Lectures on Logic

Part II

Ashokankur Datta
School of Humanities and Social Sciences
Shiv Nadar University

September 7, 2015

September 7, 2015 1 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Things to Remember from Part I

Sentence and Sentential Function.

Designatory Function
A sentential function becomes a sentence when
Variables are substituted by constant
Quantifiers involving all free variables of the sentential function as explicitly
or implicitly used with the sentential function.
A combination of the two methods mentioned above.
Universal and Existential Quantifiers. Set Theoretic Explanation.
A sentence has no free variables. If a sentence contains variables, all of them are
bound variables.
A sentential function has at least one free variable.

September 7, 2015 2 / 60
 Introduction

Discussion about Constants

In any scientific theory, the constants that we use can be classified into two groups:
Terms that are specific to the given theory. In arithmetic, the constants of this
type are: terms denoting numbers, classes of numbers, relations between numbers
(≥, ≤, =), operations on numbers (+, ×, etc). In the last class, when we replaced
variables by constants to form sentences, we used contants of this kind.
Terms of much more general character. Common to every possible field of science.
Indispensible means for conveying human thought and for carrying out inference in
any field of knowledge. terms are “not”, “and”, “or” , “is”, “For all”, “exists”
Logic is the basis of all other sciences. It provides an unified intellectual apparatus for
the whole of human knowledge.It establishes the meaning of such constants of the
second type and lays down rules regarding their use, and laws in which these constants
are used.

September 7, 2015 3 / 60
 Introduction

Discussion about Constants

In any scientific theory, the constants that we use can be classified into two groups:
Terms that are specific to the given theory. In arithmetic, the constants of this
type are: terms denoting numbers, classes of numbers, relations between numbers
(≥, ≤, =), operations on numbers (+, ×, etc). In the last class, when we replaced
variables by constants to form sentences, we used contants of this kind.
Terms of much more general character. Common to every possible field of science.
Indispensible means for conveying human thought and for carrying out inference in
any field of knowledge. terms are “not”, “and”, “or” , “is”, “For all”, “exists”
Logic is the basis of all other sciences. It provides an unified intellectual apparatus for
the whole of human knowledge.It establishes the meaning of such constants of the
second type and lays down rules regarding their use, and laws in which these constants
are used.

September 7, 2015 3 / 60
 Introduction

Discussion about Constants

In any scientific theory, the constants that we use can be classified into two groups:
Terms that are specific to the given theory. In arithmetic, the constants of this
type are: terms denoting numbers, classes of numbers, relations between numbers
(≥, ≤, =), operations on numbers (+, ×, etc). In the last class, when we replaced
variables by constants to form sentences, we used contants of this kind.
Terms of much more general character. Common to every possible field of science.
Indispensible means for conveying human thought and for carrying out inference in
any field of knowledge. terms are “not”, “and”, “or” , “is”, “For all”, “exists”
Logic is the basis of all other sciences. It provides an unified intellectual apparatus for
the whole of human knowledge.It establishes the meaning of such constants of the
second type and lays down rules regarding their use, and laws in which these constants
are used.

September 7, 2015 3 / 60
 Introduction

Discussion about Constants

In any scientific theory, the constants that we use can be classified into two groups:
Terms that are specific to the given theory. In arithmetic, the constants of this
type are: terms denoting numbers, classes of numbers, relations between numbers
(≥, ≤, =), operations on numbers (+, ×, etc). In the last class, when we replaced
variables by constants to form sentences, we used contants of this kind.
Terms of much more general character. Common to every possible field of science.
Indispensible means for conveying human thought and for carrying out inference in
any field of knowledge. terms are “not”, “and”, “or” , “is”, “For all”, “exists”
Logic is the basis of all other sciences. It provides an unified intellectual apparatus for
the whole of human knowledge.It establishes the meaning of such constants of the
second type and lays down rules regarding their use, and laws in which these constants
are used.

September 7, 2015 3 / 60
 Introduction

Discussion about Constants

In any scientific theory, the constants that we use can be classified into two groups:
Terms that are specific to the given theory. In arithmetic, the constants of this
type are: terms denoting numbers, classes of numbers, relations between numbers
(≥, ≤, =), operations on numbers (+, ×, etc). In the last class, when we replaced
variables by constants to form sentences, we used contants of this kind.
Terms of much more general character. Common to every possible field of science.
Indispensible means for conveying human thought and for carrying out inference in
any field of knowledge. terms are “not”, “and”, “or” , “is”, “For all”, “exists”
Logic is the basis of all other sciences. It provides an unified intellectual apparatus for
the whole of human knowledge.It establishes the meaning of such constants of the
second type and lays down rules regarding their use, and laws in which these constants
are used.

September 7, 2015 3 / 60
 Introduction

Discussion about Constants

In any scientific theory, the constants that we use can be classified into two groups:
Terms that are specific to the given theory. In arithmetic, the constants of this
type are: terms denoting numbers, classes of numbers, relations between numbers
(≥, ≤, =), operations on numbers (+, ×, etc). In the last class, when we replaced
variables by constants to form sentences, we used contants of this kind.
Terms of much more general character. Common to every possible field of science.
Indispensible means for conveying human thought and for carrying out inference in
any field of knowledge. terms are “not”, “and”, “or” , “is”, “For all”, “exists”
Logic is the basis of all other sciences. It provides an unified intellectual apparatus for
the whole of human knowledge.It establishes the meaning of such constants of the
second type and lays down rules regarding their use, and laws in which these constants
are used.

September 7, 2015 3 / 60
 Introduction

Discussion about Constants

In any scientific theory, the constants that we use can be classified into two groups:
Terms that are specific to the given theory. In arithmetic, the constants of this
type are: terms denoting numbers, classes of numbers, relations between numbers
(≥, ≤, =), operations on numbers (+, ×, etc). In the last class, when we replaced
variables by constants to form sentences, we used contants of this kind.
Terms of much more general character. Common to every possible field of science.
Indispensible means for conveying human thought and for carrying out inference in
any field of knowledge. terms are “not”, “and”, “or” , “is”, “For all”, “exists”
Logic is the basis of all other sciences. It provides an unified intellectual apparatus for
the whole of human knowledge.It establishes the meaning of such constants of the
second type and lays down rules regarding their use, and laws in which these constants
are used.

September 7, 2015 3 / 60
 Introduction

Discussion about Constants

In any scientific theory, the constants that we use can be classified into two groups:
Terms that are specific to the given theory. In arithmetic, the constants of this
type are: terms denoting numbers, classes of numbers, relations between numbers
(≥, ≤, =), operations on numbers (+, ×, etc). In the last class, when we replaced
variables by constants to form sentences, we used contants of this kind.
Terms of much more general character. Common to every possible field of science.
Indispensible means for conveying human thought and for carrying out inference in
any field of knowledge. terms are “not”, “and”, “or” , “is”, “For all”, “exists”
Logic is the basis of all other sciences. It provides an unified intellectual apparatus for
the whole of human knowledge.It establishes the meaning of such constants of the
second type and lays down rules regarding their use, and laws in which these constants
are used.

September 7, 2015 3 / 60
 Introduction

Discussion about Constants

In any scientific theory, the constants that we use can be classified into two groups:
Terms that are specific to the given theory. In arithmetic, the constants of this
type are: terms denoting numbers, classes of numbers, relations between numbers
(≥, ≤, =), operations on numbers (+, ×, etc). In the last class, when we replaced
variables by constants to form sentences, we used contants of this kind.
Terms of much more general character. Common to every possible field of science.
Indispensible means for conveying human thought and for carrying out inference in
any field of knowledge. terms are “not”, “and”, “or” , “is”, “For all”, “exists”
Logic is the basis of all other sciences. It provides an unified intellectual apparatus for
the whole of human knowledge.It establishes the meaning of such constants of the
second type and lays down rules regarding their use, and laws in which these constants
are used.

September 7, 2015 3 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Sentential Calculus

Consider the follows constants of the second type (constants of a logical character):

‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

In grammar, they are called sentential conjuctions.

Presence of these terms does not represent a specific property of a particular
science.
To establish the meaning and usage of these terms is the most elementart and
fundamental part of logic. Its called Sentential Calculus or Propositional
Logic.
Remember: A sentence is either true OR false. ‘or’ used in the exclusive sense.
In the discussion that follows, we use small letters p, q, r , . . . to denote sentences. These
are called sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 4 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Sentential Calculus

Consider the follows constants of the second type (constants of a logical character):

‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

In grammar, they are called sentential conjuctions.

Presence of these terms does not represent a specific property of a particular
science.
To establish the meaning and usage of these terms is the most elementart and
fundamental part of logic. Its called Sentential Calculus or Propositional
Logic.
Remember: A sentence is either true OR false. ‘or’ used in the exclusive sense.
In the discussion that follows, we use small letters p, q, r , . . . to denote sentences. These
are called sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 4 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Sentential Calculus

Consider the follows constants of the second type (constants of a logical character):

‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

In grammar, they are called sentential conjuctions.

Presence of these terms does not represent a specific property of a particular
science.
To establish the meaning and usage of these terms is the most elementart and
fundamental part of logic. Its called Sentential Calculus or Propositional
Logic.
Remember: A sentence is either true OR false. ‘or’ used in the exclusive sense.
In the discussion that follows, we use small letters p, q, r , . . . to denote sentences. These
are called sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 4 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Sentential Calculus

Consider the follows constants of the second type (constants of a logical character):

‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

In grammar, they are called sentential conjuctions.

Presence of these terms does not represent a specific property of a particular
science.
To establish the meaning and usage of these terms is the most elementart and
fundamental part of logic. Its called Sentential Calculus or Propositional
Logic.
Remember: A sentence is either true OR false. ‘or’ used in the exclusive sense.
In the discussion that follows, we use small letters p, q, r , . . . to denote sentences. These
are called sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 4 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Sentential Calculus

Consider the follows constants of the second type (constants of a logical character):

‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

In grammar, they are called sentential conjuctions.

Presence of these terms does not represent a specific property of a particular
science.
To establish the meaning and usage of these terms is the most elementart and
fundamental part of logic. Its called Sentential Calculus or Propositional
Logic.
Remember: A sentence is either true OR false. ‘or’ used in the exclusive sense.
In the discussion that follows, we use small letters p, q, r , . . . to denote sentences. These
are called sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 4 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Sentential Calculus

Consider the follows constants of the second type (constants of a logical character):

‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

In grammar, they are called sentential conjuctions.

Presence of these terms does not represent a specific property of a particular
science.
To establish the meaning and usage of these terms is the most elementart and
fundamental part of logic. Its called Sentential Calculus or Propositional
Logic.
Remember: A sentence is either true OR false. ‘or’ used in the exclusive sense.
In the discussion that follows, we use small letters p, q, r , . . . to denote sentences. These
are called sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 4 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negation of a Statement

Given any statement p we can define negation of p to be a statement which has

the opposite truth-value to that of p. The negation of p is denoted by ∼ p and is
also called not p.
∼ p is true whenever p is false, ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
p and ∼ p are called Contradictory Sentences. Given any statement, its negation
always exists.
In sentential calculus, the word not (or the symbol ∼) is put in front of a whole
sentence to construct its negation. However in everyday language, we use the word
‘not’ with the verb. If we are writing down the negation of a sentence in words and
still want to use the word ‘not’ before the words of the given sentence, we replace
the word ‘not’ by the phrase ‘it is not the case that’.

Example
p: 1 is a positive number.
∼ p: It is not the case that 1 is a positive number.
or simply, 1 is not a positive integer.

September 7, 2015 5 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negation of a Statement

Given any statement p we can define negation of p to be a statement which has

the opposite truth-value to that of p. The negation of p is denoted by ∼ p and is
also called not p.
∼ p is true whenever p is false, ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
p and ∼ p are called Contradictory Sentences. Given any statement, its negation
always exists.
In sentential calculus, the word not (or the symbol ∼) is put in front of a whole
sentence to construct its negation. However in everyday language, we use the word
‘not’ with the verb. If we are writing down the negation of a sentence in words and
still want to use the word ‘not’ before the words of the given sentence, we replace
the word ‘not’ by the phrase ‘it is not the case that’.

