PRE HISTORIC CULTURE

 Prehistory: No written evidence. Ex: Stone Age (upto 2500BC)

 Proto history written evidence but cannot be deciphered. Ex: IVC(2500-600BC)
 History: written evidence able to understand. Historians will study this age.(600BC-Tilldate)
Father of History-Herodotus.

MOST PRIMITIVE MAN

It was evolved in Pliocene epoch in South Africa.
 Australopithecus -African Ape man.
o Also known as Southern ape. Around four million years ago.
o Cranial Capacity = 400 - 550.
Ist man who stood erect, Ist man who lived in cave. Ist man who
hunted the animals by tools
lucy- known as mother of man.
 Zinjanthropus Man - (African Ape Man)
o Fossil was discovered in Tanzania.
o Used stone tools for the first time. So it is known as
first tool maker.
o He is oldest prehistoric man.
o He is true ansestor of human evolution.
Oldest prehistoric man = homohabilis
APE MAN (Homoerectus): Upright man. He was evolved in Pleistocene epoch. 2 to 0.5 million years ago.
It was also the first known hominin to migrate out of Africa. Discovery of fire
 Java ape man: Home erectus-erectus.
 Peking ape man (Sinanthropus pekinensis):
o Cranial capacity=1000-1200 - 1300
o First used fire and first control fire.
 Heidelberg Man - Europian varient
o Cranial capacity = 1350 cc
o It is supposed to be the connecting link between Ape man & Man or between Homo erectus and
Neanderthal
FULL BRAIN MAN
 Neanderthal man - Cranial capacity = 1450 cc.
o Face was long (nearly to modern man).
o He burried the dead bodies first.
 Cromagnan Man: Homo-sapien-fossalis
o Immediate ancestor of modern man. Cave painting was done by him.
He was an artist.
o First religious man believed in the soul is immortal.
o He was a clothing user. Largest cranial capacity i.e, 1660 - 1800 cc.
He was weapon user.
o He started communal life.
o He started social life.
o Early signs of evolution of 3 races: Caucessoid, Mongoloid, negroid.

Modern Man - Homosapiens Cranial capacity - 1470 c.c.

 Paleolithic age:
 Term paleolithic was coined by John lubbock.
 Robert Bruce Foote- pallavaram in
Tamilnadu.
 father of prehistoric archaeology in India.
 also called "Quartzite Men".
 Bands of hunters.
 Race: Homo sapiens.
 Palaeolithic- three periods- nature of stone
tools and changes in the climate and
environment.
o Lower Paleolithic (Up to 100000BC)
o Middle Paleolithic(100000BC-40000BC)
Lower Paleolithic: Quartzite for making tools.
o Upper Paleolithic(40000-10000BC)
 Chopper-Chopping Pebble Culture (Sohan
Culture)-west Punjab (Pakistan).Ex: Pebble,
Chopper
 Hand Axe culture (Madrasian culture)- found
firstly at Badmadurai & Attirampakkam of
Madras, that's why it is also called 'Madrasian
Culture‘
 Cleaver:
 During this period this man discovered fire.
 Homo habilis transformed into Homo erectus.
IMP SITES:
 Belan valley: UP & MP
 Potwar plateau in Punjab
 Riwat-soan valley
 Shivalik hills in himachal Pradesh
 Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool, Chittur, Nagarjunikonda,
Kadappa, Nellore, Prakasham,
 Telangana: Nalgonda, Mehboob Nagar districts
 Bagar-Rajasthan
 Bhimbetka-MP
Middle Paleolithic: 'Flake Culture'.
• From Homo Erectus, he transformed into Homo Sapien
Neanderthalensis.
 The implements made from flakes: Scraper, Burin, Borer etc.
IMP SITES:
 Bhimbetka-MP
 Sighbhum-Jharkhand
 Soan valley-pakistan.
 Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool,Chittur, Kadappa, Nellore,
Prakasam etc districts.

Upper Palaeolithic 'Flake-Blade [Link] were used to hunt animals from far

IMP SITES:
 Sohan valley-pakistan
 Yeleswaram in Telangana
 Belan valley-UP & MP
 Bhimbetka-MP
 Andhra Pradesh: Renigunta, Bemula, Yerragondapalem, Caves (Bila Surganum-remains of Hearth, this
is the earliest site of hearth finding in India) of Kurnool, Muchchhtala Chintamanugavi cave shelter
(The richest site of bone-horn-made implements remains finding from Upper/later Paleolithic sites of
India), Betam Cherla.
Paleolithic paintings:
 Petroglyph- paintings.
 Bheembetaka paintings in Madhya Pradesh-
Palaeolithic paintings discovered by WS
Wakonkar.
Mesolithic Age (10000-8000 BC)
 John Evans.
 In Mesolithic Age Agate, Zasper, Chert,
Chalcedony etc. were used as raw materials to
make stone implements in place of Quartzite.
 Transition phase between glacial and warm
climate Earth is becoming warmer.
 Characterized by microliths(1-8cm), around 2
inches.
 Domestication of animals: Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan-earliest evidence
 Burial of the Dead: Sarainahar Rai & Mahdaha of Pratapgarh district (Uttar Pradesh).
 Adamgarh-the skeleton of the dog are found with a human skeleton.
 At first the man tamed (domesticated) the dog.
 Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Partapgarh and Mirzapur are rich in Mesolithic art and paintings.
 Mesolithic paintings: more finner than Palaeolithic paintings red colour was dominantly used. They
used Red coloured painted pottery.
 Andhra Pradesh: Situated in Guntur district. Nagarjunakonda, Kurnool district, Giddlur, Situated in
Chittoor district-Renigunta. Gouri gundam. Ramagundam in Telangana.
Neolithic Age:
 Dr. Primrose. polished stone knives & arrow-heads.
 V. Gordon Childe- 'Neolithic Revolution.
 Three chief characteristics of human life of Neolithic Age were-Crop cultivation (Agriculture), Animal
husbandry & Fixed abode.
 Mehrgarh (Bolan district, Baluchistan Province, Pakistan) is the earliest known village site of the Indian
subcontinent.
 Use of polished stone tools.
 Developments in agriculture: The oldest evidence of Wheat and Barley cultivation was found from
Mehargarh (Bolan district, Baluchistan Province, Pakistan) in Indian subcontinent.
 The oldest evidence of the paddy cultivation-Koldihawa (Allahabad district, Uttar Pradesh) in the Indian
subcontinent as well as the world.
 An important invention-making of the wheel.
 Domestication of animals: Dog is first domesticated animal.
 Pottery: In 4000 BC Neolithic men invented the potter's wheel.
 oldest evidence of cotton in the world was found from mehargarh.
 Houses: lived in huts made on the ground by bamboos and smearing of clay. In Burzahom and
Gufkaral of Kashmir and Saraikhola of Punjab pit dwelling was seen.
 Mehgarh in Baluchistan (Pakistan) is
the oldest Neolithic site in Indian
subcontinent (700 BC).
 Chiran (bihar): bone tools
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE (4000BC-1000BC)
 intermediary phase between the Neolithic and Bronze age periods.
 During this period along with stone for the first time copper was used in making tools.
 Gordon Childe- 'Second Revolution'.
 First used metal was copper in 5000 BC
The discovery of copper led to the invention of furnace
 The Chalco-lithic age is divided into three stages
 Pre-Harappan Age: 3,500 BC-2,500 BC
 Harappan Age : 2,500 BC -1,750 BC
 Post Harappan Age : 2,000 BC -1,000 BC
Iron Age: 1000 BC-500 BC
Iron-using Cultures: The names of the cultures associated with the Iron Age are-Painted Grey Ware-PGW
Culture, Northern Black Polished Ware-NBPW Culture and Megalith Culture (South India).
Megalith Culture of South India: 1,000 BC-100 AD
Graves or memorials made from large pieces of stone.
 In 1851 & 1862 Colonel Meadows Taylor-excavations of Megalith graves/ memorials of Shorapur doab
situated in Gulbarga district of Karnataka state.
 Archaeologist Alexander Rea excavated two megalith sites-Adichchannalur situated on the bank of
Tamraparni river in Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu during 1889 to 1905 and Perumbur during 1904
to 1908.
 In 1947 archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler excavated Brahmagiri situated in Chitradurg district of
Karnataka.
The important types of Megalith are
Menhir: large stone of column size is erected on the
grave. more than 1.5 meter.
In the local language, Menhir is called 'Nadu-Kal'.
Such types of graves/memorials are found in the
regions of Maski and Gulbarga.
Hood Stone: grave/memorial looks like a hood of the snake, therefore it is named 'Hood
Stone'. 'Kudai Kal'.
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala.
Umbrella Stone: grave/memorial looks like an
umbrella.
'Topi-Kal'.
Ariyannur and Chermangarh in Kerala state.

