Physics
Investigatory Project
2025-26
Factors Affecting the Resistance
of a Conductor
Name : Sayyeda Zainab Khan Submitted to:
Class: 12 Ms. Priyanka Kale
Certificate
This is to certify that Sayyeda Zainab Khan of Class XII SCIENCE has
prepared this project which is the result of her efforts and endeavours.
The project titled – Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor is
found worthy of acceptance as their final project for the subject of
Physics.
The student’s project is prepared under my guidance and as per the
norms stated by CBSE.
Name (HOD/SubjectTeacher) Name (Principal)
Ms.Priyanka Kale Ms. Neerja Tiwari
Signature Signature
________________ ________________
Name (External Examiner) School Stamp
________________ ________________
Signature
______________
Index
Sl.No. Content Page No. Tr. Sign.
1 Acknowledgement 4
2 Introduction 5
3 Concept of Resistance and Ohm’s Law 6
4 Experiment 1- Effect of Length on Resistance 7
5 Cross-sectional Area and Resistance 10
Experiment 2- Effect of Cross-sectional Area
6 11
on Resistance
7 Material Resistivity 14
8 Experiment 3 - Effect of Material on Resistance 15
9 Temperature and Resistance 20
Experiment 4 - Effect of Temperature on
10 21
Resistance
11 Conclusion 24
12 Inference 25
13 Bibliography 26
Acknowledgement
I would like to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude for
the support and guidance I received while working on this project. First
and foremost, I want to acknowledge God for providing me with the
strength, wisdom, and inspiration throughout this journey. Without
divine guidance, I would not have been able to overcome the
challenges I faced. I would also like to extend my appreciation to my
school for fostering an environment that encourages learning and
creativity. The resources, facilities, and supportive atmosphere have
played a significant role in my academic growth. I am truly grateful to
be part of such a nurturing educational community that inspires
students to reach their full potential.
A special thank you goes to our principal Ms.Neerja Tiwari for her
unwavering leadership and vision. Her commitment to academic
excellence and student development has created a positive learning
environment that motivates us to strive for greatness
Lastly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my subject teacher
Ms.Priyanka Kale for her invaluable mentorship and encouragement.
Her passion for teaching and dedication to helping students
understand the material significantly impacted my learning experience.
Thank you for believing in me and for your continuous support
throughout this project.
Your guidance has been instrumental in my success.
4
Introduction
Electric resistance is one of the most fundamental and practical
concepts in the study of electricity. It refers to the property of a material
or conductor that resists the flow of electric current through it. In everyday
terms, it determines how easily or with how much difficulty electrons can
move through a substance when a potential difference is applied across
it. The concept of resistance is central to understanding how electrical
circuits function, as it directly influences current flow, energy dissipation,
and efficiency.
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω), named after the German physicist
Georg Simon Ohm, who formulated Ohm’s Law in the early 19th century.
This law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across it, provided the physical
conditions such as temperature remain constant. Mathematically, this is
expressed as: R = V/I
where R is resistance, V is voltage, and I is current.
However, resistance is not a fixed property for all circumstances — it
depends on several key factors. The length of the conductor, its cross-
sectional area, the material it is made of, and its temperature all have
measurable effects on resistance. The relationship connecting these is
given by: R = ρ L/A
where ρ is the resistivity of the material, L is length, and A is cross-
sectional area.
In this project, we aim to experimentally study how these parameters
influence the resistance of a conductor. By systematically altering one
factor at a time while keeping others constant, we can verify theoretical
relationships and understand how they operate in real situations. For
example, we expect longer wires to have higher resistance, thicker wires
to have lower resistance, metals with low resistivity like
copper to conduct better, and metals at higher
temperatures to resist current more.
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Concept of Resistance
and Ohm’s Law
Resistance is a property of a conductor that opposes the flow of electric
current through it. It is defined as the ratio of the potential difference
across the conductor to the current flowing through it, given by Ohm’s
law: R = V/I
where R is resistance, V is potential difference, and I is current.
Resistance originates from collisions between free electrons and the fixed
atoms/ions in the conductor. These collisions convert some electrical
energy into heat.The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
Factors like the conductor’s length (L), cross-sectional area (A), material
resistivity (ρ), and temperature (T) play a crucial role.
Mathematically: R = ρ L/A
A material with higher resistivity offers more opposition to current flow.