Example
p: 1 is a positive number.
∼ p: It is not the case that 1 is a positive number.
or simply, 1 is not a positive integer.

September 7, 2015 5 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negation of a Statement

Given any statement p we can define negation of p to be a statement which has

the opposite truth-value to that of p. The negation of p is denoted by ∼ p and is
also called not p.
∼ p is true whenever p is false, ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
p and ∼ p are called Contradictory Sentences. Given any statement, its negation
always exists.
In sentential calculus, the word not (or the symbol ∼) is put in front of a whole
sentence to construct its negation. However in everyday language, we use the word
‘not’ with the verb. If we are writing down the negation of a sentence in words and
still want to use the word ‘not’ before the words of the given sentence, we replace
the word ‘not’ by the phrase ‘it is not the case that’.

Example
p: 1 is a positive number.
∼ p: It is not the case that 1 is a positive number.
or simply, 1 is not a positive integer.

September 7, 2015 5 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negation of a Statement

Given any statement p we can define negation of p to be a statement which has

the opposite truth-value to that of p. The negation of p is denoted by ∼ p and is
also called not p.
∼ p is true whenever p is false, ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
p and ∼ p are called Contradictory Sentences. Given any statement, its negation
always exists.
In sentential calculus, the word not (or the symbol ∼) is put in front of a whole
sentence to construct its negation. However in everyday language, we use the word
‘not’ with the verb. If we are writing down the negation of a sentence in words and
still want to use the word ‘not’ before the words of the given sentence, we replace
the word ‘not’ by the phrase ‘it is not the case that’.

Example
p: 1 is a positive number.
∼ p: It is not the case that 1 is a positive number.
or simply, 1 is not a positive integer.

September 7, 2015 5 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negation of a Statement

Given any statement p we can define negation of p to be a statement which has

the opposite truth-value to that of p. The negation of p is denoted by ∼ p and is
also called not p.
∼ p is true whenever p is false, ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
p and ∼ p are called Contradictory Sentences. Given any statement, its negation
always exists.
In sentential calculus, the word not (or the symbol ∼) is put in front of a whole
sentence to construct its negation. However in everyday language, we use the word
‘not’ with the verb. If we are writing down the negation of a sentence in words and
still want to use the word ‘not’ before the words of the given sentence, we replace
the word ‘not’ by the phrase ‘it is not the case that’.

Example
p: 1 is a positive number.
∼ p: It is not the case that 1 is a positive number.
or simply, 1 is not a positive integer.

September 7, 2015 5 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negation of a Statement

Given any statement p we can define negation of p to be a statement which has

the opposite truth-value to that of p. The negation of p is denoted by ∼ p and is
also called not p.
∼ p is true whenever p is false, ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
p and ∼ p are called Contradictory Sentences. Given any statement, its negation
always exists.
In sentential calculus, the word not (or the symbol ∼) is put in front of a whole
sentence to construct its negation. However in everyday language, we use the word
‘not’ with the verb. If we are writing down the negation of a sentence in words and
still want to use the word ‘not’ before the words of the given sentence, we replace
the word ‘not’ by the phrase ‘it is not the case that’.

Example
p: 1 is a positive number.
∼ p: It is not the case that 1 is a positive number.
or simply, 1 is not a positive integer.

September 7, 2015 5 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negation of a Statement

Given any statement p we can define negation of p to be a statement which has

the opposite truth-value to that of p. The negation of p is denoted by ∼ p and is
also called not p.
∼ p is true whenever p is false, ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
p and ∼ p are called Contradictory Sentences. Given any statement, its negation
always exists.
In sentential calculus, the word not (or the symbol ∼) is put in front of a whole
sentence to construct its negation. However in everyday language, we use the word
‘not’ with the verb. If we are writing down the negation of a sentence in words and
still want to use the word ‘not’ before the words of the given sentence, we replace
the word ‘not’ by the phrase ‘it is not the case that’.

Example
p: 1 is a positive number.
∼ p: It is not the case that 1 is a positive number.
or simply, 1 is not a positive integer.

September 7, 2015 5 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negation of a Statement

Given any statement p we can define negation of p to be a statement which has

the opposite truth-value to that of p. The negation of p is denoted by ∼ p and is
also called not p.
∼ p is true whenever p is false, ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
p and ∼ p are called Contradictory Sentences. Given any statement, its negation
always exists.
In sentential calculus, the word not (or the symbol ∼) is put in front of a whole
sentence to construct its negation. However in everyday language, we use the word
‘not’ with the verb. If we are writing down the negation of a sentence in words and
still want to use the word ‘not’ before the words of the given sentence, we replace
the word ‘not’ by the phrase ‘it is not the case that’.

Example
p: 1 is a positive number.
∼ p: It is not the case that 1 is a positive number.
or simply, 1 is not a positive integer.

September 7, 2015 5 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negation of a Statement

Given any statement p we can define negation of p to be a statement which has

the opposite truth-value to that of p. The negation of p is denoted by ∼ p and is
also called not p.
∼ p is true whenever p is false, ∼ p is false whenever p is true.
p and ∼ p are called Contradictory Sentences. Given any statement, its negation
always exists.
In sentential calculus, the word not (or the symbol ∼) is put in front of a whole
sentence to construct its negation. However in everyday language, we use the word
‘not’ with the verb. If we are writing down the negation of a sentence in words and
still want to use the word ‘not’ before the words of the given sentence, we replace
the word ‘not’ by the phrase ‘it is not the case that’.

Example
p: 1 is a positive number.
∼ p: It is not the case that 1 is a positive number.
or simply, 1 is not a positive integer.

September 7, 2015 5 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Example
Negation of Simple Sentences without Quantifiers
q: Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
∼ q: It is not the case that Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is non-empty.
∼ r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is empty.
t: Medak is a district in the state of Telangana.
∼ t: Medak is not a district in Telangana.
m: Coetzee is a South African national.
∼ m: Coetzee is not a South African national.

September 7, 2015 6 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Example
Negation of Simple Sentences without Quantifiers
q: Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
∼ q: It is not the case that Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is non-empty.
∼ r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is empty.
t: Medak is a district in the state of Telangana.
∼ t: Medak is not a district in Telangana.
m: Coetzee is a South African national.
∼ m: Coetzee is not a South African national.

September 7, 2015 6 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Example
Negation of Simple Sentences without Quantifiers
q: Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
∼ q: It is not the case that Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is non-empty.
∼ r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is empty.
t: Medak is a district in the state of Telangana.
∼ t: Medak is not a district in Telangana.
m: Coetzee is a South African national.
∼ m: Coetzee is not a South African national.

September 7, 2015 6 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Example
Negation of Simple Sentences without Quantifiers
q: Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
∼ q: It is not the case that Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is non-empty.
∼ r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is empty.
t: Medak is a district in the state of Telangana.
∼ t: Medak is not a district in Telangana.
m: Coetzee is a South African national.
∼ m: Coetzee is not a South African national.

September 7, 2015 6 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Example
Negation of Simple Sentences without Quantifiers
q: Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
∼ q: It is not the case that Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is non-empty.
∼ r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is empty.
t: Medak is a district in the state of Telangana.
∼ t: Medak is not a district in Telangana.
m: Coetzee is a South African national.
∼ m: Coetzee is not a South African national.

September 7, 2015 6 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Example
Negation of Simple Sentences without Quantifiers
q: Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
∼ q: It is not the case that Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is non-empty.
∼ r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is empty.
t: Medak is a district in the state of Telangana.
∼ t: Medak is not a district in Telangana.
m: Coetzee is a South African national.
∼ m: Coetzee is not a South African national.

September 7, 2015 6 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Example
Negation of Simple Sentences without Quantifiers
q: Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
∼ q: It is not the case that Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is non-empty.
∼ r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is empty.
t: Medak is a district in the state of Telangana.
∼ t: Medak is not a district in Telangana.
m: Coetzee is a South African national.
∼ m: Coetzee is not a South African national.

September 7, 2015 6 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Example
Negation of Simple Sentences without Quantifiers
q: Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
∼ q: It is not the case that Sahjahanabad is to the north of Defence Colony.
r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is non-empty.
∼ r : The set {x ∈ N : x < 0} is empty.
t: Medak is a district in the state of Telangana.
∼ t: Medak is not a district in Telangana.
m: Coetzee is a South African national.
∼ m: Coetzee is not a South African national.

September 7, 2015 6 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Note: Often there is a tendency to confuse negation with ‘opposities’.

Example
r : The number of lions in India is greater than the number of the tigers in India.
∼ r : The number of lions in India is no greater than the number of the tigers in
India. or equivalently, ‘The number of lions in India is less than or equal to the
number of the tigers in India.’
The negation is not that ‘The number of lions is less than the number of tigers in
India’.

While negating a statement p we are not bothered about its truth-value with
respect to our real-life experience but instead are trying to create a statement
which will have the exact opposite truth-value to that of p.

September 7, 2015 7 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Note: Often there is a tendency to confuse negation with ‘opposities’.

Example
r : The number of lions in India is greater than the number of the tigers in India.
∼ r : The number of lions in India is no greater than the number of the tigers in
India. or equivalently, ‘The number of lions in India is less than or equal to the
number of the tigers in India.’
The negation is not that ‘The number of lions is less than the number of tigers in
India’.

While negating a statement p we are not bothered about its truth-value with
respect to our real-life experience but instead are trying to create a statement
which will have the exact opposite truth-value to that of p.

September 7, 2015 7 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Note: Often there is a tendency to confuse negation with ‘opposities’.

Example
r : The number of lions in India is greater than the number of the tigers in India.
∼ r : The number of lions in India is no greater than the number of the tigers in
India. or equivalently, ‘The number of lions in India is less than or equal to the
number of the tigers in India.’
The negation is not that ‘The number of lions is less than the number of tigers in
India’.

While negating a statement p we are not bothered about its truth-value with
respect to our real-life experience but instead are trying to create a statement
which will have the exact opposite truth-value to that of p.

September 7, 2015 7 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Note: Often there is a tendency to confuse negation with ‘opposities’.

Example
r : The number of lions in India is greater than the number of the tigers in India.
∼ r : The number of lions in India is no greater than the number of the tigers in
India. or equivalently, ‘The number of lions in India is less than or equal to the
number of the tigers in India.’
The negation is not that ‘The number of lions is less than the number of tigers in
India’.

While negating a statement p we are not bothered about its truth-value with
respect to our real-life experience but instead are trying to create a statement
which will have the exact opposite truth-value to that of p.

September 7, 2015 7 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Note: Often there is a tendency to confuse negation with ‘opposities’.

Example
r : The number of lions in India is greater than the number of the tigers in India.
∼ r : The number of lions in India is no greater than the number of the tigers in
India. or equivalently, ‘The number of lions in India is less than or equal to the
number of the tigers in India.’
The negation is not that ‘The number of lions is less than the number of tigers in
India’.

While negating a statement p we are not bothered about its truth-value with
respect to our real-life experience but instead are trying to create a statement
which will have the exact opposite truth-value to that of p.

September 7, 2015 7 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Note: Often there is a tendency to confuse negation with ‘opposities’.

Example
r : The number of lions in India is greater than the number of the tigers in India.
∼ r : The number of lions in India is no greater than the number of the tigers in
India. or equivalently, ‘The number of lions in India is less than or equal to the
number of the tigers in India.’
The negation is not that ‘The number of lions is less than the number of tigers in
India’.

While negating a statement p we are not bothered about its truth-value with
respect to our real-life experience but instead are trying to create a statement
which will have the exact opposite truth-value to that of p.

September 7, 2015 7 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

The statement ∼ (∼ p) is called a double negation and we take ∼ (∼ p) to be p.

Example
p: The King is dead.
∼ p is ‘The king is not dead.’
∼ (∼ p): It is not the case that the king is not dead.
q: Grass is green.
∼ q is ‘Grass is not green’
∼ (∼ q): It is not the case that grass is not green.

September 7, 2015 8 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with universal quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

p: All Indians speak Hindi’

This can also be re-written as ‘Every Indian speaks Hindi’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all individuals who speak
Hindi. Then the statement means A ⊆ B. Thus not p would mean A 6⊆ B. A 6⊆ B iff
∃x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.