Dolmen: Dolmen is a word of Keltic language.

Dolmen means 'Table of Stone'.
Brahmagiri of Karnataka and Chingelpattu of Tamil
Nadu
Cairn Circle: 'Nidai Kal Teddi'.
Chingelpattu of Tamil Nadu.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 Bronze Age civilization.
 Harappa civilization-1921.
 Proto historic civilization:
 IVC mentioned as Meluha in
Sumerian Civilization.
 John Marshall was the first
scholar to use the term Indus
Civilization
'Indus-Saraswati' or 'Sindhu-
Saraswati'

Area: its area is 1299600 km square

 area of IVC is closer to triangular in shape.

Early Harappan Phase (3000 BCE-2600 BCE)

 1. The Kot-Diji culture: This is the largest among the early Harappan cultures. It is spread from the
North Western Frontier Province (NWFP) to the Punjab and northern Sindh in Pakistan.
 2. Sothi-Siswal culture: It had its settlements in northern Rajasthan, India's Punjab and Haryana.
 3. Amri-Nal culture: This is found in Baluchistan and central and southern Sindh, with extensions in
Gujarat.
 First, there was a notable advancement in agriculture. Ox was used in agriculture and to pull a cart.
 At Kalibangan and RehmanDheri barley and wheat were cultivated as 'rabi' crops.
 In SothiSiswal province sorghum millet (jowar) was cultivated as 'kharif' crop.
 Ovens including tandoors, have been found at Kalibangan (Early Indus phase), taking the history of
bread-making in India back to nearly 5,000 years ago.
 use of the vertical wheel-heavy transport
 Pottery was the most prominent craft product. Wheel-made pottery dominates in all the three early
Indus cultures, However, stone was the chief material for the making of tools and tool-kits.
 Defensive walls were noticed at Kot-Diji, Kalibangan and Rehman Dheri.
few differences among these cultures. For example, Hakra pottery culture in Punjab is more extensive and
consistent than its settlements. Mud brick were used in construction here. But in Kalibangan, burnt
bricks were used extensively.
At the end of the Neolithic phase, copper was discovered laying foundations for the beginning of the
Chalcolithic phase. Harappan urbanization/civilization belongs to this phase. During the Chalcolithic
phase Harappan civilization made a tremendous progress and spread to several parts of the subcontinent.
Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE-1900 BCE)
There is rich material evidence to show that Harappa and Mohenjo Daro were the 'first cities' which
underwent urbanization during the mature phase
Urban planning of IVC/Town Planning
 Mohenjo Daro and Harappa are the ancient cities.
 Both the cities were surrounded by strong citadel.
 Inside the citadel were laid parallel roads in the north-south and east-west directions.
 Kitchens and bathrooms in the houses face towards the road side.
 Cities sewerage/drainage system. Soakage pits were also seen at several places.
 Houses were built with burnt and sun-dried bricks.
 The houses rectangular in plan- with a courtyard in the middle.
 There was a provision for fire place (hamams) in some houses.
 Mohenjo Daro- 'Great Bath' for community bathing.
 The Indus towns-two parts: western side citadel (acropolis) created on the up raised platform.
 On the eastern side- lower town city.
 Lower town was divided into various sectors. Network of roads in grid pattern.
 Chandhodaro only city does not have citadel.
 Dholavira the city into 3 parts.
 Except banavali all cities built in grid pattern.
 Except banavali every city had drainage system.
 single storied house, double storey house and even triple storey house.
 Burnt bricks- [Link].
 Granaries
Economy:
 Agriculture based economy.
 Wheat barley millet, Rye sesame, cotton, peas, and melons. Cotton was the most important crop.
 Agriculture-Subsistence
 Evidence of ploughed field at Shortughai in Afghanistan.
 Plough-kalibangan(a field with plough marks) and banavali(Terracotta replica of a plough).
 First culture to access underground water secured by wells-Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro. In the villages
'kutcha' wells were dug.
 Crops like cereals, wheat, barley, pulses, oilseeds, flax, beans were grown as 'rabi' crops.
 'kharif' crops such as millets (bajra), jowar, ragi, maize, oilseeds, sesame, fibre, cotton, mustard were
cultivated,
 Rice where cultivated only yet rangapur (Rice husk) and lothal (Rice grain).
 Wheat and barley are the main crops.
 The ox not only drew the plough and pulled the cart but was also used as a major source of animal food
for the Indus people. They also consumed the meat of sheep, goats and pigs.
The agriculture commondities were exported to Oman, Sumer (bhagdad), Dilmun(Baharain),
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Afghanistan, Magan region (Iran coast).
 Sugarcane was not known to Indus people.
Handicraft Production
 The Indus people alloyed copper with tin in order to obtain bronze.
 Copper, tin, gold and silver was known to the Indus valley people.
 Tin was imported from Afghanistan. gold and silver from Mesopotamia. Copper was abundantly
available in India from the Khetri and Jhunjhunu copper mines.
 Ornaments and jewellery. They were aware of precious and semi-precious stones like Amethyst, lapis
lazuli carnelian stone and common stones like steatite.
 Beads and Amulets
 Chanhudaro's flourishing bead industry was there.
 The Kalibangan bangles industry is made.
 Ship building industry in Lothal.
 The third important raw material was wood- made carpentry products like, toys, wheeled carts and
boats.
Potter’s craft-After agriculture, this was the largest employing profession.
Textile' industry
 Harappan people were the first to use cotton in the production of textiles. Greeks called it as Sindon.
Fragments of dyed woven cotton was recovered from Mohenjo Daro.
 'Priest-King' who was covered with an embroidered robe.
 Indigo was evident from Rojdi and exported to Egypt.
 There were three centres of textile industry alamgirpur, kalibangan and mohenjo daro.
 Evidence of horse was found in lotal (Terracotta horse) and Surkotado (skeleton of horse was found).