The resistivity depends on atomic structure and electron density. Metals
like copper and silver have low resistivity, making them good conductors,
while alloys like nichrome have higher resistivity.
Understanding these dependencies is vital in electrical engineering,
electronics, and materials science. This project experimentally
investigates how length, cross-section, material, and temperature affect
resistance.
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Experiment 1
Effect of Length on Resistance
Aim:
To study the variation of resistance with the length of a conductor.
Materials Required:
Battery eliminator or DC power supply (0–12 V), Ammeter (0–1 A),
Voltmeter (0–5 V), Nichrome wire of known gauge, Rheostat, Key/switch,
Connecting wires, Meter scale
Theory:
According to : R = ρ L/A ,
resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor if the
cross-section and material remain constant.
Procedure:
1.Connect the circuit with a nichrome wire clamped on a meter scale.
2.Take a length L = 20 cm between the crocodile clips.
3.Close the key, adjust rheostat to limit current, note V and I.
4.Repeat for lengths 40 cm, 60 cm, and 80 cm.
5.Calculate resistance R = V/I for each length.
Fig. 1. Circuit Diagram
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Observation Table:
Length (cm) Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
20 0.8 0.40 2.00
40 1.6 0.40 4.00
60 2.4 0.40 6.00
80 3.2 0.40 8.00
Result:
Resistance increases linearly with length, confirming R ∝ L.
Fig. 2. Graph of Resistance vs Length
8
Precautions:
Use wires of uniform thickness to ensure correct results.
Connections should be tight to avoid extra resistance.
The wire should not be excessively heated, as temperature
rise affects resistance.
Always adjust the rheostat slowly to prevent sudden current
surges.
Sources of Error:
Contact resistance at the joints may affect readings.
Slight variation in diameter of wire along its length.
Parallax error while taking readings from ammeter and
voltmeter.
Heating of wire during experiment changing resistance.
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Cross-sectional Area
and Resistance
For a conductor of uniform material and length, the resistance varies
inversely with its cross-sectional area A. A thicker wire offers more
pathways for electrons to move, reducing collisions and hence lowering
resistance.
The mathematical relation:
∝
R 1/A
If two wires are of the same length and material, but one has twice the
cross-sectional area, its resistance will be half that of the thinner wire.
This is why high-current applications require thick cables.
Area A is related to wire diameter d as:
A = πd2 / 4
This dependency is crucial in designing circuits to prevent overheating
and ensure efficient current flow.
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Experiment 2
Effect of Cross-sectional Area
on Resistance
Aim:
To study variation of resistance with cross-sectional area.
Materials Required:
Battery eliminator, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wires of same material and
length but different gauges (SWG 24, 26, 28), Rheostat, Key/switch,
Connecting wires
Theory:
Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area; thicker wires
have lower resistance.
Procedure:
1.Set up the circuit with wire of SWG 24 (thickest).
2.Record V and I, calculate R.
3.Repeat for SWG 26 and SWG 28 wires.
Fig. 3. Circuit Diagram
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Observation Table:
Wire Gauge Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
SWG 24 0.8 0.80 1.00
SWG 26 0.8 0.80 1.33
SWG 28 0.8 0.80 2.00
Result:
Resistance decreases with increasing cross-sectional area.
Fig. 4. Graph of Resistance vs Area
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Precautions:
Use wires of the same material and equal length for proper
comparison.
Handle thin wires carefully to avoid bends or breaks.
Keep the connections clean and tight.
Start with low current to prevent heating of fine wires.
Sources of Error:
Difficulty in measuring exact cross-sectional area of very thin
wires.
Variations in wire material quality may affect results.
Parallax error in meter readings.
Increase in resistance due to slight heating in thin wires.
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Material Resistivity
Resistivity (ρ) is a fundamental property of materials that determines how
strongly they oppose the flow of electric current. Unlike resistance, which
depends on both the material and the physical dimensions of a
conductor, resistivity is an intrinsic property that remains the same
regardless of the size or shape of the sample. It is measured in ohm-
metres (Ω·m) and is given by:
R = ρ L/A
where L is the length of the conductor, A is its cross-sectional area, and R
is the measured resistance.