∼ p: There exists an Indian who does not speak Hindi.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

Not every Indian speaks in Hindi.
Some Indians do not speak in Hindi.
Can we say ‘ Some Indians speak in Hindi’ or ‘No Indian speaks in Hindi’ are valid
negations of p? No.

September 7, 2015 9 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with existential quantifiers

Consider the following sentence:

q: Some Indians are Hindu.

This can also be re-written as ‘At least one Indian is a Hindu’

Let A denote the set of all Indians and B denote the set of all Hindus. Then the
statement means A ∩ B is not a null set. Thus not q would mean A ∩ B is a null set.
A ∩ B is a null set iff 6 ∃x such that x ∈ A ∩ B.

∼ q: No Indian is a Hindu.

This can be written in many alternative ways:

No Hindu is an Indian.
There does not exist an Indian who is a Hindu.
Can we say ‘All Indians are Hindu’ or ‘All Hindus are Indians’ are valid negations of q?
No.

September 7, 2015 10 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Negating Sentences with quantifiers

Example
p: All Indians speak Hindi.
∼ p: Some Indians do not speak Hindi.
q: Some Indians are Hindu.
∼ q is ‘No Indian is a Hindu.’
r : Some Indians don’t vote on religious considerations.
∼ r : All Indians vote on religious considerations.
t: No one in India eat beef.
∼ t: Some people in India eat beef.
u: All rational numbers are real numbers.
∼ u: There exists at least one rational number which is not real.

September 7, 2015 11 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Conjunction

Compound Sentences are sentences constructed from two or more simple sentences by
using logical connectives like ’or’, ’and’ and ’if . . ., then . . .’.
Conjunction:
Let p and q be two simple sentences. Then joining the twosentences (or more) by
the word ‘and’ results in their so called Conjunction or Logical Product. It is
denoted by p ∧ q. p, q are called Members of the Conjunction or Factors of the
Logical Product
Truth Value of a Conjunction: p ∧ q is true when both p and q are
simultaneously true. If at least one of the members of the conjunction is false, the
conjunction is false.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

September 7, 2015 12 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Conjunction

Compound Sentences are sentences constructed from two or more simple sentences by
using logical connectives like ’or’, ’and’ and ’if . . ., then . . .’.
Conjunction:
Let p and q be two simple sentences. Then joining the twosentences (or more) by
the word ‘and’ results in their so called Conjunction or Logical Product. It is
denoted by p ∧ q. p, q are called Members of the Conjunction or Factors of the
Logical Product
Truth Value of a Conjunction: p ∧ q is true when both p and q are
simultaneously true. If at least one of the members of the conjunction is false, the
conjunction is false.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

September 7, 2015 12 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Conjunction

Compound Sentences are sentences constructed from two or more simple sentences by
using logical connectives like ’or’, ’and’ and ’if . . ., then . . .’.
Conjunction:
Let p and q be two simple sentences. Then joining the twosentences (or more) by
the word ‘and’ results in their so called Conjunction or Logical Product. It is
denoted by p ∧ q. p, q are called Members of the Conjunction or Factors of the
Logical Product
Truth Value of a Conjunction: p ∧ q is true when both p and q are
simultaneously true. If at least one of the members of the conjunction is false, the
conjunction is false.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

September 7, 2015 12 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Conjunction

Compound Sentences are sentences constructed from two or more simple sentences by
using logical connectives like ’or’, ’and’ and ’if . . ., then . . .’.
Conjunction:
Let p and q be two simple sentences. Then joining the twosentences (or more) by
the word ‘and’ results in their so called Conjunction or Logical Product. It is
denoted by p ∧ q. p, q are called Members of the Conjunction or Factors of the
Logical Product
Truth Value of a Conjunction: p ∧ q is true when both p and q are
simultaneously true. If at least one of the members of the conjunction is false, the
conjunction is false.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

September 7, 2015 12 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Conjunction

Compound Sentences are sentences constructed from two or more simple sentences by
using logical connectives like ’or’, ’and’ and ’if . . ., then . . .’.
Conjunction:
Let p and q be two simple sentences. Then joining the twosentences (or more) by
the word ‘and’ results in their so called Conjunction or Logical Product. It is
denoted by p ∧ q. p, q are called Members of the Conjunction or Factors of the
Logical Product
Truth Value of a Conjunction: p ∧ q is true when both p and q are
simultaneously true. If at least one of the members of the conjunction is false, the
conjunction is false.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

September 7, 2015 12 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Conjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
p ∧ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil and Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
Since both p and q are true, p ∧ q is true as well.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani.
q: Vidya Balan acted in Highway.
p ∧ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani and she acted in Highway.
Since p is true and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.
p: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth.
q: Alfred Tarski wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
p ∧ q: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth and he wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
Since both p and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.

September 7, 2015 13 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Conjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
p ∧ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil and Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
Since both p and q are true, p ∧ q is true as well.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani.
q: Vidya Balan acted in Highway.
p ∧ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani and she acted in Highway.
Since p is true and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.
p: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth.
q: Alfred Tarski wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
p ∧ q: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth and he wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
Since both p and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.

September 7, 2015 13 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Conjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
p ∧ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil and Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
Since both p and q are true, p ∧ q is true as well.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani.
q: Vidya Balan acted in Highway.
p ∧ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani and she acted in Highway.
Since p is true and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.
p: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth.
q: Alfred Tarski wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
p ∧ q: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth and he wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
Since both p and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.

September 7, 2015 13 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Conjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
p ∧ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil and Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
Since both p and q are true, p ∧ q is true as well.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani.
q: Vidya Balan acted in Highway.
p ∧ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani and she acted in Highway.
Since p is true and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.
p: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth.
q: Alfred Tarski wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
p ∧ q: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth and he wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
Since both p and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.

September 7, 2015 13 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Conjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
p ∧ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil and Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
Since both p and q are true, p ∧ q is true as well.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani.
q: Vidya Balan acted in Highway.
p ∧ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani and she acted in Highway.
Since p is true and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.
p: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth.
q: Alfred Tarski wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
p ∧ q: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth and he wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
Since both p and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.

September 7, 2015 13 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Conjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
p ∧ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil and Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
Since both p and q are true, p ∧ q is true as well.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani.
q: Vidya Balan acted in Highway.
p ∧ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani and she acted in Highway.
Since p is true and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.
p: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth.
q: Alfred Tarski wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
p ∧ q: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth and he wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
Since both p and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.

September 7, 2015 13 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Conjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
p ∧ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil and Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
Since both p and q are true, p ∧ q is true as well.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani.
q: Vidya Balan acted in Highway.
p ∧ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani and she acted in Highway.
Since p is true and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.
p: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth.
q: Alfred Tarski wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
p ∧ q: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth and he wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
Since both p and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.

September 7, 2015 13 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Conjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
p ∧ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil and Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
Since both p and q are true, p ∧ q is true as well.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani.
q: Vidya Balan acted in Highway.
p ∧ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani and she acted in Highway.
Since p is true and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.
p: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth.
q: Alfred Tarski wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
p ∧ q: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth and he wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
Since both p and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.

September 7, 2015 13 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Conjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
p ∧ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil and Dadri tehsil is in Gautam Budh Nagar district.
Since both p and q are true, p ∧ q is true as well.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani.
q: Vidya Balan acted in Highway.
p ∧ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani and she acted in Highway.
Since p is true and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.
p: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth.
q: Alfred Tarski wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
p ∧ q: Alfred Tarski is Malayali by birth and he wrote the novel ‘A God of Small Things’
Since both p and q is false, p ∧ q is false as well.

September 7, 2015 13 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Disjunction

Let p and q be two simple sentences. Then joining the two sentences (or more) by
the word ‘or’ results in their so called Disjunction or Logical Sum. It is denoted
by p ∨ q. p, q are called Members of the Disjunction or Summands of the
Logical Sum
Truth Value of a Disjunction: p ∨ q is false when both p and q are
simultaneously false. If at least one of the members of the disjunction is true, the
conjunction is true.

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

September 7, 2015 14 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Disjunction

Let p and q be two simple sentences. Then joining the two sentences (or more) by
the word ‘or’ results in their so called Disjunction or Logical Sum. It is denoted
by p ∨ q. p, q are called Members of the Disjunction or Summands of the
Logical Sum
Truth Value of a Disjunction: p ∨ q is false when both p and q are
simultaneously false. If at least one of the members of the disjunction is true, the
conjunction is true.

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

September 7, 2015 14 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Disjunction

Let p and q be two simple sentences. Then joining the two sentences (or more) by
the word ‘or’ results in their so called Disjunction or Logical Sum. It is denoted
by p ∨ q. p, q are called Members of the Disjunction or Summands of the
Logical Sum
Truth Value of a Disjunction: p ∨ q is false when both p and q are
simultaneously false. If at least one of the members of the disjunction is true, the
conjunction is true.

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

September 7, 2015 14 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Disjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
p ∨ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil or Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
Since p is true, p ∨ q is true.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani .
q: Vidya Balan acted in Ishqiya.
p ∨ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani or she acted in Ishqiya.
Since p and qis true, p ∨ q is true.
p: 12 is a prime number.
q: Randeep Hooda acted in Masaan.
p ∨ q: 12 is a prime-number or Randeep Hooda acted acted in Masaan.
Since p and q are both false, p ∨ q is false.

September 7, 2015 15 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Disjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
p ∨ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil or Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
Since p is true, p ∨ q is true.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani .
q: Vidya Balan acted in Ishqiya.
p ∨ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani or she acted in Ishqiya.
Since p and qis true, p ∨ q is true.
p: 12 is a prime number.
q: Randeep Hooda acted in Masaan.
p ∨ q: 12 is a prime-number or Randeep Hooda acted acted in Masaan.
Since p and q are both false, p ∨ q is false.

September 7, 2015 15 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Disjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
p ∨ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil or Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
Since p is true, p ∨ q is true.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani .
q: Vidya Balan acted in Ishqiya.
p ∨ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani or she acted in Ishqiya.
Since p and qis true, p ∨ q is true.
p: 12 is a prime number.
q: Randeep Hooda acted in Masaan.
p ∨ q: 12 is a prime-number or Randeep Hooda acted acted in Masaan.
Since p and q are both false, p ∨ q is false.

September 7, 2015 15 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Disjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
p ∨ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil or Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
Since p is true, p ∨ q is true.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani .
q: Vidya Balan acted in Ishqiya.
p ∨ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani or she acted in Ishqiya.
Since p and qis true, p ∨ q is true.
p: 12 is a prime number.
q: Randeep Hooda acted in Masaan.
p ∨ q: 12 is a prime-number or Randeep Hooda acted acted in Masaan.
Since p and q are both false, p ∨ q is false.

September 7, 2015 15 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Disjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
p ∨ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil or Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
Since p is true, p ∨ q is true.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani .
q: Vidya Balan acted in Ishqiya.
p ∨ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani or she acted in Ishqiya.
Since p and qis true, p ∨ q is true.
p: 12 is a prime number.
q: Randeep Hooda acted in Masaan.
p ∨ q: 12 is a prime-number or Randeep Hooda acted acted in Masaan.
Since p and q are both false, p ∨ q is false.

September 7, 2015 15 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Disjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
p ∨ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil or Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
Since p is true, p ∨ q is true.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani .
q: Vidya Balan acted in Ishqiya.
p ∨ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani or she acted in Ishqiya.
Since p and qis true, p ∨ q is true.
p: 12 is a prime number.
q: Randeep Hooda acted in Masaan.
p ∨ q: 12 is a prime-number or Randeep Hooda acted acted in Masaan.
Since p and q are both false, p ∨ q is false.

September 7, 2015 15 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Disjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
p ∨ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil or Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
Since p is true, p ∨ q is true.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani .
q: Vidya Balan acted in Ishqiya.
p ∨ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani or she acted in Ishqiya.
Since p and qis true, p ∨ q is true.
p: 12 is a prime number.
q: Randeep Hooda acted in Masaan.
p ∨ q: 12 is a prime-number or Randeep Hooda acted acted in Masaan.
Since p and q are both false, p ∨ q is false.

September 7, 2015 15 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Disjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
p ∨ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil or Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
Since p is true, p ∨ q is true.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani .
q: Vidya Balan acted in Ishqiya.
p ∨ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani or she acted in Ishqiya.
Since p and qis true, p ∨ q is true.
p: 12 is a prime number.
q: Randeep Hooda acted in Masaan.
p ∨ q: 12 is a prime-number or Randeep Hooda acted acted in Masaan.
Since p and q are both false, p ∨ q is false.