Trade:
Local village-town trade:
Long-distance trade within the territory of the civilization:
 Semi-precious stones like agate and cornelian from Ratnapur mines were supplied not only to Lothal,
but also to Kuntasi and ChanhuDaro as raw materials for bead manufacturers there.
 Exports: Several items like cotton textiles, perfumes, pepper and slaves were exported from Harappa
and Mohenjo Daro to Mesopotamia and Egypt.
 Imports: Harappan people imported Alabaster (white stone) from Baluchistan, Afghanistan, steatite for
manufacturing etched beads, silver, gold, zinc, lead, Lapis lazuli, vermillion from Afghanistan
 A dockyard constructed with bricks at Lothal in Gujarat
Harappan Towns Associated with Different Industries
 Levan and Sukkur: Stone tools factory.
 Daimabad: Bronze industry, bronze chariot.
 Lothal: Stone tools factory; Factory for metallic finished.
 Balakot: Factory for pearl finished goods, Bangle's Shell Industry.
 Chanhudaro: Beads factory; Pearl finished goods factory; Metallic finished goods factory; Bangle's
factory.
Society:
 It was a class based society.
 Equality of opportunity and mobility in the society.
 The authority in the society is unclear:
 John Marshall- Matriarchal society.
 Cosmetics which includes lipstick, soap, kajal, sindoor-cinnabar (Hgcl2).
 tincture (Hg2Cl2)
 herbal medicines.

Polity:
 No evidence of monarchical system-central authority was there.
 D D Kaushambi: preisty class are rulers that is theocracy.
 R S Sharma: merchant are rulers.
Culture: Script, Art, Religion
Script and Language
 It is one of the world's four earliest known scripts.
 Un deciphered, Script is Pictographic. Fish symbol is most represented.
 "Boustrophedon".
 A signboard inscription bearing 10
pictographs- Dholavira in Gujarat.
Art:
bronze figure of The Dancing Girl' found at
Mohenjo Daro.

 small size artefacts.

Harappan Seals
 Geometrical objects-steatite (soft stone).
 Unicorn is the animal.
 Bull seal is from Mohenjodaro.

 Steatite image of a bearded man- Mohenjodaro.

Terracotta Figurines:
Fire baked clay
Religion:
 'unicorn which is a humpless bull with single horn-religious
importance.
 Mohenjo Daro-three-faced deity in human form seated in yogic
posture-rhinoceres and water buffalo on one side, and an elephant
and tiger on the other. 'Pasupati' 'the lord of the beasts' or 'protector
of cattle". This image was identified as proto Shiva/ Pashupati
Mahadeva having three faces and two horns.
 Kalibangan was shown a woman goddess possessing a tiger's body
adorned with buffalo horns.
 Mohenjo Daro depicted 'Pipal' tree.
 Human sacrifices-finding of a jar having the skull of a woman aged
about 20 years at ChanhuDaro, testifies this fact.
 Water was used for ritual purification.
 Terracotta figurines of 'Mother Goddess'-goddess of fertility.
 Lingam and yoni worship.
 No temple has been found though idolatry was practised.
Worshiped both male and female deities.
Shamanic practices-amulets, Animal sacrifices.
Weights and measurements:
 16 is the [Link] one rupee is 16 anas. 1 Sare is 16 chakals.
Large number of chert cubes were found in Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. The basic unit of weight was
13.63 grams. Other units of weights that were available were of 1, 2, 4, 10, 20, 40, 100, 200, 400, 500,
800. Apart from these weights measuring fraction of 1/16, 1/8 were also found. A workshop of weights
and measures was found at ChanhuDaro. Graduated scales were prepared for linear measures.
 These were made of shell (Mohenjo Daro), bronze (Harappa) and ivory (Lothal).

Technology and Craft

 painted (red and black) pottery was made.

