readily seen that
the total number of elements in each period is twice the number of atomic orbitals available
in the energy level that is being filled.

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 91

 Periodic Principal Electronic Number of Number of
Number Quantum Configuration Electrons present Elements present
Number (Aufbau principle) in the Shell in the Period
1 1 1s 2 2
2 2 2s, 2p 8 8
3 3 3s, 3p 8 8
4 4 4s, 3d, 4p 18 18
5 5 5s, 4d, 5p 18 18
6 6 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p 32 32
7 7 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p 32 32

(b) Groupwise Electronic Configurations: Elements in the same vertical column or group have
similar valence shell electronic configurations, the same number of electrons in the outer
orbitals, and similar properties. For example, the Group 1 elements (alkali metals) all have
ns1 valence shell electronic configuration as shown below.
3Li — 1s2 2s1 or [He] 2s1
2 2 6 1
11Na — 1s 2s 2p 3s or [Ne] 3s1
2 2 6 2 6 1
19K — 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s or [Ar] 4s1
37Rb —1s2 2s2 2p2 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 5s1 or [Kr] 5s1
2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 1
55Cs — 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 5s 5p 6s or [Xe] 6s1
6. Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: s-, p-, d-, f- Blocks: The s- and p- block elements
are called main group elements or representative elements.
(a) s-block elements: Group-1 (Alkali metals) and Group-2 elements (Alkaline earth metals)
respectively have ns1 and ns2 outermost electronic configurations. Outermost electronic
configuration is ns1–2.
The general characteristics of s-block elements are:
(i) They are soft metals with low melting and boiling point.
(ii) They are strong reducing agents and are good conductors of heat and electricity.
(iii) They have low ionisation enthalpy and therefore these metals are highly reactive. Because
of this, they are never found in pure state.
(b) p-block elements: They belong to group 13 to 18. Elements of group 15, 16, 17 and 18 are
known as pnictogens, chalcogens, halogens and noble gases respectively.
The outer most electronic configuration is ns2np1–6. He (1s2) is a s-block element but is
positioned with the group 18 elements (ns2np6) because it has completely filled valence shell
and as a result, exhibits properties similar to other noble gases.
The general characteristics of p-block elements are:
(i) They are generally non-metals but some metals and metalloids are also present.
(ii) Their ionisation energy is relatively higher than that of s-block elements.
(c) d-block elements (Transition elements): These elements belong to group 3 to 12 having outer
electronic configuration (n – 1) d1–10ns0–2. Four transition series are 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d. The
6d- series is incomplete.
The general characteristics of d-block elements are:
(i) They form both ionic and covalent bonds.
(ii) They are metals with high melting and boiling points.
(iii) They form coloured complexes due to presence of partially filled d-orbitals.
(iv) Their ionisation energies are between s and p-block elements.
(d) f-Block elements (Inner-transition Series): Lanthanoids characterised by the filling of

4 f-orbitals, are the elements following lanthanum from 58Ce to 71Lu. Actinoids characterised

92 Xam idea Chemistry–XI

 by filling of 5f-orbitals, are the elements following actinium from 70Th to 103Lr. Characteristic
outer electronic configuration is (n – 2) f 1 – 14 (n – 1) d0–1ns2.
General characteristics of f-block elements are:
(i) They are heavy metals with high melting and boiling points.
(ii) Most of the actinoids are radioactive in nature.
7. Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
(a) Metals
(i) Metals comprises more than 78% of all known elements and are present on the left side of
the periodic table.
(ii) They are generally solid at room temperature except mercury which is liquid at room
temperature.
(iii) They have generally high melting and boiling point. [Exception: Gallium (303 K) and
Caesium (302 K) have low melting points.]
(b) Non-metals
(i) They are present only in p-block and are present on the top right side of the periodic table.
(ii) They can be either solid or gases at room temperature. [Exception: Bromine is liquid at
room temperature.]
(iii) Melting and boiling points are very low except boron and carbon.
(c) Metalloids: They exhibit the properties of both metals and non-metals, e.g., silicon,
germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium.
8. Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements
Periodicity: The repetition of similar properties after regular intervals is called periodicity.
Cause of Periodicity: The properties of elements are the periodic repetition of similar electronic
configuration of elements as the atomic number increases.
Trends in Physical Properties: The physical characteristics of the atom of an element are
called atomic properties. The properties such as atomic radius, ionic radius, ionisation energy,
electronegativity, electron affinity are included in this which are discussed below:
(a) Atomic Radius: The distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell of the
electrons in the atom of any element is called its atomic radius.
(i) Covalent Radius: One-half the inter-nuclear distance between two similar atoms of any
element which are covalently bonded to each other by a single covalent bond is called
covalent radius.
(ii) van der Waals’ Radius: One-half the distance between the nuclei of two identical non-
bonded isolated atoms is known as van der Waals’ radius.
(iii) Metallic Radius: One-half the intermolecular distance between the nuclei of two adjacent
metal atoms in a closed packed lattice of metal is known as metallic radius.
van der Waals’ radius > Metallic radius > Covalent radius
Periodicity
(i) In a period, atomic radius of elements decreases from left to right. This is because on
moving left to right, incoming electron is added to the same valence shell. As a result,
the effective nuclear charge increases and thus, the outer electron is held tightly by the
nucleus.
(ii) In a group, the atomic radius increases from top to bottom. This is because as we descend
a group, the principal quantum number increases and the distance between valence
electrons and the nucleus increases.
(b) Ionic Radius: Ionic radius may be defined as the distance from the nucleus of an ion upto
which it has influence on its electron cloud.
(i) The radius of cation is smaller than that of the parent atom due to