Materials with low resistivity, such as copper (1.68 x 10 -8 ω·m) and silver
(1.59 x 10 -8 ω·m), allow electrons to flow easily, making them ideal for
electrical wiring. On the other hand, materials like nichrome (≈ 1.1 x 10 -6
ω·m) have a much higher resistivity, causing them to oppose current flow
significantly. This property makes nichrome suitable for heating elements,
where electrical energy is intentionally converted into heat.
Resistivity depends on the atomic structure of the material and the
number of free electrons available for conduction. Metals generally have
high conductivity (low resistivity), while alloys and non-metals have lower
conductivity (high resistivity). By comparing the resistance of wires made
from different materials but of the same dimensions, we can
experimentally determine the influence of resistivity on electrical
performance.
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Experiment 3
Effect of Material on Resistance
Aim:
Compare the resistance of wires (same length & diameter) made of
copper, aluminium, nichrome.
Materials Required:
DC supply (0–6 V), rheostat, key, ammeter (0–1 A), voltmeter (0–5 V),
connecting leads, crocodile clips, meter scale, screw gauge, 3 wires (e.g.,
50 cm, SWG 26): Cu, Al, NiCr, emery paper.
Theory:
The resistance of a wire depends on the material it is made of, due to a
property called resistivity. Materials like copper have low resistivity and
allow current to pass easily, while alloys like nichrome have higher
resistivity and oppose current flow more strongly. If wires of the same
length and thickness but of different materials are tested, the difference
in resistance is only because of their resistivity. Using Ohm’s law, this
resistance can be calculated by taking the ratio of voltage to current.
Procedure:
1.Measure and keep same L and d for all three wires; clean ends.
2.Set up circuit as shown in diagram.
3.For copper, take 4–5 V-I readings at low voltages; compute R=V/I.
4.Repeat for aluminium and nichrome (same L, d, similar voltage
range).
Fig. 5. Circuit Diagram
15
Observation Table:
For Copper:
Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
0.50 0.62 0.81
0.80 0.98 0.82
1.10 1.34 0.82
1.40 1.72 0.81
1.70 2.08 0.82
For Aluminium:
Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
0.50 0.45 1.11
0.80 0.72 1.11
1.10 1.00 1.12
1.40 1.26 1.11
1.70 1.54 1.12
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For Nichrome:
Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
0.50 0.19 2.63
0.80 0.30 2.67
1.10 0.41 2.68
1.40 0.52 2.69
1.70 0.64 2.66
Calculations:
For Copper: 0.81 + 0.82 + 0.82 + 0.81 + 0.82 /5 ≈ 0.82 Ω
For Aluminium: 1.11 + 1.12 + 1.12 + 1.11 + 1.11 /5 ≈ 1.11 Ω
For Nichrome: 2.63 + 2.67 + 2.68 + 2.69 + 2.66 /5 ≈ 2.67 Ω
Result:
For identical L and A : RCu < RAl < RNiCr ⇒ρ Cu < ρAl < ρNiCr
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Fig. 6. Graph of Resistance vs Resistivity of Materials
Precautions:
All wires must be of same length and thickness to
ensure fair comparison.
Use fresh, untarnished wires as oxidation may alter
resistivity.
Avoid loose or overlapping wire connections.
Take multiple readings and calculate average to
reduce random errors.
18
Sources of Error:
Impurities in the material of wire.
Small inaccuracies in dimensions of the wires.
Oxidation or corrosion layer increasing resistance.
Instrument calibration error in voltmeter/ammeter.
19
Temperature and Resistance
The resistance of a conductor is not constant; it changes with
temperature. For most metallic conductors, resistance increases as
temperature rises. This is due to increased vibration of the metal atoms at
higher temperatures, which leads to more frequent collisions between
free electrons and the fixed atomic lattice, thereby hindering electron
flow. This effect is quantified using the temperature coefficient of
resistance (α), defined as the fractional change in resistance per degree
Celsius:
RT = R0 ( 1 + α ΔT)
where RT is the resistance at temperature T, R0 is the resistance at a
reference temperature (usually 0°C or 25°C), and ΔT is the temperature
change.
For metals, α is positive, meaning resistance increases with temperature.
In contrast, for semiconductors and insulators, α is negative — their
resistance decreases with increasing temperature due to an increase in
charge carriers.
The temperature dependence of resistance is an important factor in
electrical engineering and material selection. For example, in power
transmission lines, conductors may carry more resistance at midday due
to heat, leading to energy loss. Similarly, precision measuring instruments
must account for temperature variations to ensure accuracy. In this
project, we experimentally observe this relationship using a nichrome coil
heated in water, verifying that for metals, resistance indeed rises with
temperature.