Burial practices
 north-south direction with the head usually placed towards the north.
 Mohenjodaro 3 forms of burial-complete, fractional and post cremation.
 Kalibangan 2 forms of burial-circular and rectangular grove.
 Surkotada Pot-burial.
 Lothal Double burial
 Harappa East-west axis; R-37 and H cemetery, coffin burial
Late Harappan Phase: (1900 BCE- 1700 BCE):
Decline of Indus Civilization:
Political causes:The theory of Aryan invasion-Mortimer Wheeler.
Natural Calamities:
 The traces of floods-Mohenjo Daro and ChanhuDaro and Lothal. Gurdip Singh- theory of aridity a wet
phase was replaced by a dry one with much less rainfall- Saraswati river dried up.
 V.N. Misra-desertion of the Ghaggar by the Yamuna and Sutlej that led to the drying up of the Ghaggar
Hakra rivers.
Environmental Causes:
 W.A. Fairservis, Kenneth A.R. Kennedy proposed- over-cultivated, over grazed and deforested.
 Robert Sherar, the cessation of trade with Mesopotamia after 2000 BCE.
IVC in different Areas:
 Sindh: Mohenjodaro, Amri, Kot Diji, Rehman Dheri, Sukkur, Allahdino,Chanhudaro
 Baluchistan: Mehrgarh, Damb Sadaat,Kulli, Dabar Kot, Balakot.
 Afghanistan: Mundigak, Shortu Ghai
 West Punjab: Harappa, Ganeriwala, Rehman Dheri
 Gujrat: Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotada Bhagatrav, Rangpur, Rojadi, Desalpur, prabhas patan.
 Uttar Pradesh: Alamgirpur
 Haryana Rakhigarhi, Bhagwanpura
 Rajasthan Kalibangan, Banawali.
 Punjab Ropar
 Jammu and Kashmir Manda
 Maharashtra: Daimabad
Characteristic Features of some IVC Sites
Mohenjodaro (Sind)
 largest site of the Harappan Civilization-RD Banerjee in 1922.
 Mohenjodaro means "Mound of the dead" in Sindhi language,
 The Great bath of Mohenjodaro- 39 feet (Length) 23 feet (Breadth) and 8 feet (Depth).
 The Great Granary
 multi pillared assembly hall and a big rectangular building.
 Other findings are Pashupati Seal, bronze image of a dancing girl, 3 cylindrical seals and steatite image
of a bearded man, lay figures of Mother Godless, Dice.
 Mohenjodaro along with Harappa has been hailed as the twin capitals and Kalibangan as its subsidiary
centre.
Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan)
 Ifirst Indus site to be discovered- 1921-Dayaram sahani- Ravi river (leftbank).
 The granaries
 single roomed quarters
 A red sand stone naked Male Torso.
 Hariyupiya of Rig Veda (Book VI).
 'Gateway city'.
 Two types of burial practices, one- R 37 type and other H type cemetry is
seen.
 stone symbol of lingam and joni, Virgin Goddess (Seal), wheat and barley in
wooden mortar, copper scale and mirror, vanity box, lice, log chasing a deer
(in bronze), nude male and nude dancing female (stone).
Dholavira (Gujarat)
 J P Joshi in 1967- river Luni.
 City divided in to three sections.
 Findings: Giant Reservoirs, 10-alphabet sign board,
megalith burial and evidences of irrigation, dams and
embankments, Stadium, figure of chariot tied to a
pair of bullocks and driven by human.
Lothal (Gujarat)
 S R Rao in 1957-Bhogava and Sabarmati.
 Dockyard, the worlds first tidal port.
 cultivation of rice (1800 BC) (rice husk has been found is Rangpur near Ahmedabad).
 A sacrificial fire altar is also found both in Lothal and Kalibanga.
 'Persian Gulf Seal' and terracotta model of Egyption Mummies.
 Metal Workers, shell ornament makers, bead makers shops, copper furnaces, double burials, tusk of
elephant, terracotta figure of horse, dying vat, painted jar (bird and fox) and chess boards have also
been discovered.
 It is known as Manchester of Harappan Civilization for its cotton trade.
Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
 B B Lal in 1957-Ghaggar (leftbank)
 Black Bangle"
 Evidence of earliest ploughed field, mixed cropping, cylindrical seals and wells from every house. Camel
bones.
 7 fire altars and wheels of a toy carts are excavated.
Chanhudaro (Sind)
 M G Majumdar in 1931-Indus.
 Lancashire of India and it's the only Indus city without a citadel.
 Archaeologists have discovered here shops of shell ornament makers, bead makers and metal workers.
(Metal used was gold, silver, tin, copper, etc). major production centre for seals.
 A small pot- Inkpot but there is no conclusive proof about it.
 imprint of dog's paw on a brick.
 Lipstick, evidence of cat.
Ropar
 Y D Sharma in 1953-Sutlej.
 burying a dog with the human burial-Burial in oval shape.
Rakhigarhi (Haryana)
 On the banks of Ghaggar.
 'Provincial Capital'
 Largest Harappan site in the Indian subcontinent.
Banawali
R S Bist in 1974- saraswati.
 Both Pre Harappan and Harappan phase is found here.
 It is the only city with oval shaped settlement, radial streets, lack of systematic drainage pattern.
 Toy plough, clay figures of Mother Goddess, largest number of barley grains
Surkotada
 J P Joshi in 1970.
 Both citadel and lower town were fortified with stone wall.
 It provides the first actual remains of horse bones.
Amri
Daimabad
 M G Majumdar in 1929.
 On the banks of river Pravara. Bronze images of
 Pre-Harappan settlement
charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant and
Suktagendor rhinoceros are excavated from here.
 Discovered by Aurel stein in 1931.  Largest burial site of IVC in India.
 It was originally a sea port Lion not known to Indus people.
 VEDIC CIVILIZATION
ADVENT OF ARYANS 1500BC
 The term Aryan- linguistic community.
 The word 'Aryan' literally means of 'high birth'.
Birth place of Aryans:
 They are Nomadic and pastoralist.
 Various Aryan tribes migrated to the Indian through the famous Khyber Pass. They rapidly spread to
the area known as the Sapta Sindhu (the land of seven rivers),
 Aryans-use of horses and horse driven chariots. armour (varman). Use of destructive machine called
'Purcharishnu'
 Rigveda in which there is no mention of Aryans as invaders, but refers to the difference between the
Aryans and Dasyus
 Sanskrit had close affinity with Iranian (Persian), Latin, German, Greek, Lithuanian, and English
languages- Indo-European languages
 Great difference between the Indigenous and Aryan cultures.
 The Rig Vedic hymns tell us about the Aryans differences with dasa, dasyus, in terms of race, religion
and language
 In the inscriptions found at Kapadosia and Bhogazkot in West Asia, there were references to Aryan
Gods and goddesses like Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni and Aswins.
Various Views about origin of Aryans
 Sapta Sindhu Region-AC Das
 Arctic Region-BG Tilak
 Central Asia-Max Muller
 German Plains/Scandinavia-Prof Penka
 Tibet-Dayanand Saraswati.
 Foot of the Himalayas- Pandit Laxmidhar Shastri
Aryan Migrations Theories:
 Vedic scholar Winternitz-composition of Rig Veda-3000 BCE.
 The Aryans came in conflict with Dasas (branch of early Aryans) and Dasyus (original inhabitants of
India).
 Dasyuhatya-slaughter of the dasyus by the dasas.
 The Aryans fought with the dasa, dasyus defeated them and occupied Sapta Sindhu region. This region
was renamed as Aryavarta comprising present Kabul valley, Punjab, some portion of Kashmir and north
Rajasthan.
 Bharatas and Purus were the main tribes. These two tribes formed together as Kuru tribe. Kauravas
and Pandavas of the Mahabharat fame belonged to this tribe. The fight between these two families was
the famous Mahabharat war. Our Country was named as Bharat after the Bharata race of Aryan tribe.
 The main source- 4 main Vedas
 The Boghaz Koi inscriptions dated to 1400 BC gives the copy of
peace treaty between the Hitties and the Maryanni rulers of the
Mittani, in which the names of the Vedic Gods Indra, Mitra,
Nasatya and Varuna are mentioned. This proves that Central
Asia was their homeland.
Geographical location Early vedic period:
o The most important among these tribes were
the Bharatas. They occupied the region lying
between the rivers Saraswati and Yamuna.
o Trisu tribes settled east of Parushni river
(Ravi river).
o Purus occupied the land on both sides of river
 They also mentioned Sapta Sindhu (7
Saraswati.
rivers)
o On the North Western frontier were the
Gandharis. o Indus-Sindhu
 Just after their arrival Aryans composed Rigveda o Jhelum-VITASTA
which is the most important source of o CHENAB-ASHKINI
information about the early Vedic period. o RAVI-PARUSHANI
 In the Rigveda the mentioned Himalayas as o BEAS- VIPASA
Himavant, Mujvvant from which Aryans got o SUTLEJ-SHUTUDRI
Soma, an intoxicating drink. o SARASWATI- NADITARANA.
 Rig veda mentioned about Dhawa (Desert land)
Most important river is Indus. The most sacred river is Saraswati.
Ganga mentioned in rigveda for one time and Yamuna are also mentioned 3 times in rig Veda.