September 7, 2015 15 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Disjunction, cont’d

Examples
p: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil.
q: Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
p ∨ q: Chithera is in Dadri Tehsil or Dadri tehsil is in West Champaran district.
Since p is true, p ∨ q is true.
p: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani .
q: Vidya Balan acted in Ishqiya.
p ∨ q: Vidya Balan acted in Kahaani or she acted in Ishqiya.
Since p and qis true, p ∨ q is true.
p: 12 is a prime number.
q: Randeep Hooda acted in Masaan.
p ∨ q: 12 is a prime-number or Randeep Hooda acted acted in Masaan.
Since p and q are both false, p ∨ q is false.

September 7, 2015 15 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Exclusive vs. Non-Exclusive ‘OR’

In everyday language, the word ‘OR’ is used in two different meanings:
Non-Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if atleast one of them is true.
For Example:
Individuals with a Canadian passport or a valid US visa can enter Canada without
a Canadian visa.
It is not the case that someone with an US visa on a Canadian passport needs a
Canadian visa to enter Canada.
Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if exactly one of them is true. For
Example:
Che Guevara was born in Argentina or Chile
This year’s Indian Econometric Society’s conference will be held at Pondicherry or
Amritsar.
The sentence intends to imply that Che was born in one of the two places
mentioned.
In logic and mathematics, we always use ‘R’ in the Non-Exclusive sense, that is, a
disjunction is true if atleast one of the constituent sentences are true. In case we want
to use ‘OR’ in the exclusive sence, it is better to use the term ‘either . . ., or . . .’

September 7, 2015 16 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Exclusive vs. Non-Exclusive ‘OR’

In everyday language, the word ‘OR’ is used in two different meanings:
Non-Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if atleast one of them is true.
For Example:
Individuals with a Canadian passport or a valid US visa can enter Canada without
a Canadian visa.
It is not the case that someone with an US visa on a Canadian passport needs a
Canadian visa to enter Canada.
Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if exactly one of them is true. For
Example:
Che Guevara was born in Argentina or Chile
This year’s Indian Econometric Society’s conference will be held at Pondicherry or
Amritsar.
The sentence intends to imply that Che was born in one of the two places
mentioned.
In logic and mathematics, we always use ‘R’ in the Non-Exclusive sense, that is, a
disjunction is true if atleast one of the constituent sentences are true. In case we want
to use ‘OR’ in the exclusive sence, it is better to use the term ‘either . . ., or . . .’

September 7, 2015 16 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Exclusive vs. Non-Exclusive ‘OR’

In everyday language, the word ‘OR’ is used in two different meanings:
Non-Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if atleast one of them is true.
For Example:
Individuals with a Canadian passport or a valid US visa can enter Canada without
a Canadian visa.
It is not the case that someone with an US visa on a Canadian passport needs a
Canadian visa to enter Canada.
Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if exactly one of them is true. For
Example:
Che Guevara was born in Argentina or Chile
This year’s Indian Econometric Society’s conference will be held at Pondicherry or
Amritsar.
The sentence intends to imply that Che was born in one of the two places
mentioned.
In logic and mathematics, we always use ‘R’ in the Non-Exclusive sense, that is, a
disjunction is true if atleast one of the constituent sentences are true. In case we want
to use ‘OR’ in the exclusive sence, it is better to use the term ‘either . . ., or . . .’

September 7, 2015 16 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Exclusive vs. Non-Exclusive ‘OR’

In everyday language, the word ‘OR’ is used in two different meanings:
Non-Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if atleast one of them is true.
For Example:
Individuals with a Canadian passport or a valid US visa can enter Canada without
a Canadian visa.
It is not the case that someone with an US visa on a Canadian passport needs a
Canadian visa to enter Canada.
Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if exactly one of them is true. For
Example:
Che Guevara was born in Argentina or Chile
This year’s Indian Econometric Society’s conference will be held at Pondicherry or
Amritsar.
The sentence intends to imply that Che was born in one of the two places
mentioned.
In logic and mathematics, we always use ‘R’ in the Non-Exclusive sense, that is, a
disjunction is true if atleast one of the constituent sentences are true. In case we want
to use ‘OR’ in the exclusive sence, it is better to use the term ‘either . . ., or . . .’

September 7, 2015 16 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Exclusive vs. Non-Exclusive ‘OR’

In everyday language, the word ‘OR’ is used in two different meanings:
Non-Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if atleast one of them is true.
For Example:
Individuals with a Canadian passport or a valid US visa can enter Canada without
a Canadian visa.
It is not the case that someone with an US visa on a Canadian passport needs a
Canadian visa to enter Canada.
Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if exactly one of them is true. For
Example:
Che Guevara was born in Argentina or Chile
This year’s Indian Econometric Society’s conference will be held at Pondicherry or
Amritsar.
The sentence intends to imply that Che was born in one of the two places
mentioned.
In logic and mathematics, we always use ‘R’ in the Non-Exclusive sense, that is, a
disjunction is true if atleast one of the constituent sentences are true. In case we want
to use ‘OR’ in the exclusive sence, it is better to use the term ‘either . . ., or . . .’

September 7, 2015 16 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Exclusive vs. Non-Exclusive ‘OR’

In everyday language, the word ‘OR’ is used in two different meanings:
Non-Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if atleast one of them is true.
For Example:
Individuals with a Canadian passport or a valid US visa can enter Canada without
a Canadian visa.
It is not the case that someone with an US visa on a Canadian passport needs a
Canadian visa to enter Canada.
Exclusive: A disjunction of two sentences is true if exactly one of them is true. For
Example:
Che Guevara was born in Argentina or Chile
This year’s Indian Econometric Society’s conference will be held at Pondicherry or
Amritsar.
The sentence intends to imply that Che was born in one of the two places
mentioned.
In logic and mathematics, we always use ‘R’ in the Non-Exclusive sense, that is, a
disjunction is true if atleast one of the constituent sentences are true. In case we want
to use ‘OR’ in the exclusive sence, it is better to use the term ‘either . . ., or . . .’

September 7, 2015 16 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Even if we confine overselves to the use of the word ‘OR’ in an non-exclusive sense,
there exists difference in the use of the term in logic and in everyday language.
In common language, two sentences are joined by ‘OR’ only when the two
sentences are ‘connected’ by form and content.
For Example: Ram Guha is a historian or he is an anthropologist.
The nature of the connection is not clear and it is not possible to provide a general
framework to understand the nature of this connection.
Consider the following sentence:
3 is a prime number or Tspiras is the prime-minister of Greece. Anybody
unfamiliar with the language of logic, will not consider the sentence above as a
meaningful expression.

September 7, 2015 17 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Even if we confine overselves to the use of the word ‘OR’ in an non-exclusive sense,
there exists difference in the use of the term in logic and in everyday language.
In common language, two sentences are joined by ‘OR’ only when the two
sentences are ‘connected’ by form and content.
For Example: Ram Guha is a historian or he is an anthropologist.
The nature of the connection is not clear and it is not possible to provide a general
framework to understand the nature of this connection.
Consider the following sentence:
3 is a prime number or Tspiras is the prime-minister of Greece. Anybody
unfamiliar with the language of logic, will not consider the sentence above as a
meaningful expression.

September 7, 2015 17 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Implication

Let p and q be two simple sentences. The compound sentence ‘If p, then q’
(denoted by p =⇒ q) is called an Implication or Conditional Sentence.
The subordinate clause to which the word ‘if’ is attached is called the Antecedent
and the principal claause introduced by the word ‘then’ is called Consequent
Truth Value of an Implication: An Implication is true in any one of the following
three cases:
Both Antecedent and Consequent is true.
The antecedent is false and the consequent is true, and
Both the antecedent and consequent is false.
The whole implication is false only if the antecedent is true, and the consequent is
false.

September 7, 2015 18 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Implication

Let p and q be two simple sentences. The compound sentence ‘If p, then q’
(denoted by p =⇒ q) is called an Implication or Conditional Sentence.
The subordinate clause to which the word ‘if’ is attached is called the Antecedent
and the principal claause introduced by the word ‘then’ is called Consequent
Truth Value of an Implication: An Implication is true in any one of the following
three cases:
Both Antecedent and Consequent is true.
The antecedent is false and the consequent is true, and
Both the antecedent and consequent is false.
The whole implication is false only if the antecedent is true, and the consequent is
false.

September 7, 2015 18 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Implication

Let p and q be two simple sentences. The compound sentence ‘If p, then q’
(denoted by p =⇒ q) is called an Implication or Conditional Sentence.
The subordinate clause to which the word ‘if’ is attached is called the Antecedent
and the principal claause introduced by the word ‘then’ is called Consequent
Truth Value of an Implication: An Implication is true in any one of the following
three cases:
Both Antecedent and Consequent is true.
The antecedent is false and the consequent is true, and
Both the antecedent and consequent is false.
The whole implication is false only if the antecedent is true, and the consequent is
false.

September 7, 2015 18 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Implication

Let p and q be two simple sentences. The compound sentence ‘If p, then q’
(denoted by p =⇒ q) is called an Implication or Conditional Sentence.
The subordinate clause to which the word ‘if’ is attached is called the Antecedent
and the principal claause introduced by the word ‘then’ is called Consequent
Truth Value of an Implication: An Implication is true in any one of the following
three cases:
Both Antecedent and Consequent is true.
The antecedent is false and the consequent is true, and
Both the antecedent and consequent is false.
The whole implication is false only if the antecedent is true, and the consequent is
false.

September 7, 2015 18 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Implication

Let p and q be two simple sentences. The compound sentence ‘If p, then q’
(denoted by p =⇒ q) is called an Implication or Conditional Sentence.
The subordinate clause to which the word ‘if’ is attached is called the Antecedent
and the principal claause introduced by the word ‘then’ is called Consequent
Truth Value of an Implication: An Implication is true in any one of the following
three cases:
Both Antecedent and Consequent is true.
The antecedent is false and the consequent is true, and
Both the antecedent and consequent is false.
The whole implication is false only if the antecedent is true, and the consequent is
false.

September 7, 2015 18 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Implication

Let p and q be two simple sentences. The compound sentence ‘If p, then q’
(denoted by p =⇒ q) is called an Implication or Conditional Sentence.
The subordinate clause to which the word ‘if’ is attached is called the Antecedent
and the principal claause introduced by the word ‘then’ is called Consequent
Truth Value of an Implication: An Implication is true in any one of the following
three cases:
Both Antecedent and Consequent is true.
The antecedent is false and the consequent is true, and
Both the antecedent and consequent is false.
The whole implication is false only if the antecedent is true, and the consequent is
false.

September 7, 2015 18 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Implication

Let p and q be two simple sentences. The compound sentence ‘If p, then q’
(denoted by p =⇒ q) is called an Implication or Conditional Sentence.
The subordinate clause to which the word ‘if’ is attached is called the Antecedent
and the principal claause introduced by the word ‘then’ is called Consequent
Truth Value of an Implication: An Implication is true in any one of the following
three cases:
Both Antecedent and Consequent is true.
The antecedent is false and the consequent is true, and
Both the antecedent and consequent is false.
The whole implication is false only if the antecedent is true, and the consequent is
false.

September 7, 2015 18 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Implication

Let p and q be two simple sentences. The compound sentence ‘If p, then q’
(denoted by p =⇒ q) is called an Implication or Conditional Sentence.
The subordinate clause to which the word ‘if’ is attached is called the Antecedent
and the principal claause introduced by the word ‘then’ is called Consequent
Truth Value of an Implication: An Implication is true in any one of the following
three cases:
Both Antecedent and Consequent is true.
The antecedent is false and the consequent is true, and
Both the antecedent and consequent is false.
The whole implication is false only if the antecedent is true, and the consequent is
false.

September 7, 2015 18 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Implications

p q p =⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

If one accepts an implication as true and at the same time accepts its antecedent
to be true, cannot but accept its consequent to be true.
If one accepts an implication to be true and at the same time rejects its
consequent as false, must also reject the antecedent.