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Experiment 4
Effect of Temperature on Resistance
Aim:
Study how resistance of a nichrome coil changes with temperature and
estimate the temperature coefficient alpha (qualitatively).
Materials Required:
Nichrome coil (~2 Ω), DC supply, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, key, beaker
with water, thermometer, burner/hot plate, glass rod (stirrer),
stand/clamps.
Theory:
The resistance of metals increases with temperature. When heated, metal
atoms vibrate more, causing more collisions with free electrons and
restricting their movement. This makes current flow harder and resistance
rises, showing a positive temperature coefficient. In this experiment, the
resistance of a nichrome coil is measured at different temperatures to
observe this increase.
Procedure:
1.Immerse coil fully in water; thermometer tip near coil (not touching).
2.At room temp (~25°C), set small steady current; note V, I; compute
R_0=V/I.
3.Heat water gradually to 35°C, 45°C, 55°C, 65°C. At each T, stir, wait ~30
s, take quick V and I, compute R=V/I.
Fig. 7. Circuit Diagram
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Observation Table:
T (°C) Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)
25 0.8 0.40 2.00
35 0.8 0.38 2.11
45 0.8 0.36 2.22
55 0.8 0.35 2.29
65 0.8 0.34 2.35
Result:
Resistance increases with temperature for the metallic conductor
(positive temperature coefficient).
Fig. 8. Graph of Resistance vs Temperature
22
Precautions:
Heat the coil gradually to avoid sudden expansion and
breakage.
Use a thermometer with proper range and accuracy.
Ensure uniform heating of the coil throughout.
Disconnect the circuit after each reading to prevent
overheating.
Sources of Error:
Uneven heating of the wire leading to wrong values.
Loss of heat to surroundings causing inaccurate temperature
measurement.
Lag in thermometer response.
Resistance of connecting wires affecting results slightly.
23
Conclusion
From all four experiments conducted, it is evident that the resistance of a
conductor is influenced by multiple interdependent factors. We observed
that resistance increases linearly with the length of the conductor, while it
decreases inversely with the cross-sectional area, confirming the
fundamental relationship R = ρ L/A. The choice of material also proved
significant, as different substances exhibited different resistivities, with
copper offering the least resistance and nichrome the highest, in line with
their intrinsic properties. Additionally, resistance was found to increase
with temperature, highlighting the role of lattice vibrations in hindering
electron flow. These results collectively validate Ohm’s law and the
concept of resistivity, establishing that resistance is not a fixed property
but a variable dependent on physical dimensions, material type, and
environmental conditions. Such understanding has practical applications
in electrical circuit design, heating devices, and material selection in
engineering, ensuring efficiency and safety in real-world systems.
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Inference
Through this project, we verified fundamental theoretical relationships
governing the resistance of conductors. Our experiments clearly
demonstrated that:
Resistance increases proportionally with the length of the conductor,
confirming the direct relationship R∝ L.
Resistance decreases with an increase in cross-sectional area,
supporting the inverse relationship R∝ 1/A.
The type of material plays a decisive role, with metals like copper
having much lower resistance compared to alloys like nichrome.
For metallic conductors, an increase in temperature results in an
increase in resistance, consistent with the positive temperature
coefficient of resistance for metals.
The data obtained from all four experiments closely matched the
expected theoretical predictions, with minor deviations due to
instrumental and human errors such as contact resistance, imperfect
wire measurements, or fluctuations in the power supply.
We also learned practical laboratory skills: correct use of measuring
instruments, handling of circuits, and methods to reduce experimental
errors. This project not only consolidated our conceptual knowledge of
resistance but also connected textbook theory to real-world electrical
behavior. The relationships established here form the basis for
numerous applications, from designing efficient electrical cables to
manufacturing resistive heating devices.
In conclusion, the experimental results validate the theoretical models
for resistance dependence on length, cross-sectional area, material,
and temperature. The project highlights how fundamental
physical laws manifest in simple laboratory setups
and extend to everyday electrical applications.
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Bibliography
1.NCERT Physics Class XII, Part 1 & 2.
2.Resnick, Halliday & Walker, Fundamentals of Physics.
3.Practical Physics Manual – CBSE Class XII.
4.Online resource: www.physicsclassroom.com.
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