Early Vedic period: 1500-1000BC

Economy:
 Rig Vedic Aryans led a village life.
 The pastoral lands were collectively owned by the villagers.
 Cattle was the most important economic wealth of early Vedic Aryans.
 Gopa-king/master of cow, Cow (Gau) was the most important animal (mentioned 176 times in Rig
Veda), Gavisthi- search for cow, Godhuma- the one which originate from cow dung, Duhitri- milcher of
cow. Daughter was called as Duhitri, Aganya- not to be killed ( in relation with economic benefit of cow),
Goghana- one who feed upon cow generally guest.
 The second important wealth was agricultural commodities like barley (Yava) wheat (Godhuma).
 Shifting agriculture was practiced.
 There are references regarding use of bulls to draw the plough (Sira), sowing of seeds in the furrows
(Sita), cutting of the corn with the sickle (Datra) and use of Sieve (Titau) as well as winnowing fan
(Supra). Cultivated fields (Kshetra), fertile land (Urvara), manure (Karishu), wells (Aval/prapa), canal
(Kulya) were also know.
 Wells- irrigational facilities.
 Horses were used in agriculture.
Trade:
 India had trade relations with foreign countries.
 Even sea trade existed.
 Most of the trade was carried by 'Panis'. They were non-Aryans. They were also money-lenders and
hence were looked down by the Aryans. Panis formed the great trading class.
 Education of young boys usually started with the performance of Upanayana ceremony. Even medical
practice-important occupation- performing surgeries. tales of Aswini gods-powers of healing the
ailments. Rig Vedic
 Taxation: no formal taxation system. People voluntarily contributed to the chieftain- Bali or bhaga.
 Ayas (copper and bronze) was the common metal in use and metal smelters were called "Karmar".
 There were carpenters (Takshan) who made Chariots (Rathas) and boats (Nau). There were also
goldsmiths (Hiranyakara), potters, (Kulala), barbers (Vaptri), tanners (Charmamna), physician
(Bhishaka), and chariot maker (Rathakara).
 Nishkas, Hiranyapindas, Manas were used as recognized pieces of weights and value.
 Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) though Black and Red Ware type was known to them.
Polity:
 The Aryans established monarchical kingdoms.
 The leaders of Republican kingdoms were elected by the people. Head of tribal communities Rajan.
 The main duty of the king was to protect the people. People paid to the king a tax called 'Bali', the king
was assisted by Purohit and Senani. In all his political endeavours Rajan was assisted by three political
assemblies.
o Sabha: It was an exclusive assembly which consisted of elder members of the society. Women were
also part of the assembly. This was the most decisive assembly. It is like a cabinet.
o Samiti: it was an inclusive assembly but women were not part of this assembly.
o Vidhata: both male and female part of this assembly. There is no clarity regarding exact function.
 Samiti is bigger than Sabha.
 Sabha was represented by prominent members of the kingdom such as the brahmans and wealthy
people. They assemble to discuss important matters.
 Every kingdom was divided into Vishayas. The main unit of administration was the village. The term
'Jana' was also used as an administrative unit. People are called vis.
 The head of the village was 'Kulapa'. Prajapati or Gramani were responsible for maintenance of the
village and army.
 Doctrine of divinity was not associated with kingship. Only one king, Purusukta, has been described as
Ardhadeva (semi-divine) in Rig Veda.
 Important officers Purohita, Senani, Kulpati (head of family), Vishpati, Brajpati, Gramini, Sparsa (Spy),
Dutta (Messenger).
 Theft, robbery, dacoity, cheating, lifting of cows, were the common crimes. Debts were common
 foot soldiers (Patti) and warriors (Rathins).
 Dasrajan war: Bharata ruled by sudas. He coveted head priest post to Vasishtha instead of
vishwamitra. a battle was fought between the Rajan and Sudha on the banks of the river parushni-
bharatvarsh.
Society during early Vedic period:

 patriarchy. Father was the head of the family. Family (kul) was the most important unit in the society
 Society was identified on the basis of three professions
o Priestly class
o Warrior class
o Trader-peasants and artisans
 . Man was identified with his tribe called "Jana". Jana was divided into Vis (group of villages) under
Vispati; Vis into Grama (village) under Gramnani and Grama into Kulas (family) headed by Kulapa.
 Women occupied a respectable position in the house.
 No child marriages. gandharva Vivah allowed.
 Widow Remarriage were allowed under Niyoga Vivah system.
 The practice of Sati and confinement of widow was not prevalent. women scholars like Gargi and
Lopamudra.
 Women wear allowed for education and educational discourses.
 Joint family system
 Intoxicating drinks like Soma and Sura were used during the performance of Yajnas. Soma drink was
prepared from the decoction of a plant found in the Himalayas. Sura was prepared from barley.
 Vedic Aryans wore dhoti and upper garment.
 great fascination to wear ornaments.
 Slavery was rampant. The defeated Aryans were known as Das and the defeated non Aryans are called
the Dasyus. Many a times das were treated favourably, Dasyus were heavily discriminated. There is a
mention of mass killing or Dasyu hatya.
 Religious practices during early Vedic period:
 Aryans worshipped those nature gods which
created horror, wonder and happiness.
 sky God Jupiter (Dyauspitas) was worshipped by
the Greeks, Romans and Anglo-Saxons. The
Indian Aryans worshipped 'Dyus' (Jupiter) as the
sky god.
 Aditi-mother of all gods on both land and sky.
 Among other important gods who were
worshipped were Agni (Fire), Varuna (Rain),
Indra, Parjanya, Surya (Sun) and Yama (God of
 Agni: Intermediary god. more than 200 times in
Death).
the rig Veda.
 Varuna-Universal God. Varun: god of water. He
 Mitra: God of Air. Later he came to be known as
was the third important divinity.
Marut.
 Indra was the war god. Indra was the most
 Ushas (Greek Eros, Romans Aurora) or the
important divinity. He was also known as
Goddess of Dawn.
purandar breaker of the forts. 250 Times in
 Some female divinities: Aditi- morning, Usha,
Rigveda.
Savitri: Gayatri Mantra Vishwas composed by
vishwamitra was dedicated to sun and Savitri.
 Vedic religion was Henotheism or Kathenotheism.
 performance of sacrifices (Yajnas). bali
(Sacrifice).
 Mode of the worship: prayers and chanting of mantras.
 Soma juice was the most important in the rituals.
 Asuras were treated as enemies. Aryans also worshipped rivers, birds, Nagas (Snakes) and hills. Cow
was worshipped, but at the same time cow was also sacrificed.

Later Vedic period 1000BC to 6th century BC

 From Aryavarta to the East and South directions of India.
 Iron was discovered around 1000 BC -Atranjikhera, Zakheera.
 From this period onwards they entered into different parts of the country which are as follows
o Brahmavart- North Western part
o Aryavart - Northern part
o Brahmarishi- Ganga Yamuna valley
o Madhyadesh- Central India.
 Information about a later Vedic period- yajur veda, Sama Veda, atharva veda and also extended text of
Veda like Brahmin, Aranyaka and Upanishad.
 In the later Vedic text gandak river was mentioned as sadanira.
 Aryans acquired knowledge of eastern and western sea, Narmada river and Vindhyan mountains.
 The texts also have references to the territorial divisions of India i.e.,
o Dhruvmadhya Mandis Region between the Saraswati and the Ganga (literally meaning 'middle
country').
o Brahmavarta Region- The region between the Sutlej and Yamuna.
o Tamilakam the Tamil country.