September 7, 2015 19 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

When the antecedent is false

The fact that an implication is true when the antecedent is false might appear strange.
Such an implication is called a ‘vacuously true’ statement. Lets try to explain this using
an example. Consider the statement:

If an African country is a member of the security council, it’s a member of UN

This statement can be rewritten equivalently1 as the following universal sentence:

All African members of the Security Council are members of the UN

Lets call this statement p. Thus, ∼ p: There is at least one African security council
member who is not a member of the UN. Thus, ∼ p will be false (ie. p is true) if there
are no African security council members. So if there are no African security council
members, the statement ‘If an African country is a member of the security council, it’s a
member of UN’ is true.

1
A statement p is equivalent to the statement q if p and q always have the exact
same truthvalue. That is, if p is true then q must be true and if p is false then q must
be false. We will discuss this formally later.
September 7, 2015 20 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

When the antecedent is false

The fact that an implication is true when the antecedent is false might appear strange.
Such an implication is called a ‘vacuously true’ statement. Lets try to explain this using
an example. Consider the statement:

If an African country is a member of the security council, it’s a member of UN

This statement can be rewritten equivalently1 as the following universal sentence:

All African members of the Security Council are members of the UN

Lets call this statement p. Thus, ∼ p: There is at least one African security council
member who is not a member of the UN. Thus, ∼ p will be false (ie. p is true) if there
are no African security council members. So if there are no African security council
members, the statement ‘If an African country is a member of the security council, it’s a
member of UN’ is true.

1
A statement p is equivalent to the statement q if p and q always have the exact
same truthvalue. That is, if p is true then q must be true and if p is false then q must
be false. We will discuss this formally later.
September 7, 2015 20 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

When the antecedent is false

The fact that an implication is true when the antecedent is false might appear strange.
Such an implication is called a ‘vacuously true’ statement. Lets try to explain this using
an example. Consider the statement:

If an African country is a member of the security council, it’s a member of UN

This statement can be rewritten equivalently1 as the following universal sentence:

All African members of the Security Council are members of the UN

Lets call this statement p. Thus, ∼ p: There is at least one African security council
member who is not a member of the UN. Thus, ∼ p will be false (ie. p is true) if there
are no African security council members. So if there are no African security council
members, the statement ‘If an African country is a member of the security council, it’s a
member of UN’ is true.

1
A statement p is equivalent to the statement q if p and q always have the exact
same truthvalue. That is, if p is true then q must be true and if p is false then q must
be false. We will discuss this formally later.
September 7, 2015 20 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

When the antecedent is false

The fact that an implication is true when the antecedent is false might appear strange.
Such an implication is called a ‘vacuously true’ statement. Lets try to explain this using
an example. Consider the statement:

If an African country is a member of the security council, it’s a member of UN

This statement can be rewritten equivalently1 as the following universal sentence:

All African members of the Security Council are members of the UN

Lets call this statement p. Thus, ∼ p: There is at least one African security council
member who is not a member of the UN. Thus, ∼ p will be false (ie. p is true) if there
are no African security council members. So if there are no African security council
members, the statement ‘If an African country is a member of the security council, it’s a
member of UN’ is true.

1
A statement p is equivalent to the statement q if p and q always have the exact
same truthvalue. That is, if p is true then q must be true and if p is false then q must
be false. We will discuss this formally later.
September 7, 2015 20 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Material Implication vs. Formal Implication

In everyday use, we use an implication “If p, then q” when: - there exists some
connection between the antecedent and consequent.
- we are not sure whether the antecedent or conseuent is true. Otherwise, the use
of a implication is not natural and it raises doubts about the truth value of the
implication.
This is called a Formal Implication of Implication in Formal Meaning.
For the use of an implication in logic, these are not useful considerations. An
implication is meaningful even if there exists no connection between the antecdent
and the consequent, and the truth and falsity of the implication depends entirely
upon the truth or falsity of its constituents.
This is called a Material Implication of Implication in Material Meaning.

September 7, 2015 21 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Material Implication vs. Formal Implication

In everyday use, we use an implication “If p, then q” when: - there exists some
connection between the antecedent and consequent.
- we are not sure whether the antecedent or conseuent is true. Otherwise, the use
of a implication is not natural and it raises doubts about the truth value of the
implication.
This is called a Formal Implication of Implication in Formal Meaning.
For the use of an implication in logic, these are not useful considerations. An
implication is meaningful even if there exists no connection between the antecdent
and the consequent, and the truth and falsity of the implication depends entirely
upon the truth or falsity of its constituents.
This is called a Material Implication of Implication in Material Meaning.

September 7, 2015 21 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Material Implication vs. Formal Implication

In everyday use, we use an implication “If p, then q” when: - there exists some
connection between the antecedent and consequent.
- we are not sure whether the antecedent or conseuent is true. Otherwise, the use
of a implication is not natural and it raises doubts about the truth value of the
implication.
This is called a Formal Implication of Implication in Formal Meaning.
For the use of an implication in logic, these are not useful considerations. An
implication is meaningful even if there exists no connection between the antecdent
and the consequent, and the truth and falsity of the implication depends entirely
upon the truth or falsity of its constituents.
This is called a Material Implication of Implication in Material Meaning.

September 7, 2015 21 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Material Implication vs. Formal Implication

In everyday use, we use an implication “If p, then q” when: - there exists some
connection between the antecedent and consequent.
- we are not sure whether the antecedent or conseuent is true. Otherwise, the use
of a implication is not natural and it raises doubts about the truth value of the
implication.
This is called a Formal Implication of Implication in Formal Meaning.
For the use of an implication in logic, these are not useful considerations. An
implication is meaningful even if there exists no connection between the antecdent
and the consequent, and the truth and falsity of the implication depends entirely
upon the truth or falsity of its constituents.
This is called a Material Implication of Implication in Material Meaning.

September 7, 2015 21 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Implication, contd.

Example
If 2 × 2 = 4, then India lies in the northern hemisphere. TRUE
If 2 × 2 = 5, then India lies in the northern hemisphere. TRUE
If 2 × 2 = 4, then India does not lie in the northern hemisphere. FALSE
If 2 × 2 = 5, then India does not lie in the northern hemisphere. TRUE

If used in everyday language, these would appear meaningless. However from the point
of view of formal logic, they are meaningful sentences and the thirs sentence is the only
false statement in the group.

September 7, 2015 22 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Implication, contd.

Example
If Indian Ocean is performing today, then I will go to the concert.
If today is Tuesday, then there is a logic class in the morning.
If x is a student of SNU, then x lives in Gautam Budh Nagar.

The Use of Implication in Mathematics: Mathematetical Theorems, particularly

those of a universal character, tend to have the form of implications. The
antecedent is called the Hypothesis and the consequent is called the Conclusion.
Example:
The Quotient Remainder Theorem: If m is an integer and n is a
positive integer, then there exists an unique q and r such that (1)
m = nq + r and (2) r ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . n − 1}
Weierstrass’s Extreme Value Theorem: If a real valued function f is
continuous in the closed and bounded interval [a, b], f must attain a
maximum and a minimum, each at least once.

September 7, 2015 23 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Consider the following conditional sentence:

If p , then q (that is, p =⇒ q).
For example: ’p: x is Prime-Minister of India’ and ‘q: x is a Member of Parliament..’
This can be paraprased in any of the following forms:
From: ’p: x is the Prime-Minister of India’, it follows: ‘q: x is a Member of
Parliament.’
The hypothesis: p, implies (or has a consequence): q.
x is the Prime Minister only if x is a Member of Parliament.
If x is not a Member of Parliament, then x is not the Prime Minister.

“If . . .” can be replaced by “Provided that . . .”, “Given that . . .”, “In Case . . .”
etc.
Similarly, “then . . .” can be replaced by “imples . . .”, “entails . . .”

September 7, 2015 24 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Implication: Sufficient Conditions

Consider the following statements:
an individual to be a sportsperson, it would be sufficient if he/she plays for the national
football team. This can be written as an implication as follows:
If an individual plays for the national football team, he/she is a sportsperson.
From this it becomes clear that for any implication p → q, we can write
p is a sufficient condition for q.
∼ q is a sufficient condition for ∼ p

Example

If x is a prime number, x is an integer

Thus,
A number being a prime number is a sufficient condition for the number to be an
integer.
A number not being an integer is a sufficient condition for the number not to be a
prime number

September 7, 2015 25 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Implication: Necessary Conditions

Consider the following statements:

For an individual to be the Prime Minister, it would be necessary to be a Member of parliam

This can be written as an implication as follows:
If an individual is the Prime Minister, then he/she is a Member of Parliament.
From this it becomes clear that for any implication p → q, we can write
q is a necessary condition for p.
∼ p is a necessary condition for ∼ q

Example

If x is a prime number, x is an integer

Thus,
A number being a integer is a necessary condition for the number to be a prime
number.
A number not being an prime number is a necessary condition for the number not
to be integer.
September 7, 2015 26 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Implication, contd.

Examples
p: The natural number n is divisible by 3.
q: The natural number n is divisible by 6.

q =⇒ p
q is a sufficient condition for p ie. If the natural number n is divisible by 6, then
the natural number n is divisible by 3.

or,
p is a necessary condition for q ie. The natural number n is divisible by 6 only if
the natural number n is divisible by 3.

or,
p is a necessary condition for q ie. If the natural number n is not divisible by 3,
then the natural number n is not divisible by 6.

September 7, 2015 27 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Implication, contd.

Examples
p: The natural number n is divisible by 3.
q: The natural number n is divisible by 6.

q =⇒ p
q is a sufficient condition for p ie. If the natural number n is divisible by 6, then
the natural number n is divisible by 3.

or,
p is a necessary condition for q ie. The natural number n is divisible by 6 only if
the natural number n is divisible by 3.

or,
p is a necessary condition for q ie. If the natural number n is not divisible by 3,
then the natural number n is not divisible by 6.

September 7, 2015 27 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Implication, contd.

Examples
p: Arundhati wrote ‘The God of Small Things’.
q: Arundhati is a novelist.

p =⇒ q
p is a sufficient condition for q ie. If Arundhati wrote ‘The God of Small Things’,
then Arundhati is a novelist.

or,
q is a necessary condition for p ie. Arundhati wrote the ‘God of Small Things’ only
if ‘Arundhati is a novelist’.

or,
q is a necessary condition for p ie. If Arundhati is not a novelist, then it is not the
case that Arundhati wrote ‘The God of Small Things’.

September 7, 2015 28 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Implication, contd.

Examples
p: Arundhati wrote ‘The God of Small Things’.
q: Arundhati is a novelist.

p =⇒ q
p is a sufficient condition for q ie. If Arundhati wrote ‘The God of Small Things’,
then Arundhati is a novelist.

or,
q is a necessary condition for p ie. Arundhati wrote the ‘God of Small Things’ only
if ‘Arundhati is a novelist’.

or,
q is a necessary condition for p ie. If Arundhati is not a novelist, then it is not the
case that Arundhati wrote ‘The God of Small Things’.

September 7, 2015 28 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Equivalence

Let p and q are two sentences. If the two sentences are joined by the phrase “if
and only if (iff)” , the result is a compound sentence called and equivalence.
(p ⇐⇒ q)
Two sentences p and q are equivalent can be paraprased as p is a necessary and
sufficient condition for q (q is a necessary and sufficient condition for p)
An equivalence of two statements is true if the equivalence’s left and right sides
are both true or both false. Otherwise, the equivalence is false.

September 7, 2015 29 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Compound Sentences: Equivalence

Two sentences p and q are said to be equivalent when p is bothe a sufficient and a
necessary condition for q.
In other words, p ↔ q is true when both p → q and p ← q is true.

p q p→q q→p p↔q

T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

September 7, 2015 30 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Equivalence: Use of a Converse Sentence

Let p and q are two sentences. Let r : p =⇒ q be a compound sentence. Then,

c : q =⇒ p is the converse of the sentence r .
If, in a conditional sentence, we interchange the antecedent and the consequent,
we obtain a new sentence which, in relation to the original sentence, is called the
Converse Sentence.
Example

r : If x > 0, then 2x > 0. The converse of this sentence is c: If 2x > 0, then

x > 0. In this case both r and c are true.
r1 : If x > 0, then x 2 > 0. The converse of this sentence is c1 : If x 2 > 0,
then x > 0. In this case r1 is true and while c1 is not true.