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 93

 • decrease in number of shells.
• increase in effective nuclear charge.
(ii) The radius of anion is larger than that of the parent atom. This is due to decrease in
effective nuclear charge and increase in repulsion among the electrons.
Periodicity
(i) The ionic radii follows the same trend as shown by the atomic radii in the periodic table,
i.e., it increases on moving down the group and decreases across the period.
(ii) When the atoms or ions contain the same number of electrons but different nuclear charge,
we call them isoelectronic. For example, C4–, N3–, O2–, F – and Ne have the same number of
electrons (10) but they have different nuclear charge, i.e., positive charge (atomic number).
They are, therefore, isoelectronic.
In case of isoelectronic species, ionic radius decreases with increase in magnitude of
nuclear charge.
(c) Ionization Energy (or Ionization Enthalpy): The ionization energy is defined as “the amount
of energy required to remove the most easily detachable electron from the electrostatic
force of attraction of the nucleus from an isolated atom in the gaseous state resulting in the
formation of a cation.”
The energy required to remove first electron from an isolated gaseous atom is called as first
ionisation energy or ionisation enthalpy. The energy required to remove second electron,
third electron etc. are called as “Successive Ionisation Energy”.
The successive ionisation energy gradually increases, i.e.,
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 …
Reason: With removal of each electron from the gaseous atom, the relative number of protons
increases by one unit. In other words, the effective nuclear charge increases steadily which
results in the increase in electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and remaining
electrons. So more amount of energy will be needed to remove the further electrons. Hence
successive ionisation energy increases.
Factors Influencing Ionization Energies: The magnitude of ionization energy depends upon
the following factors:
(i) Atomic size: As the size of the atom increases, the outer electrons lie farther away from
the nucleus. As a result of this, attractive force between outer electrons and the nucleus
decreases and it becomes easier to knock out an electron from the outer shell of the atom.
Thus, larger the size of the atom, the smaller is ionization energy.
(ii) Charge on the nucleus: As the nuclear charge is increased, the ionisation energy increases.
This is because nucleus with greater nuclear charge bound the electron more firmly and
thus, greater amount of energy is required to remove them.
(iii) Screening or shielding effect: As the screening or the shielding effect of the inner electrons
increases, the ionisation enthalpy decreases.
(iv) Penetration effect of the electrons: In the same main energy level, the s electrons are
closer to the nucleus than the p, d or f electrons. Thus, the s electrons experience more
attraction from the nucleus than the p, d or f electrons of the same energy level. Therefore,
the ionization energy required to pull out an electron from a given shell decreases in the
order:
s-orbital > p-orbitals > d-orbitals > f-orbitals
(v) Half-filled and fully-filled orbitals: Half-filled and fully-filled orbitals are more stable and
therefore their ionisation energy is found to be high.

94 Xam idea Chemistry–XI

 Periodicity
(i) Variation of Ionization Energies in a period: On moving along a period from left to right,
the ionisation energy of elements gradually increases with some exceptions marked in
given figure. It is due to two factors:

2500

Ne
(2080)
2000

–1 F
IE/kJ mol (1681)
1500 N
(1402)
O
(1314)
C
1000 Be (1086)
(899)
Li B
(520) (801)
500
0 2 4 6 8 10
Atomic Number (Z)