Economy during later Vedic:

 Agriculture became very important. The importance of the land is highlighted from the term Rashtra
mentioned in later Vedic text.
 Cattle became second important economic wealth.
 For ploughing the land, the plough was fixed to six to twenty four oxen.
 Important agriculture commodities:
o Wheat- Godhuma.
o Rice-Vrihi
o Barley- Yava.
o Sugarcane (Ikshu).
 Shatapatha Brahmana-various stages of agriculture
 Taxila, Hastinapur, Kausambi, Sravasti, Vaishali, Rajagriha, Varanasi, Champa and other towns
emerged as main centres of trade and commerce.
 Trade routes developed
 In commerce, barter system of exchange was gradually given away. Instead there were coins such as
karshapana, satamana that came into use. These were made with gold, silver and copper. Gold and
Silver coins were a proof of their prosperity and wealth.
 A merchant by name AnadhaPindaka seems to have brought Chetavana at Sravasti after paying huge
number of gold coins and donated it to Buddha.
 Taxation: to the Rajan in the form of Bali or Bagh, Bhaga 1/6to 1/2 of the produce. Shulka: additional
tax.
 gold- Nishka.
 Iron- "Krishan Aya".
 Satamana and Krishnala, besides Nishkas came to be used as units of value.
 Pottery Painted Grey Ware
Polity during later Vedic period:
 importance to military has increased.
 The divine origin of the king gained popularity. asvamedha, rajasuya and other sacrifices and assume
titles like Ekrat and Samrat.
 earlier political assembly Sabha samiti lost their former relevance and vidhata completely disappeared.
Now Rajan is associated with the priestly class
o Rajasuya: consecration ceremony
o Vajpeya: (drink of strength). chariot race is organised.
o Ashwamedha: this ceremony was meant to increase territory. A bruised horse was let loose along
with the flag of the kingdom-40th day of the ceremony the horse was brought back to the kingdom
and it was sacrificed along with 21 sterile cows and 600 Bulls.
 King became more powerful- Janapadas. Taittariya Brahmana gives the theory of divine origin of
kingship.
 Kingship was usually hereditary.
 the law of Dharma
 The Official Designation of the Vedic Age
o Purohita: Priest
o Senani: Commander-in-chief
o Vrajpati: Head of the posture land
 o Spasa: spy
o Bhagadugha: Tax collector  The King was the Chief Dispenser of Justice.
o Sangrahitri: Treasurer  Village assemblies looked into local cases.
o Gramani: Head of the village
o Kulapa/Dampati: Head of the family
o Purpatis :Commanders of mud forts
o Mahisi :Chief queen
o Taksan: Carpenter
o Duta: Messenger
o Suta: Charioteer.
o Kshata: Chamberlain (In charge of Royal household)
o Akshavapa: Originally dice thrower, later Accountant
o Rathakara: Chariot maker
o Palagala: Messenger
o Sthapati: Provincial head
o Govikartana: King's companion in the chase
 Ratnins are 12 political functionaries-king's council in the later Vedic period. The 12 Ratnins were
Purohita, Rajan, Mahisi, Senani, Bhagadugha, Sangrahitri, Suta, Kshata, Govikartana, Gramani,
Parivakti, and Akshavapa.
 The head of the State was called as Sthapati or Satapati. Gramani was the village head.
Society during later Vedic period.
 In the 10th mandala of Rigveda it was mentioned to divide the society on the basis of birth into four
varnas. In purusha sukta the reason of this division was mentioned.
o Brahmins:
o Kshatriya:
o Vaishyas:
o Shudras:
 Upanayana or investiture. Sudras were deprived of it and were also not allowed to recite the Gayatri
Mantra.
 The first three Varnas performed the four asramadharmas namely brahmacharya, grihasta,
vanaprastha and sanyasa.
 The dasadasyus who were defeated by the Aryans remained as the fifth Varna
Position of Women:
 Education was confined to dance and music.
 Women were evicted from samiti and Sabha.
 Rishi Yajnavalkya and vidushi gargi mentioned in Vrihadarnyaka Upanishad. Maitreyi a women
scholar.
 Aitareya Brahmana daughter is the source of misery but son is the protector of family. Maitrayani
Samhita there are 3 evils-liquor, dice and women.
 The practice of swayamvara was prevalent among the Kshatriyas.
 There was frequent evidences of bride price (kanyasulkam) and dowry.
 Marriage rules were stringent. Anuloma, Viloma (Pratiloma) marriages were prevalent.
o Anuloma marriages: upper caste man and lower caste women. This was legally accepted.
o Viloma marriages: upper caste woman and lower caste man. This was considered as illegal.
 8 types of marriages: Gandharva Vivah was wrong. Ideal marriage was chosen by the parents.
o Brahma vivah: Marriage in the same class with proper dowry
o Daiva: Daughter to sacrificial Priest as part of his fees
o Arsa: Bridegroom presented a cow and a bull to the parents of the girl in this form of marriage.
o Prajapatya: Girl married without dowry
o Gandharva: Marriage of a willing man and women, often clandestine
o Asura Marriage: by purchasing the girl from her custodian
o Rakshasa: Marriage by capturing the girl
o Paisacha: Marriage by abducting the girl when she is asleep, drunk, mentally perturbed [Link] in
her full senses
 Gotra
 Education:
 'Gurukulas.'
 16 samskars to be followed to get moksha. The first systematic attempt at describing the Samskaras is found in
Grihyasutras.
o Garbhadhana: Ceremony for conception
o Pumsavana : To secure the birth of male child
o Simantonnayana: Parting the hair
o Jatakarman : Natal rites (Ceremony for new born Child)
o Namakarana: Ceremony for naming the child
o Nishkramana: First outing (for showing sun)
o Annaprasana: First feeding with boiled rice in the Six Month
o Chudakarana: Tonsure
o Karnavedha: Piercing the ear lobes
o Vidyarambha: Learning the alphabet
o Upanayana : Holy thread ceremony
o Vedarambha : First study of the Vedas
o Kesanta: Cutting the hair
o Samavartana: Graduation (Ceremony on returning home after completing studentship) Marriage
o Vivaha
o Antyesti: Funeral
 Ashrama system: first time in Aitreya Brahmana, Meant mainly for regulating the life of the male member of the
higher caste.
o brahmacharya:
o Grihastha: marriage and responsibilities of household life.
o Vanaprastha: it is a partial retirement for obtaining higher knowledge.
o The last stage sanyasa was not developed in the later Vedic period. But it was consolidated after the life of
Buddha.
Religious practices in later Vedic period:
 Shadangas which were useful in the systematic recitation of Vedas, and in performance of different
rituals disappeared.
 Religion came to be associated with yagnas (sacrifices).
 Extensive yajnasalas were constructed.
 Religious beliefs, rituals, black magic and superstitions.
 Worship of Trimurtis increased. Particularly, Siva and Vishnu were worshipped. Non-Aryan god Siva got
assimilated into the Aryan family of gods.
 Early Vedic gods like Indra Varun lost their relevance now Prajapati (creator of the universe) or Brahma
became the most important God.
 The concept of Vishnu and Rudra got consolidated.

Janapadas of Later Vedic Age

 Kuru (Bharatas and Puru)- capital Hastinapur, Indraprastha.
 Panchala- capital Ahichhatra and Kampilya.
 Koshala-capital Ayodhya and Sravasthi.
 Other important Janapadas were Videha, Kasi, Magadha, Anga, Surasena, Matsya, Kekeya and Madra.
Literature of Vedic Period
The Vedas: The term Veda- root Vid, which means to know.
 Vedas are called Apaurusheya (Not made by man) and Nitya (Existing in all eternity). The 'Rishis' to
whom these books are ascribed are known as 'Mantradrashta'.