If it happens that two conditional sentences , of which one is converse of the other,
are both true, then the fact of their simultaneous truth can be expressed by joining
the antecedent and consequent of any one of the two sentences by the word “iff”.

September 7, 2015 31 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Thus the sentence r and its converse c can be replaced by a single sentence: x is a
positive number if and only if 2x is a positive number. The same idea can be formulated
differently as:
From: x is a positive number , it follows: 2x is a positive number.
The conditions that x is a positive number and that 2x is a positive number are
equivalent with each other.
The condition x is a positive number is both necessary and sufficient for 2x to be a
positive number.
For x to a positive number is necessary and sufficient that 2x to be a positive
number.

September 7, 2015 32 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Thus the sentence r and its converse c can be replaced by a single sentence: x is a
positive number if and only if 2x is a positive number. The same idea can be formulated
differently as:
From: x is a positive number , it follows: 2x is a positive number.
The conditions that x is a positive number and that 2x is a positive number are
equivalent with each other.
The condition x is a positive number is both necessary and sufficient for 2x to be a
positive number.
For x to a positive number is necessary and sufficient that 2x to be a positive
number.

September 7, 2015 32 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Thus the sentence r and its converse c can be replaced by a single sentence: x is a
positive number if and only if 2x is a positive number. The same idea can be formulated
differently as:
From: x is a positive number , it follows: 2x is a positive number.
The conditions that x is a positive number and that 2x is a positive number are
equivalent with each other.
The condition x is a positive number is both necessary and sufficient for 2x to be a
positive number.
For x to a positive number is necessary and sufficient that 2x to be a positive
number.

September 7, 2015 32 / 60
Formal Logic of ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’ and ‘IF . . ., THEN . . .’

Thus the sentence r and its converse c can be replaced by a single sentence: x is a
positive number if and only if 2x is a positive number. The same idea can be formulated
differently as:
From: x is a positive number , it follows: 2x is a positive number.
The conditions that x is a positive number and that 2x is a positive number are
equivalent with each other.
The condition x is a positive number is both necessary and sufficient for 2x to be a
positive number.
For x to a positive number is necessary and sufficient that 2x to be a positive
number.

September 7, 2015 32 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

The Formulations of Definitions:

The phrase “iff” is often used to formulate definitions, that is, conventions
stipulating what meaning must be attributed to an expression which has thus far
not occured in a certain discipline and may not immediately be comprehensible.

Example
Suppose in arithmetic the symbol ≤ has not yet been employed but one wants to
use it in consideration.
Firstly, it is necessary to define the symbol, that is, explain its meaning in terms of
expressions which are already known andwhose meanings are beyond doubt.
Assume that > belongs to the symbols already known.
We lay down the following definition:

We say that x ≤ y iff it is not the case that x > y .

September 7, 2015 33 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

The Formulations of Definitions:

The phrase “iff” is often used to formulate definitions, that is, conventions
stipulating what meaning must be attributed to an expression which has thus far
not occured in a certain discipline and may not immediately be comprehensible.

Example
Suppose in arithmetic the symbol ≤ has not yet been employed but one wants to
use it in consideration.
Firstly, it is necessary to define the symbol, that is, explain its meaning in terms of
expressions which are already known andwhose meanings are beyond doubt.
Assume that > belongs to the symbols already known.
We lay down the following definition:

We say that x ≤ y iff it is not the case that x > y .

September 7, 2015 33 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

The Formulations of Definitions:

The phrase “iff” is often used to formulate definitions, that is, conventions
stipulating what meaning must be attributed to an expression which has thus far
not occured in a certain discipline and may not immediately be comprehensible.

Example
Suppose in arithmetic the symbol ≤ has not yet been employed but one wants to
use it in consideration.
Firstly, it is necessary to define the symbol, that is, explain its meaning in terms of
expressions which are already known andwhose meanings are beyond doubt.
Assume that > belongs to the symbols already known.
We lay down the following definition:

We say that x ≤ y iff it is not the case that x > y .

September 7, 2015 33 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

The Formulations of Definitions:

The phrase “iff” is often used to formulate definitions, that is, conventions
stipulating what meaning must be attributed to an expression which has thus far
not occured in a certain discipline and may not immediately be comprehensible.

Example
Suppose in arithmetic the symbol ≤ has not yet been employed but one wants to
use it in consideration.
Firstly, it is necessary to define the symbol, that is, explain its meaning in terms of
expressions which are already known andwhose meanings are beyond doubt.
Assume that > belongs to the symbols already known.
We lay down the following definition:

We say that x ≤ y iff it is not the case that x > y .

September 7, 2015 33 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

The Formulations of Definitions:

The phrase “iff” is often used to formulate definitions, that is, conventions
stipulating what meaning must be attributed to an expression which has thus far
not occured in a certain discipline and may not immediately be comprehensible.

Example
Suppose in arithmetic the symbol ≤ has not yet been employed but one wants to
use it in consideration.
Firstly, it is necessary to define the symbol, that is, explain its meaning in terms of
expressions which are already known andwhose meanings are beyond doubt.
Assume that > belongs to the symbols already known.
We lay down the following definition:

We say that x ≤ y iff it is not the case that x > y .

September 7, 2015 33 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Example
The statements ‘x ≤ y ’ is equivalent to ‘It is not the case that x > y ’. The
definitation of ≤ given above establishes this equivalence.
Equivalence permits a transformation of the formula x ≤ y into an equivalent
formulation which does not contain the symbol ≤ but is formulated in terms of
terms already comprehensible to us.
Equivalence implies that the two component sentences are true or false
simultaneously.
3 + 2 ≤ 5 is equivalent to the sentence ‘It is not the case that 3 + 2 > 5’. Since
the later is a true assertion, so is the former.
4 ≤ 2 + 1 is equivalent to the sentence ‘It is not the case that 4 > 2 + 1’. Both are
false assertions.
The sentence ‘If x ≤ y and y ≤ z, thenx ≤ z’ is equivalent to the sentence
‘If (It is not the case that x > y and It is not the case that y > z, then (It is not
the case that x > z) ’.

September 7, 2015 34 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Example
The statements ‘x ≤ y ’ is equivalent to ‘It is not the case that x > y ’. The
definitation of ≤ given above establishes this equivalence.
Equivalence permits a transformation of the formula x ≤ y into an equivalent
formulation which does not contain the symbol ≤ but is formulated in terms of
terms already comprehensible to us.
Equivalence implies that the two component sentences are true or false
simultaneously.
3 + 2 ≤ 5 is equivalent to the sentence ‘It is not the case that 3 + 2 > 5’. Since
the later is a true assertion, so is the former.
4 ≤ 2 + 1 is equivalent to the sentence ‘It is not the case that 4 > 2 + 1’. Both are
false assertions.
The sentence ‘If x ≤ y and y ≤ z, thenx ≤ z’ is equivalent to the sentence
‘If (It is not the case that x > y and It is not the case that y > z, then (It is not
the case that x > z) ’.

September 7, 2015 34 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Rules of Definition

Rules that specify how a definition should be constructed correctly.

Every definition may assume the form of an equivalence.
The first member of the equivalence (the LHS of the equivalence) should be
a short grammatically simple sentential function containing the constant to
be defined. This is called the Definiendum.
The second member of the equivalence (the RHS of the equivalence) may be
an sentential function of an arbitrary structure, containing only constants
whose meaning are immediately obvious or has been explained earlier.
Constant to be defined, or any expression previously defined with its help, must
not occur in the definiens. If it does occur in the definiens , it is called the Error of
Vicious Circle in the Definition.
In order to distinguish definitions from other statements that have the form of an
equivalence, we generally prefix the sentence with “we say that”.

September 7, 2015 35 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Rules of Definition

Rules that specify how a definition should be constructed correctly.

Every definition may assume the form of an equivalence.
The first member of the equivalence (the LHS of the equivalence) should be
a short grammatically simple sentential function containing the constant to
be defined. This is called the Definiendum.
The second member of the equivalence (the RHS of the equivalence) may be
an sentential function of an arbitrary structure, containing only constants
whose meaning are immediately obvious or has been explained earlier.
Constant to be defined, or any expression previously defined with its help, must
not occur in the definiens. If it does occur in the definiens , it is called the Error of
Vicious Circle in the Definition.
In order to distinguish definitions from other statements that have the form of an
equivalence, we generally prefix the sentence with “we say that”.

September 7, 2015 35 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Rules of Definition

Rules that specify how a definition should be constructed correctly.

Every definition may assume the form of an equivalence.
The first member of the equivalence (the LHS of the equivalence) should be
a short grammatically simple sentential function containing the constant to
be defined. This is called the Definiendum.
The second member of the equivalence (the RHS of the equivalence) may be
an sentential function of an arbitrary structure, containing only constants
whose meaning are immediately obvious or has been explained earlier.
Constant to be defined, or any expression previously defined with its help, must
not occur in the definiens. If it does occur in the definiens , it is called the Error of
Vicious Circle in the Definition.
In order to distinguish definitions from other statements that have the form of an
equivalence, we generally prefix the sentence with “we say that”.

September 7, 2015 35 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Rules of Definition

Rules that specify how a definition should be constructed correctly.

Every definition may assume the form of an equivalence.
The first member of the equivalence (the LHS of the equivalence) should be
a short grammatically simple sentential function containing the constant to
be defined. This is called the Definiendum.
The second member of the equivalence (the RHS of the equivalence) may be
an sentential function of an arbitrary structure, containing only constants
whose meaning are immediately obvious or has been explained earlier.
Constant to be defined, or any expression previously defined with its help, must
not occur in the definiens. If it does occur in the definiens , it is called the Error of
Vicious Circle in the Definition.
In order to distinguish definitions from other statements that have the form of an
equivalence, we generally prefix the sentence with “we say that”.

September 7, 2015 35 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Rules of Definition

Rules that specify how a definition should be constructed correctly.

Every definition may assume the form of an equivalence.
The first member of the equivalence (the LHS of the equivalence) should be
a short grammatically simple sentential function containing the constant to
be defined. This is called the Definiendum.
The second member of the equivalence (the RHS of the equivalence) may be
an sentential function of an arbitrary structure, containing only constants
whose meaning are immediately obvious or has been explained earlier.
Constant to be defined, or any expression previously defined with its help, must
not occur in the definiens. If it does occur in the definiens , it is called the Error of
Vicious Circle in the Definition.
In order to distinguish definitions from other statements that have the form of an
equivalence, we generally prefix the sentence with “we say that”.

September 7, 2015 35 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Example
We say that S is a null set iff the cardinality of S is 0.
The statement is in form of an equivalence.
‘S is a null set’ is a sentential function. This is the definiendum.
‘The cardinality of S is 0’ is a sentential function. This is the definiens. The
terms/constants 0 and cardinality are either evident or have been defined earlier.

September 7, 2015 36 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Consider the example discussed earlier.

Example
(For any x and y ) x ≤ y iff it is not the case that x > y .
The statement is in form of an equivalence.
‘x ≤ y ’ is a sentential function. This is the definiendum.
‘ x > y ’ is a sentential function. This is the definiens. The terms/constants and
> are either evident or have been defined earlier.

September 7, 2015 37 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Mathematicians prefer the words “if” or “in case that” to “iff” while formulating
definitions.
For example, to formulate the definition of ≤ they would probably write: We say
that x ≤ y if it is not the case that x > y .
It looks as if it just states that the definiendum follows from the definiens, without
emphasising that the relation of consequence holds in the oppositite direction.
This is just a convention. When the words “if” or “in case that” is used to join
definiendum and definiens,it means the same as “iff”.
Examples from textbooks in Mathematics:

- Page 3 of Rao & Bhimasankaram; Linear Algebra:

“A map f from X to Y is said to be 1 − 1 or an injection if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒
x1 = x2 .”
- Page 18 of Hogg, Craig & McKean; Introduction to Mathematical Statistics:
“If a set C has no elements, C is called the null set.