Fig. 3.2: Variation of ionization energy among elements of

second period

1. The atomic size of elements decreases from left to right across a period, although
main energy level remains the same.
2. The atomic number of elements increases by one unit. The successive electrons are
added to the orbitals of same main energy shell. So the shielding effect decreases and
effective nuclear charge increases. The valence shell electrons experience increased
nuclear attraction. Hence the ionisation energy increases.
However some exceptions are observed in certain cases where
(a) The atom having exactly half-filled or fully-filled orbitals is associated with extra
stability.
(b) Type of electrons to be removed from the atoms, i.e., it is easier to remove an
electron from the np-orbital as compared to the ns-orbital.
(ii) Variation of I.E. in a Group: On moving down a group, the ionisation energy of elements
gradually decreases. It is due to the following three factors:
(a) The atomic size of elements increases gradually down a group due to addition of
new shells. So the distance between nucleus and valence electron increases and less
amount of energy is required to remove electron from the valence shell. Therefore,
I.E. should decrease.
(b) The screening effect on the valence electrons of element gradually increases due to
increase in number of inner shells. So the valence electrons experience less nuclear
attraction. Hence, the I.E should decrease.
(c) The nuclear charge increases with increase in atomic number of elements down a
group, which results in increased force of attraction between nucleus and valence
electrons. Hence I.E should increase.
The combining effect of increase in atomic size and screening effect compensates the
increase in nuclear charge. As a result, the valence electrons are weakly held by the
nucleus. Hence, the I.E decreases down the group.
(d) Electron Affinity (Electron Gain Enthalpy): Electron affinity is defined as “the amount of
energy released when an extra electron is added to an isolated gaseous atom”. The unit of electron
affinity is eV per atom or calorie mol–1 or kJ mol–1.

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 95

 Factors Influencing Electron Affinity: The magnitude of electron affinity depends on several factors.
(i) Atomic size: Generally electron affinity decreases with increasing atomic radius.
1
i.e., E. A . \
Size
(ii) Nuclear charge: The electron affinity of elements increases with increase in nuclear charge
and decreases with increase in screening effect,
E.A. ∝ Nuclear charge
1
and E.A. ∝
Screening effect
(iii) Type (or shape) of orbitals: Addition of electron in the s-orbital results in the release of
large energy, i.e., electron affinity is large. The electron affinity decreases when electron is
added in p, d and f-orbitals. Therefore, the order of decreasing electron affinity is
s > p > d > f
(iv) Half-filled and fully-filled orbitals: It is easier to add an extra electron to partially filled
orbitals than to half-filled or fully-filled orbitals. Therefore, elements with fully-filled
orbitals have large positive values of electron affinity.
Periodicity
(i) Variation in a group: In general, electron affinity decreases (i.e., becomes less negative) as
we go down a group. This is due to the fact that on moving down a group, the atomic size
increases and therefore the added electron would be farther away from the nucleus. As a
result of which the atom will have less tendency to attract additional electron towards itself.
(ii) Variation in a period: In general, electron affinity increases (i.e., becomes more negative)
on moving from left to right across a period. This is because on moving across a period,
the atomic size decreases and hence the force of attraction exerted by the nucleus on the
electron increases. As a result of this it is easier to add an electron to a smaller atom since
the added electron on an average would be closer to the positively charged nucleus.
(e) Electronegativity: It is defined as ‘the relative tendency or power of a bonded atom to attract the shared
pair of electrons towards itself.’ Both I.E and E.A are related to the isolated atom in gaseous state,
but electronegativity is the property of an atom in its bonded state. The I.E and E.A of an
element has always constant value but E.N is not always a constant value.
Factors Affecting Electronegativity
1
(i) Atomic Size: E.N. ∝
Atomic size
With increase in atomic size the distance between nucleus and valence electron increases
and the force of attraction between nucleus and valence electron decreases. So on moving
along a period, the atomic size decreases and thus, the electronegativity increases. Down a
group, the atomic size of the elements increases and therefore, the E.N decreases.
(ii) Effective Nuclear charge (Z*):
E.N ∝ Z*
With increase in effective nuclear charge, the force of attraction between nucleus and
valence shell electron increases, so the eletronegativity increases. On moving along a
period, the effective nuclear charge increases and therefore, E.N increases.
(iii) Oxidation state of the atom in a compound
E.N. ∝ Positive oxidation state
1
∝
Negative oxidation state
The compound where the central atom shows positive oxidation state is more electronegative
than its negative oxidation state.
(iv) Percentage of s-character: With increase in percentage of ‘s’-character in the hybrid
orbital, the electronegativity of element increases.