Vedic literature comprises of 4 literary productions:

 The samhitas or Vedas
 The Brahamanas
 The Aranyakas
 The Upanishads
Rig Veda: Consists of 1028 hymns and 10,580 verses divided into 10 Mandalas (Books).
 The Mandala II to VII are the oldest.
 In Mandala III, composed by Visvamitra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri, we find the famous Gayatri
Mantra.
 The latest mandala are I, VIII, IX and X.
 The IX mandala is completely devoted to the Vedic God Soma.
 The Xth Mandala contains the famous Purusha Sukta hymn.
Sama Veda: Collection of Hymn taken mainly from the eighth and ninth mandalas of the Rig Veda and set
to tune for the purpose of singing.
 Known as the 'Book of Chants' and the origin of Indian music is traced to it. The hymns of Sama Veda
were meant to be sung at the time of soma sacrifice by the Udgatri Priests.
Yajur Veda: It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifices.
 Book on Sacrificial prayers.
 This Veda is in both verse and prose.
 The two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda.
It is divided into two parts:
 Krishna Yajur Veda (Black) contains not only the hymns but also prose commentaries.
 Sukla Yajur Veda (White) Contains only hymns.
Atharva Veda: The Atharva Veda (Book of magical formulae) contains charms and spells in verse, to ward
off evils and diseases.
 It preserves many popular cults and superstitions. It is believed to be work of non-Aryans.
 It Contains 731 hymns.
The Brahmanas: prayer and sacrificial ceremony.
 The Brahmanas, in fact, are elaborate commentaries on the various hymns in the Vedas to which they
are related.
 Vedas: Related Brahmanas
o Rig Veda: Aitareya and Kausitaki
o Sama Veda: Tandya maha and Jaiminiya
o Yajur Veda: Taittiriya and Shatapatha
o Atharva Veda: Gopatha
 Shatapatha Brahmana is the lengthiest and the most important of all the Brahmanas. It throws light on
the Geographical shift of the Aryans.
The Aranyakas: 'The Forest'. It deals with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy.
 The Aranyaka contain Transitional Material between the mythology and ritual of the Samhitas and
Brahmanas on the one hand, and the philosophical speculations of the Upanishad on the other. They
lay emphasis on meditation and are opposed to sacrifices and many of the early ritual. Their stress is
on moral values.
The Upanishad: "Be seated at the feet of the Guru to receive the teachings". Philosophical Knowledge and
Spiritual Learning. They are also called Vedanta.
 Upanishad are said to be the first scriptures referring to the Law of Karma, as taught by Yajnavalkya
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad).
There are 108 Upanishads.
Vedas Related Upanishads The Mundaka Upanishad is the source of the
phrase SatyamevaJayate, which is the
Rig Veda Aitareya and Kausitaki
national motto of India.
Sama Veda Chandogya and Kena  Brihadaranyaka Upanishad provides the
first reference of the idea of rebirth. Later
Yajur Veda Taittiriya Briharanyaka, Katha, the Idea appears in a slightly fuller form in
Svetasvaftara and Isa
the Chandogya Upanishads-one of the
oldest Upanishads.
Atharva Veda Mundaka, Prasna and Mandukya
Literature of Vedic tradition 600 BC-600 AD.
Literature of Vedic Tradition (Smriti i.e. rememberance literature) comprises of 6 literary works:
1. Vedangas/Sutras
2. Smritis Dharmashastras
3. Mahakavyas (Epics)
4. Puranas
5. Upvedas
6. Shad- Dharshanas.
The Vedangas: The Vedangas are called Smriti or literature handed down by tradition, because they are of human
origin.
 There are six Vedangas
o Siksha: Phonetics/Pronunciation. Pratishakhya'-the oldest text on phonetics.
o Vyakarana: Grammar 'Ashtadhyayi' (Panini)-the oldest grammar of the world.
o Kalpa: Sacrificial ritual.
 (a) Shrauta Sutras/Shulva Sutras-deal with the sacrifices,
 (b) Grihya Sutras-deal with family ceremonies,
 (c) Dharma Sutras-deal with Varnas, Ashramas etc.
o Nirukta: Etymology (Explanation of words). 'Nirukta' (Yask) based on 'Nighantu' (Kashyap)-a collection of difficult
vedic words-('Nighantu'-the oldest word-collection of the world; 'Nirukta'-the oldest dictionary of the world)
o Chandas: Metrics. Chhandasutras' (Pingal)-famous text
o Jyotisha: Astronomy. 'Vedanga Jyotisha' (Lagadh Muni)-the oldest Jyotisha text.
 The vedangas were written in the form of Sutras, i.e., condensed prose style intended for memorization.
 They help in the study of the Vedic literature. Of all the sutra texts, only Kalpa Sutras have come down
to us, and these are divided into three classes.
o Srauta Sutra Deals with the rituals of the Great Sacrifices of Agni, Soma etc. Attached to Srauta
Sutra are the Sulva Sutra: the oldest book on Indian Geometry.
o Grihya Sutra Deals with the domestic ceremonies and sacrifices to be performed by the
householder.
o Dharma Sutra Deals with the Laws, Manners, and Customs of people in general. It constitute the
foundation of the Dharmashastras such as the law of Manu.
Smritis: Dharam-Shastra. law books written in sloka form.
Six famous smritis:
 Manu Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period)-the oldest Smriti text; Commentators: Vishwarupa, Meghatithi,
Gobindraj, Kulluk Bhatt.
 Yajnvalkya Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period) Commentators: Vishwarupa, Jimutvahan
(Daybhag'),Vijnyaneshwar ("Mitakshara'), Apararka (a king of Shilahar Dynasty).
 Narad Smriti (Gupta period
 Parashara Smriti (Gupta period).
 Brihaspati Smriti (Gupta period)
 Katyayana Smriti (Gupta period).
 Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusmriti is the oldest and most famous, Manu is supposed to be the first
King and law giver.
 Later on, some minor smritis and commentaries like the Mitakshara were compiled.
Epic/Mahakavyas:
 Mahabharata, written by Ved Vyas. Origanially Mahabharat 880 verse to 24000 verses. The final
compilation brought the number of verses to 100000. Bhagavad Gita is extracted from bhishma parwan
(chapter) of Mahabharat.
 Shanti parwan is the largest parwan of Mahabharata.
 Ramayana written by Valmiki. Known as Adi kavya. Originally consisted of 6000 verse which was
raised to 12000 and finaly 24000 verses with 7 chapters Bala Kaanda, Ayodhya Kaanda, Aranya
Kaanda, Kishkindhaa Kaanda, Sundara Kaanda, Yuddha Kaanda, and Uttara Kaanda.
Puranas: 18
 These include mythology, cosmogeny, various legends, folk belief, law codes and miscellaneous topic.
 Matsya purana is the oldest purani text.
 Other important puranas are bhagavatha, Vishnu, vayu, brahmanda purana.
The Upavedas: Auxiliary Vedas