September 7, 2015 38 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Mathematicians prefer the words “if” or “in case that” to “iff” while formulating
definitions.
For example, to formulate the definition of ≤ they would probably write: We say
that x ≤ y if it is not the case that x > y .
It looks as if it just states that the definiendum follows from the definiens, without
emphasising that the relation of consequence holds in the oppositite direction.
This is just a convention. When the words “if” or “in case that” is used to join
definiendum and definiens,it means the same as “iff”.
Examples from textbooks in Mathematics:

- Page 3 of Rao & Bhimasankaram; Linear Algebra:

“A map f from X to Y is said to be 1 − 1 or an injection if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒
x1 = x2 .”
- Page 18 of Hogg, Craig & McKean; Introduction to Mathematical Statistics:
“If a set C has no elements, C is called the null set.

September 7, 2015 38 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Mathematicians prefer the words “if” or “in case that” to “iff” while formulating
definitions.
For example, to formulate the definition of ≤ they would probably write: We say
that x ≤ y if it is not the case that x > y .
It looks as if it just states that the definiendum follows from the definiens, without
emphasising that the relation of consequence holds in the oppositite direction.
This is just a convention. When the words “if” or “in case that” is used to join
definiendum and definiens,it means the same as “iff”.
Examples from textbooks in Mathematics:

- Page 3 of Rao & Bhimasankaram; Linear Algebra:

“A map f from X to Y is said to be 1 − 1 or an injection if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒
x1 = x2 .”
- Page 18 of Hogg, Craig & McKean; Introduction to Mathematical Statistics:
“If a set C has no elements, C is called the null set.

September 7, 2015 38 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Mathematicians prefer the words “if” or “in case that” to “iff” while formulating
definitions.
For example, to formulate the definition of ≤ they would probably write: We say
that x ≤ y if it is not the case that x > y .
It looks as if it just states that the definiendum follows from the definiens, without
emphasising that the relation of consequence holds in the oppositite direction.
This is just a convention. When the words “if” or “in case that” is used to join
definiendum and definiens,it means the same as “iff”.
Examples from textbooks in Mathematics:

- Page 3 of Rao & Bhimasankaram; Linear Algebra:

“A map f from X to Y is said to be 1 − 1 or an injection if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒
x1 = x2 .”
- Page 18 of Hogg, Craig & McKean; Introduction to Mathematical Statistics:
“If a set C has no elements, C is called the null set.

September 7, 2015 38 / 60
 Definitions and its Rules

Mathematicians prefer the words “if” or “in case that” to “iff” while formulating
definitions.
For example, to formulate the definition of ≤ they would probably write: We say
that x ≤ y if it is not the case that x > y .
It looks as if it just states that the definiendum follows from the definiens, without
emphasising that the relation of consequence holds in the oppositite direction.
This is just a convention. When the words “if” or “in case that” is used to join
definiendum and definiens,it means the same as “iff”.
Examples from textbooks in Mathematics:

- Page 3 of Rao & Bhimasankaram; Linear Algebra:

“A map f from X to Y is said to be 1 − 1 or an injection if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒
x1 = x2 .”
- Page 18 of Hogg, Craig & McKean; Introduction to Mathematical Statistics:
“If a set C has no elements, C is called the null set.

September 7, 2015 38 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

An Illustrative Example:

Consider the following sentence in the form of an implication:

2
If 11 is a prime number and is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number
3

11 is a prime number: True

2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: True
Both antecedent and consequent of the above sentence is true. So the implication
is True.

September 7, 2015 39 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

An Illustrative Example:

Consider the following sentence in the form of an implication:

2
If 11 is a prime number and is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number
3

11 is a prime number: True

2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: True
Both antecedent and consequent of the above sentence is true. So the implication
is True.

September 7, 2015 39 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

An Illustrative Example:

Consider the following sentence in the form of an implication:

2
If 11 is a prime number and is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number
3

11 is a prime number: True

2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: True
Both antecedent and consequent of the above sentence is true. So the implication
is True.

September 7, 2015 39 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

An Illustrative Example:

Consider the following sentence in the form of an implication:

2
If 11 is a prime number and is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number
3

11 is a prime number: True

2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: True
Both antecedent and consequent of the above sentence is true. So the implication
is True.

September 7, 2015 39 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

An Illustrative Example:

Consider the following sentence in the form of an implication:

2
If 11 is a prime number and is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number
3

11 is a prime number: True

2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: True
Both antecedent and consequent of the above sentence is true. So the implication
is True.

September 7, 2015 39 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

An Illustrative Example:

Consider the following sentence in the form of an implication:

2
If 11 is a prime number and is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number
3

11 is a prime number: True

2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: True
Both antecedent and consequent of the above sentence is true. So the implication
is True.

September 7, 2015 39 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

An Illustrative Example:

Consider the following sentence in the form of an implication:

2
If 11 is a prime number and is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number
3

11 is a prime number: True

2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: True
Both antecedent and consequent of the above sentence is true. So the implication
is True.

September 7, 2015 39 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

An Illustrative Example:

Consider the following sentence in the form of an implication:

2
If 11 is a prime number and is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number
3

11 is a prime number: True

2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: True
Both antecedent and consequent of the above sentence is true. So the implication
is True.

September 7, 2015 39 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

We will never encounter the above implication as a theorem in any arithmetic book
because it does not enrich our knowledge of numbers in any way. The truth of the
implication does not depend on any of the mathematical/arithmetic terms occuring in
the sentence. The truth value of the sentence depends on the sense of the words “and”,
“if” “then”.
Lets replace one of the simple sentences used in the given implication. Consider the
implication:
2
If 4 × 2 = 1 and is a rational number, then 4 × 2 = 1
3

4 × 2 = 1: False
2
3
is a rational number: True
2
11 is a prime number and 3
is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the above sentence is false, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 40 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Now, consider the following implication:

√
If 11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number

11 is a prime number: True

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 41 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Now, consider the following implication:

√
If 11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number

11 is a prime number: True

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 41 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Now, consider the following implication:

√
If 11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number

11 is a prime number: True

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 41 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Now, consider the following implication:

√
If 11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number

11 is a prime number: True

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 41 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Now, consider the following implication:

√
If 11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number

11 is a prime number: True

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 41 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Now, consider the following implication:

√
If 11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number

11 is a prime number: True

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 41 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Now, consider the following implication:

√
If 11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number

11 is a prime number: True

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 41 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Now, consider the following implication:

√
If 11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 11 is a prime number

11 is a prime number: True

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
11 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 41 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Lastly, consider the following implication:

√
If 12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 12 is a prime number

12 is a prime number: False

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 42 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Lastly, consider the following implication:

√
If 12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 12 is a prime number

12 is a prime number: False

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 42 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Lastly, consider the following implication:

√
If 12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 12 is a prime number

12 is a prime number: False

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 42 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Lastly, consider the following implication:

√
If 12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 12 is a prime number

12 is a prime number: False

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 42 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Lastly, consider the following implication:

√
If 12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 12 is a prime number

12 is a prime number: False

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 42 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Lastly, consider the following implication:

√
If 12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 12 is a prime number

12 is a prime number: False

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 42 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Lastly, consider the following implication:

√
If 12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 12 is a prime number

12 is a prime number: False

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 42 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Lastly, consider the following implication:

√
If 12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number, then 12 is a prime number

12 is a prime number: False

√
2 is a rational number: False
√
12 is a prime number and 2 is a rational number: False
Since the antecedent of the implication is False, the implication is True.

September 7, 2015 42 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

From the above discussion it becomes clear, that is we replace the constituent simple
sentences of the original implication by any other sentence from any arbirtrary field, the
implication will always remain True. For example, the following sentences in the form of
an implication are all true:
If Kolkata is the capital of West Bengal and Sikkim shares a border with West
Bengal, then Kolkata is the capital of West Bengal.
If Today is Saturday and it is raining in Dadri, then today is Saturday.

September 7, 2015 43 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

From the above discussion it becomes clear, that is we replace the constituent simple
sentences of the original implication by any other sentence from any arbirtrary field, the
implication will always remain True. For example, the following sentences in the form of
an implication are all true:
If Kolkata is the capital of West Bengal and Sikkim shares a border with West
Bengal, then Kolkata is the capital of West Bengal.
If Today is Saturday and it is raining in Dadri, then today is Saturday.

September 7, 2015 43 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Laws of Sentential Calculus

Let p and q be sentential variables , that is, these are designations for whole
sentences (and not numbers or any other things).
Now consider the following sentential function: If p and q, then p
We know from the discussion above that irrespective of what sentences are
substituted for p and q, a true sentence if obtained from the sentential function
mentioned above.
This observation lead to an important law of sentential calculus:
For any p and q, if p and q, then p.
This is called the Law of Simplification for Logical Multiplication.

September 7, 2015 44 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Laws of Sentential Calculus

Let p and q be sentential variables , that is, these are designations for whole
sentences (and not numbers or any other things).
Now consider the following sentential function: If p and q, then p
We know from the discussion above that irrespective of what sentences are
substituted for p and q, a true sentence if obtained from the sentential function
mentioned above.
This observation lead to an important law of sentential calculus:
For any p and q, if p and q, then p.
This is called the Law of Simplification for Logical Multiplication.

September 7, 2015 44 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Laws of Sentential Calculus

Let p and q be sentential variables , that is, these are designations for whole
sentences (and not numbers or any other things).
Now consider the following sentential function: If p and q, then p
We know from the discussion above that irrespective of what sentences are
substituted for p and q, a true sentence if obtained from the sentential function
mentioned above.
This observation lead to an important law of sentential calculus:
For any p and q, if p and q, then p.
This is called the Law of Simplification for Logical Multiplication.

September 7, 2015 44 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Laws of Sentential Calculus

Let p and q be sentential variables , that is, these are designations for whole
sentences (and not numbers or any other things).
Now consider the following sentential function: If p and q, then p
We know from the discussion above that irrespective of what sentences are
substituted for p and q, a true sentence if obtained from the sentential function
mentioned above.
This observation lead to an important law of sentential calculus:
For any p and q, if p and q, then p.
This is called the Law of Simplification for Logical Multiplication.

September 7, 2015 44 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Laws of Sentential Calculus

Let p and q be sentential variables , that is, these are designations for whole
sentences (and not numbers or any other things).
Now consider the following sentential function: If p and q, then p
We know from the discussion above that irrespective of what sentences are
substituted for p and q, a true sentence if obtained from the sentential function
mentioned above.
This observation lead to an important law of sentential calculus:
For any p and q, if p and q, then p.
This is called the Law of Simplification for Logical Multiplication.

September 7, 2015 44 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Laws of Sentential Calculus

Let p and q be sentential variables , that is, these are designations for whole
sentences (and not numbers or any other things).
Now consider the following sentential function: If p and q, then p
We know from the discussion above that irrespective of what sentences are
substituted for p and q, a true sentence if obtained from the sentential function
mentioned above.
This observation lead to an important law of sentential calculus:
For any p and q, if p and q, then p.
This is called the Law of Simplification for Logical Multiplication.

September 7, 2015 44 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

The following are few other examples of laws of sentential calculus. In their
formulation, we omit the universal quantifier “for any p, q, . . .”
Law of Identity: If p, then p.
Law of Simplification for Logical Addition: If p, then p or q.
Law of the Hypothetical Syllogism: If p → q and q → r , then p
If p → q and q → p, then p ≡ r
Laws of sentential calculus are TRUE sentences with an universal quantifier and
sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 45 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

The following are few other examples of laws of sentential calculus. In their
formulation, we omit the universal quantifier “for any p, q, . . .”
Law of Identity: If p, then p.
Law of Simplification for Logical Addition: If p, then p or q.
Law of the Hypothetical Syllogism: If p → q and q → r , then p
If p → q and q → p, then p ≡ r
Laws of sentential calculus are TRUE sentences with an universal quantifier and
sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 45 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

The following are few other examples of laws of sentential calculus. In their
formulation, we omit the universal quantifier “for any p, q, . . .”
Law of Identity: If p, then p.
Law of Simplification for Logical Addition: If p, then p or q.
Law of the Hypothetical Syllogism: If p → q and q → r , then p
If p → q and q → p, then p ≡ r
Laws of sentential calculus are TRUE sentences with an universal quantifier and
sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 45 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

The following are few other examples of laws of sentential calculus. In their
formulation, we omit the universal quantifier “for any p, q, . . .”
Law of Identity: If p, then p.
Law of Simplification for Logical Addition: If p, then p or q.
Law of the Hypothetical Syllogism: If p → q and q → r , then p
If p → q and q → p, then p ≡ r
Laws of sentential calculus are TRUE sentences with an universal quantifier and
sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 45 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

The following are few other examples of laws of sentential calculus. In their
formulation, we omit the universal quantifier “for any p, q, . . .”
Law of Identity: If p, then p.
Law of Simplification for Logical Addition: If p, then p or q.
Law of the Hypothetical Syllogism: If p → q and q → r , then p
If p → q and q → p, then p ≡ r
Laws of sentential calculus are TRUE sentences with an universal quantifier and
sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 45 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Symbolism of Sentential Calculus:

Table : Symbolism of Sentential Calculus

sim p not p
p∧q p and q
p∨q p or q
p→q If p, then q
p↔q p if and only if q height

With the help of variables, parentheses and the constant symbols listed above, one is
able to write down all sentences and sentential functions belonging to the domain of
sentential calculus.
Apart from individual sentences variables, the left column of the above table lists the
simplest sentential functions.

