Governing Equations – Confined and Unconfined
Aquifers
Darcy’s Law
q = -K (dh/dl)
where:
• q = specific discharge
• K = hydraulic conductivity
• h = hydraulic head
• l = distance
Confined Aquifer
∂²h/∂x² + ∂²h/∂y² = (S/T)(∂h/∂t)
where:
• T = Kb (transmissivity, with b = thickness of aquifer)
• S = storage coefficient
Unconfined Aquifer
∂/∂x (K h ∂h/∂x) + ∂/∂y (K h ∂h/∂y) = Sy (∂h/∂t)
where:
• h = saturated thickness (varies with time)
• Sy = specific yield
Radial Flow to Wells
Confined Aquifer:
Q = (2πT (h1 - h2)) / ln(r2/r1)
Unconfined Aquifer:
Q = (πK (h1² - h2²)) / ln(r2/r1)
Dupuit’s Assumptions (for Unconfined Aquifer Flow)
• Flow lines are horizontal
• Hydraulic gradient = slope of free surface
• Vertical component of flow is negligible
Transcription of Handwritten Notes – Groundwater Flow
Page 1
Groundwater flow equation – Confined aquifer.
The law of conservation of mass is used to derive the equation.
Continuity principle states: Input − Output = Storage change.
Any change in the mass flowing into a small volume of the aquifer must be balanced by the
corresponding change in mass flow out of the volume or a change in the mass stored in the volume, or
both.
Consider a control volume with sides dx, dy and dz. The areas of the faces normal to the x, y and z axes
are dy·dz, dx·dz and dx·dy respectively.
The aquifer is considered to be homogeneous and isotropic.
Let q_x, q_y and q_z be the specific discharges (flow per unit cross■sectional area) in the x, y and z
directions.
Mass inflow in the x direction is ρ_w q_x dy dz. Mass outflow in the x direction is ρ_w q_x dy dz + ∂/∂x
(ρ_w q_x dy dz) dx. Similar expressions apply for y and z.
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Net accumulation of mass in the x direction equals −∂/∂x (ρ_w q_x) dx dy dz. Likewise for y and z.
Total net accumulation is −[ ∂(ρ_w q_x)/∂x + ∂(ρ_w q_y)/∂y + ∂(ρ_w q_z)/∂z ] dx dy dz.
Let M be the mass of water in the control volume. Then M = ρ_w n dx dy dz, where n is porosity.
The rate of change of mass in the control volume is dM/dt = d/dt (ρ_w n dx dy dz).
Changes in M arise from: (i) compression/expansion of the aquifer skeleton in the z direction; (ii)
compression/expansion of water. Hence dx and dy are constants.
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Define compressibility of water β = (1/ρ_w) dρ_w/dp and compressibility of the aquifer skeleton α = (1/∆b)
d(∆b)/dp, where ∆b is change in thickness in the z direction and p is pressure head.
Because p = ρ_w g h and dp = ρ_w g dh (neglecting changes of ρ_w inside dp), combining relations gives
dρ_w = β ρ_w g dh and d(∆b) = α ρ_w g dh.
Using these, the time rate of change of mass in the control volume becomes dM/dt = ρ_w g (α + n β) dx
dy dz · ∂h/∂t.
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Substituting the storage term into the continuity balance yields:
−( ∂q_x/∂x + ∂q_y/∂y + ∂q_z/∂z ) = ρ_w g (α + n β) · ∂h/∂t / ρ_w = S_s ∂h/∂t, where S_s = ρ_w g (α + n β)
is the specific storage.
From Darcy’s law: q_x = −K_x ∂h/∂x, q_y = −K_y ∂h/∂y and q_z = −K_z ∂h/∂z.
Therefore the general 3■D transient groundwater■flow equation is:
∂/∂x (K_x ∂h/∂x) + ∂/∂y (K_y ∂h/∂y) + ∂/∂z (K_z ∂h/∂z) = S_s ∂h/∂t.
For a homogeneous, isotropic aquifer K_x = K_y = K_z = K; hence K ∇²h = S_s ∂h/∂t.
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In steady state there is no change in head with time, so ∂h/∂t = 0 and the equation reduces to Laplace’s
equation: ∇²h = 0.
For unconfined aquifers, transmissivity varies with saturated thickness h (T = K h).
The governing equation becomes: ∂/∂x (K h ∂h/∂x) + ∂/∂y (K h ∂h/∂y) = S_y ∂h/∂t, where S_y is the
specific yield.
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General governing equation for groundwater flow in an unconfined aquifer (after N. Kresic).
Consider a representative elementary volume (REV) of a homogeneous, isotropic, unconfined aquifer
resting on an impermeable horizontal base. The aquifer is subjected to a vertical gain or loss w (recharge
positive, evaporation negative) with units of L/T (e.g., mm/day).
Let H be the hydraulic head measured from a reference level at the base; in an unconfined aquifer H ≈ h
(the saturated thickness).
Inflow volumes across the faces are q_x dy dt and q_y dx dt; outflow volumes are (q_x + ∂q_x/∂x dx) dy
dt and (q_y + ∂q_y/∂y dy) dx dt.
Mass balance: inflow − outflow + w dx dy dt = change in storage.
Storage change in the REV equals S dH/dt · dx dy for confined conditions or S_y dH/dt · dx dy for
unconfined drainage.
Using Darcy’s law, q_x = −K h ∂H/∂x and q_y = −K h ∂H/∂y. Substitution gives:
K [ ∂/∂x (h ∂H/∂x) + ∂/∂y (h ∂H/∂y) ] + w = S_y ∂H/∂t.
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Using the identity ∂/∂x (h ∂H/∂x) = (1/2) ∂²(H²)/∂x² and similarly for y, the equation can be written as:
∂²(H²)/∂x² + ∂²(H²)/∂y² = −(2 w)/K + (2 S_y/K) ∂H/∂t. (Boussinesq form, small■slope approximation).
If aquifer thickness B is approximately constant relative to head change, T = K B and the equation
becomes:
∂²H/∂x² + ∂²H/∂y² = −w/T + (S/T) ∂H/∂t. (Confined/linearized form).
These are collectively referred to as Boussinesq equations.
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The governing equations are derived by combining: (a) the linear resistance relationship (Darcy’s law)
with (b) the storage/continuity equation.
Assumptions commonly used for deriving the general groundwater■flow equation:
(a) The porous medium (aquifer matrix) is effectively incompressible for steady■state analyses
(compressibility is included via S_s for transient cases).
(b) Density of water is constant.
(c) Velocity of the solid skeleton is negligible compared with the groundwater velocity.
(d) Components of groundwater velocity vary smoothly with x, y and z.