96 Xam idea Chemistry–XI

 (v) Number of Inner shells: With increase in number of inner shells between nucleus and
valence shell, the force of attraction between nucleus and valence shell electrons decreases.
Hence electronegativity decreases. Down a group, the number of inner shells increases, so
the E.N decreases.
(vi) Ionisation Energy and Electron Affinity: Higher the I.E. and E.A., higher is the
electronegativity. For example, halogens have higher value of I.E. and E.A., hence they
have a high value of electronegativity.
Periodicity
(i) In period: The electronegativity first increases from left to right in a period.
(ii) In group: The electronegativity first decreases from left to right in a period.
9. Trends in Chemical Properties
(a) Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States: The electrons present in outermost shell are
called as valence electrons. This is because the electrons in the outermost shell determine the
valency of an element.
Valency of an Element: “the number of electrons which an atom loses or gains or shares with other atom
to attain the noble gas configuration is termed as its valency.”
Periodicity
(i) In period: The valency first increases from 1 to 4 then decreases to zero from left to right
in a period.
(ii) In group: The valency remains constant from top to bottom in a group due to same
number of valence electrons.
(b) Electropositive or Metallic Character: The tendency of an element to lose electrons and
form positive ions (cations) is called electropositive or metallic character. The elements having
lower ionization energies have higher tendency to lose electrons, thus they are electropositive
or metallic in their behaviour.
Alkali metals are the most highly electropositive elements.
Periodicity
(i) In period: The electropositive or metallic character decreases from left to right in a period.
(ii) In group: The electropositive or metallic character increases from top to bottom in a group.
(c) Electronegative Or Non-metallic Character: The tendency of an element to accept electrons
to form an anion is called its non-metallic or electronegative character. The elements having
high electronegativity have higher tendency to gain electrons and forms anion. So, the
elements in the upper right hand portion of the periodic table are electronegative or non-
metallic in nature.
Periodicity:
(i) In period: The electronegative or non-metallic character increases from left to right in a
period.
(ii) In group: The electronegative or non-metallic character decreases from top to bottom in
a group.
(d) Reactivity of Metals
Periodicity:
(i) In period: The tendency of an element to lose electrons decreases in a period. So the
reactivity of metals decreases from left to right in a period.
(ii) In group: The tendency of an element to lose electrons increases in a group. So the
reactivity of metals increases from top to bottom in a group.
(e) Reactivity of Non-metals
Periodicity:
(i) In period: The tendency of an element to gain electrons increases in a period. So the
reactivity of non-metals increases from left to right in a period.

Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 97

 (ii) In group: The tendency of an element to gain electrons decreases in a group. So the
reactivity of non-metals decreases from top to bottom in a group.
Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements: The anomalous behaviour is attributed to
their small size, large charge/radius ratio, high electronegativity, non-availability of d-orbitals in
their valence shell.
Some of the anomalous properties are as follows:
(i) Some elements of second period like lithium (group 1) and beryllium (group 2) shows
similar properties with the elements of third period like magnesium (group 2) and aluminium
(group 13) respectively.
(ii) The nature of compounds formed by Li, Be and B is generally covalent while other members
of their respective groups form ionic compounds.
(iii) The first member of each group of p-block shows a higher tendency to form pp-pp multiple
bonds to itself (e.g., C—C, C≡C, N≡N, etc., and to the other elements of second period (like
C—O, C—N, C≡N) as compared to the subsequent members of the same group.

NCERT Exercises
1. What is the basic theme of organisation in the periodic table?
Ans. The basic theme of organisation of elements in the periodic table is to simplify and systematize
study of the properties of all the elements and millions of their compounds.
2. Which important property did Mendeleev use to classify the elements in his periodic table
and did he stick to that?
Ans. Mendeleev recognised atomic weight as the fundamental property of elements and arranged
the elements on the basis of a law called as Mendeleev’s Periodic law. He sincerely stuck to this
basis as many gaps were left in the periodic table for undiscovered elements and by studying
the properties of adjacent elements he predicted the properties of undiscovered elements to be
filled in the gaps when discovered in future.
3. What is the basic difference in approach between the Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and the
Modern Periodic Law?
Ans. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law states that “the physical and chemical properties of the elements
are periodic function of their atomic weights.” On the other hand, Modern Periodic Law states
that “the physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic
numbers.” Therefore, the basic difference between Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and Modern
Periodic Law is the change in basis of classification of elements from atomic weight to atomic
number.
4. On the basis of quantum numbers, justify that the sixth period of the periodic table should
have 32 elements.
Ans. The 6th period begins with the filling of principal quantum number, n = 6. But on the basis of
Aufbau principle, the electrons in the 6th period can be filled in 6s, 4f, 5d and 6p subshells whose
energies increases in the order 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p. Therefore, there will be 16 (1 + 7 + 5 + 3)
orbitals that can be filled in this period. Thus, these orbitals can accommodate maximum of 32
electrons in accordance with Pauli’s exclusion principle. Thus,this period contains 32 elements.
5.
In terms of period and group where would you locate the element with Z = 114?
The electronic configuration of Z = 114 is [Rn]86 7s2 5f 14 6d10 7p2
Ans.
As the last electron is entering the p-subshell. Thus, it belongs to the p-block.
Now, period number is equal to the principal quantum number of the valence electrons of the
respective elements and group number for p-block elements is equal to the (10 + number of ns
and np electrons).
Therefore, Z = 114 belongs to 7th period and group 14.

98 Xam idea Chemistry–XI