September 7, 2015 46 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Symbolism of Sentential Calculus:

The following are examples of compound sentential functions:

Example
(p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r ) , that is, “If p or q, the p and q”
If is obvious that this is not true for all expressions that can be substituted in place
of the sentential variables of p and q
[(p → q) and (q → r )] → (p → q)
This is true for any sentence substitued in place of the sentential variables, p, q
and r . This is called the Law of Hypothetical Syllogism.

September 7, 2015 47 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Symbolism of Sentential Calculus:

The following are examples of compound sentential functions:

Example
(p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r ) , that is, “If p or q, the p and q”
If is obvious that this is not true for all expressions that can be substituted in place
of the sentential variables of p and q
[(p → q) and (q → r )] → (p → q)
This is true for any sentence substitued in place of the sentential variables, p, q
and r . This is called the Law of Hypothetical Syllogism.

September 7, 2015 47 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Truth Functions and Truth Tables

Every sentential function with sentential variables can be thought of as a truth

function. For any whole sentence substituted in the place of sentential variables,
the sentential function if converted to a sentence which is either true or false.
Suppose a sentential function has one sentential variables p . Then this sentential
function can be thought of as a truth function that maps every sentence from the
set of all sentences to points in a set with two elements {True, False}.

September 7, 2015 48 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Example
Let us consider a sentential function with three sentential variables: p , q and r .

(p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r )

The sentence obtained by substituting for sentential variables has the form of a
implication. Hence the truth of this conditional sentence depends on the truth
value of the antecedent and the truth value of the consequent.
The antecedent is in the form of a disjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and q.
The consequent is in the form of a conjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and r .
Thus the truth of the whole sentence depends on the truth of the sentences
substituted for the sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 49 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Example
Let us consider a sentential function with three sentential variables: p , q and r .

(p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r )

The sentence obtained by substituting for sentential variables has the form of a
implication. Hence the truth of this conditional sentence depends on the truth
value of the antecedent and the truth value of the consequent.
The antecedent is in the form of a disjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and q.
The consequent is in the form of a conjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and r .
Thus the truth of the whole sentence depends on the truth of the sentences
substituted for the sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 49 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Example
Let us consider a sentential function with three sentential variables: p , q and r .

(p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r )

The sentence obtained by substituting for sentential variables has the form of a
implication. Hence the truth of this conditional sentence depends on the truth
value of the antecedent and the truth value of the consequent.
The antecedent is in the form of a disjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and q.
The consequent is in the form of a conjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and r .
Thus the truth of the whole sentence depends on the truth of the sentences
substituted for the sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 49 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Example
Let us consider a sentential function with three sentential variables: p , q and r .

(p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r )

The sentence obtained by substituting for sentential variables has the form of a
implication. Hence the truth of this conditional sentence depends on the truth
value of the antecedent and the truth value of the consequent.
The antecedent is in the form of a disjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and q.
The consequent is in the form of a conjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and r .
Thus the truth of the whole sentence depends on the truth of the sentences
substituted for the sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 49 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Example
Let us consider a sentential function with three sentential variables: p , q and r .

(p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r )

The sentence obtained by substituting for sentential variables has the form of a
implication. Hence the truth of this conditional sentence depends on the truth
value of the antecedent and the truth value of the consequent.
The antecedent is in the form of a disjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and q.
The consequent is in the form of a conjunction. Hence the truth of the sentence
depends on the truth of the sentences substituted in the place of p and r .
Thus the truth of the whole sentence depends on the truth of the sentences
substituted for the sentential variables.

September 7, 2015 49 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Symbolism of Sentential Calculus:

To explain the truth value of a sentence obtained by substituting the sentential variables
of a sentential function by sentences, depends on the truth value of the sentences
substituted for , we construct Truth Tables.

Table : Example of a Truth Table

p q r p∨q p∧r (p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r )
T T T T T T
F T T T F F
T F T T T T
F F T F F T
T T F T F F
F T F T F F
T F F T F F
F F F F F T

September 7, 2015 50 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Symbolism of Sentential Calculus:

To explain the truth value of a sentence obtained by substituting the sentential variables
of a sentential function by sentences, depends on the truth value of the sentences
substituted for , we construct Truth Tables.

Table : Example of a Truth Table

p q r p∨q p∧r (p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r )
T T T T T T
F T T T F F
T F T T T T
F F T F F T
T T F T F F
F T F T F F
T F F T F F
F F F F F T

September 7, 2015 50 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

What and Why of a Truth Table?

The method of truth tables allows us to test the truth value of a sentence. It is
mainly used to calculate the truth value of a compound sentence given knowledge
about the truth value of constituent simple sentences.
It helps us to understand if a given sentential function is true irrespective of what
is substituted for the sentential variables. Hence it helps us in formulating the laws
of sentential calculus.

September 7, 2015 51 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Fundamental Truth Tables

p ∼p
T F
F T

p q p∧q p∨q p→q p↔q

T T T T T T
F T F T T F
T F F T F F
F F F F T T

Using these two fundamental truth tables we can construct Derivative Truth Tables for
any compound sentential function. For example, refer to the truth table for
(p ∨ q) → (p ∧ r ) that we have constructed earlier.

September 7, 2015 52 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Suppose we substitute a true sentence for p, and false sentences for q and r . The
disjunction p ∨ q is true since one of the summands of the logical sum is true.
However since both the factors of the conjuction p ∧ r are false, the conjunction is
false. Now we look at the final column. The antecedent of the implication is true,
but the consequent is false. Thus the implication is false.
While constructing a truth table, one should ensure that we exhaust all ways in
which a combination of symbols T and F could be rrelated to the sentential
variables. If there are n sentential variables in a sentential function, the truth
matric consists of 2n rows.
If there are no “F ” in the last column of a truth table, we know that irrespective
of what sentences we substitute for the variables, the sentential function will map
it to “T ”. Then we can attach an universal quantifier to the original sentential
function, and obtain laws of sentential calculus.

September 7, 2015 53 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Consider for example the Law of Simplification for Logical Product that we have
discussed earlier. For any p and q

(p ∧ q) =⇒ p

We construct a truth table to test the validity of this law.

p q p∧q (p ∧ q) → p
T T T T
F T F T
T F F T
F F F T

September 7, 2015 54 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Other Important Laws of Sentential Calculus

Law of Contradiction: ∼ [p ∧ (∼ p)]

Law of Excluded Middle: p ∨ (∼ p)
Law of Tautology for Logical Multiplication: (p ∧ p) ↔ p
Law of Tautology for Logical Addition: (p ∨ p) ↔ p
Commutative Law for Logical Multiplication: (p ∧ q) ↔ (q ∧ p)
Commutative Law for Logical Addition: (p ∨ q) ↔ (q ∨ p)
Associative Law for Logical Multiplication: (p ∧ (q ∧ r )) ↔ ((p ∧ q) ∧ r )
Associative Law for Logical Addition: (p ∨ (q ∨ r )) ↔ ((p ∨ q) ∨ r )

September 7, 2015 55 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Using the methodology of truth tables we often establish the validity of universal
sentences whose truth seems far from obvious before application of this method.
The fact that the following sentences are not obvious to start with is due to the
use of implication in material meaning (as opposed to formal meaning) in modern
logic.
p → (q → p)
(∼ p) → (p → q)
(p → q) → (q → p)
Almost all reasoning in any field of science is implicitly or explicitly based on the
application of the laws of sentential calculus.

September 7, 2015 56 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Conjugate Sentences

Consider a sentence which is in the form of an implication: If p , then q.

p→q

Let this conditional sentence be denoted by r . We can form the following three
sentences from the given sentence:
Converse Sentence of r : If q , then p.
Inverse Sentence of r : If ∼ p , then ∼ q.
Contrapositive Statement: If ∼ q , then ∼ p.
The converse, the inverse and the contrapositive together with the original sentence are
called Conjugate Sentences.

September 7, 2015 57 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Example
Consider the following sentence: If x is a positive number, then 2x is a positive number.

Converse: If 2x is a positive number, then x is a positive number.

Inverse: If x is not a positive number, then 2x is not a positive number.
Contrapositive: If 2x is not a positive number, then x is not a positive number.

In this example, all the conjugate sentences are true.

Example
Consider the following sentence: If x is a positive number, then x 2 is a positive number.

Converse: If x 2 is a positive number, then x is a positive number.

Inverse: If x is not a positive number, then x 2 is not a positive number.
Contrapositive: If x 2 is not a positive number, then x is not a positive number.

In this example, not all the conjugate sentences are true. The original sentence and its
contrapositive are true. However the converse and the inverse are not true.

September 7, 2015 58 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Example
Consider the following sentence: If x is a positive number, then 2x is a positive number.

Converse: If 2x is a positive number, then x is a positive number.

Inverse: If x is not a positive number, then 2x is not a positive number.
Contrapositive: If 2x is not a positive number, then x is not a positive number.

In this example, all the conjugate sentences are true.

Example
Consider the following sentence: If x is a positive number, then x 2 is a positive number.

Converse: If x 2 is a positive number, then x is a positive number.

Inverse: If x is not a positive number, then x 2 is not a positive number.
Contrapositive: If x 2 is not a positive number, then x is not a positive number.

In this example, not all the conjugate sentences are true. The original sentence and its
contrapositive are true. However the converse and the inverse are not true.

September 7, 2015 58 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Law of Transposition or Contraposition

The Law of contraposition, according to which any conditional sentence implies its
corresponding contrapositive statement can be formulated as follows:

From: if p, then q, it follows that: if not q, then not p

Consider the following problem:

Given: The sentence “If x > 0 ,then 2x > 0” is true.
Suppose we are required to prove that “If 2x ≤ 0 ,then x ≤ 0” is true.
We can go about this proof in the following way:
The Law of Contraposition (as stated above) holds true for any arbitrary sentences p and
q. Let us substitute x > 0 and 2x > 0 in place of p and q respectively. Thus we obtain:
From: If x > 0 ,then 2x > 0, it follows that If 2x > 0 ,then x > 0
This has the form of an implication. It is given that the hypothesis “If x > 0 ,then
2x > 0” is true. Hence the conclusion “If 2x > 0 then x > 0” of the implication must
likewise be acknowledged to be true.

September 7, 2015 59 / 60
 Laws of Sentential Calculus

Note: The inverse sentence is the contrapositive of the converse sentence. Hence if the
converse is proved, the inverse sentence can be considered valid due to the Law of
Contraposition.
Some Rules of Inference or Proof:
The Rule of Substitution: If a sentence of universal character, that has already
been accepted as true, contains sentential variables, and if these variables are
replaced by other sentential variables or by sentential functions or by
sentences-always substituting equal variables by equal expressions-then the
sentence obtained in this way must be recognized as true. This rule might also be
applied to other kinds of variables. For example: To the variables x, y , . . . denoting
numbers: in place of these variables any symbol or expression denoting numbers
may be substituted.
Rule of Detachment or Modus Ponens Rule: If two sentences are accepted as
true, of which one has the form of an implication while other is the antecedent of
this implication, then that statement may be recognized as true which forms the
consequent of the implication.

September 7, 2015 60 / 60