Indian Schools of Philosophy

There are six schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshans they are
Important References from Vedic Texts
References from Rig Veda:
 Gayatri Mantra;
 Mention of the word Varna-Mention of the word Sudras; Four fold division of society (10th mandala);
Purusha-Sukta hymn (10th mandala);
 Qrigin of the Universe (10th Mandala);
 Battle of ten kings (VII Mandala);
 Ganga (X, Mandala);
 Rajanya (10th Mandala); Jain Tirthankara "Rishabhdeo and Neminath"; Saraswati as Saubhagyadayini.
References from Atharva Veda:
 Mention of the word "Gotra"; Sabha and Samiti as the twin daughter of Prajapati; Sabha as Narishta;
Women's participation in Samiti; Reference of Pashupati.
References from Aitareya Brahmana:
 Origin of kingship; Sudras as the servant, To be expelled at will and to be stain at will; Ten forms of
government; Kings as protector of Brahmans.
References from Satpatha Brahmana:
 Elaborate description of "Upanayana"; Wife is half her husband and complete him; Mention of Eastern
and Western seas; First reference to money lending.
 Rise of 16 mahajanapadas
 Mahajanapadas symbolize amalgamation of large number of rural and urban settlements, considered
16 in number in 600 BC.
 The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya (a part of Sutta Pitaka) provides the names of 16 Mahajanapadas
at the time of Buddha.
 Jaina text Bhagavati Sutra and another Buddhist text Mahavastu also provides such list of 16
Mahajanapadas
 In the beginning Kashi was the most powerful mahajanpada but later Magadha assumed this status.
Mahajanapadas were of two types
 Monarchial States: Anga, Avanti, Chedi, Kashi, Kosala, Gandhara, Magadha, Matsya, Shursena,
Vatsa.
 Non Monarchial/ Republican States: Kamboj, Kuru, Koliyas, Malla, Moriya, Shakya, Vajji, Panchal,
Licchavis, Bhaggas, Kalamas, Videhas, Jnatrikas.
1. Kashi (Benaras)
 It was the most powerful mahajanpada in the beginning.
 Its capital was Varanasi between rivers Varauna and Asi.
 Cotton textiles and market for horses. educational centre.
 It was finally annexed by Magadha under Ajatasatru.
2. Kosala (Ayodhya)
 capital was Sravasti, Ayodhya was an important town in Kosala.
 Prasenjit (contemporary of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru). Friend of the Buddha.
 The sister of Prasenjit was married to Bimbisara (King of Magadha) and Kashi was given to her as
dowry.
3. Anga (East Bihar)
 Champa was the capital. annexed by Magadha under Bimbisara.
4. Magadha (South Bihar)
 policy of imperialism
 The founders were Jarasandha and Brihadratha. However its real founders were Bimbisara and
Ajatasatru.
 Its initial capital was called Girivraja then Rajagriha. The capital was shifted to Pataliputra somewhere
in the fifth century BC.
Vajji (North Bihar)
 Ganasamgha- republic or an Oligarchy. The Vajjis represented a confederacy of eight clan of whom the
Videhas, Licchavis and the Jnatrikas were the most well-known.
 The Videhas had their capital at Mithila.
 Lichhavis had their headquarters at Vaisali.
 The Jnatrikas were another clan. Siddharta, father of Mahavira (Jain teacher) belonged to this clan.
 Bimbisara married Lichchavi princess chalana daughter of Chetaka.
 The Magadhan king Ajatasatru is supposed to have destroyed this confederacy. He sowed discord
among the chiefs with the help of his minister Vassakara and then attacked the Licchavis.
 The Buddha died in the vicinity of Kusinagara and the Mallas performed his last rites. After the death of
Gautama Buddha Magadha annexed it.
Chedi (Narmada Belt)
 eastern parts of the modern Bundelkhand.
 Its capital was Suktmitati. Sisupala ruled it.
Malla (Gorakhpur Region)
 confederation of 9 tribal states. Republic-Ganasamgha in ancient texts.
 The twin capital of Malla was Pavapuri and Kusinagara.
 Majority of its people were either Jains or Budhist. Budha and Varadhamana attained nirvana in
Kusinagar and Pavapuri respectively.
Vatsa (Allahabad)
 capital at Kausambi.
 The most powerful king of Vatsa was Udayana. . It was earlier a Kuru Clan.
Kuru (Meerut-Delhi Region)
 Hastinapur/Indraprastha.
 ruled by Kauravas of Mahabaratha. republic. The kuru kings had matrimonial relations with Yadavas,
Bhojas and Panchalas.
Panchala (Uttar Pradesh)
 Rohilkhand and parts of Central Doab.
 The Northern Panchalas had their capital at Ahichhatra
 The Southern Panchalas had Kampilya as their capital.
Matsya (Jaipur)
 Viratnagara (modern Bairat in Jaipur).
Surasena (Mathura)
 capital at Mathura on the bank of the river Yamuna. They too had a Republican form of government.
Assaka (Godavari)
 Paithan in Maharashtra. ancient Pratisthana (Potana), the capital was Potali or Potana.
 It was the southermost Mahajan apada.
 According to Vishnupurana, the kingdoms were founded by the princes of Ikshavaku dynasty. Podana
(Bodhan in Nizamabad district of Telangana) was the capital of Asmaka and Python was the capital of
Mulaka.
 Avanti finally annexed it.
Avanti (Malwa)
 Netravati River divides the state into Northern and Southeren states.
 Its capital was Mahismati later moved to Ujjain.
 Chanda Pradyota was the most powerful king of Avanti. He was the contemporary of Buddha and
Mahavira. Avanti became an important center of Buddhism. King Pradyota was the follower of Buddhism.
 Sisunaga finally annexed it to the Magadhan Empire.
Gandhara (Peshawar and Rawalpindi)
 Its capital Taxila was famous for education and learning.
 Gandhari (wife of Dhritrashtra)
 Its ruler Pushkarasari was contemporary of Bimbisara of Magadha.
 The Persian emperor Cyrus collected tributes from this kingdom.
Kamboja (North-western frontier of present Pakistan)
 Its capital was Rajpur. Republic.
Haryanka dynasty:

Bimbisara: (554-492 BC)

 He was the founder.
 The earliest capital of Magadha was Girivraja, Bimbisara founded the city of Rajagriha and changed the
capital.
 Не was contemporary to the Buddha, Mahavira and first king to have a standing army.
 Policy of annexation
 Policy of matrimonial alliance: His three wives belonged to royal family of Koshala (Mahakosaladevi,
sister of Prasenjit), Licchavi (Chellana) and Kema of Madrakas clan of Punjab.
 He sent his personal physician Jivak (son of Salavati), to his rival Chandapradyota Mahasena of Ujjain
to cure him of jaundice.

Ajathashtru: (492-460 BC)

 He was the son of Chellana and Bimbisara,
 Fratricide
 Kasi and Vaishali Rathamusala
 Mahashilakantaka
 He adopted an aggressive policy of expansion. He defeated his maternal uncle Prasenjit, king of Kosala,
and married his daughter Vajjira.
 He destroyed Vaishali (capital of Licchavis) after a protracted war of sixteen years.
 Buddha was contemporary of bimbisara and ajatashatru. After the death of Buddha in 483 BC
ajatashatru convened first Buddhist council in 483 BC at rajagriha.
 He built a stupa in kushinagara where Buddha attained nirvana.
 According to Mahavamsa he built 'DhatuChaityas' all-round Rajagriha.
 He took the decision to transfer the capital to Patliputra but unfortunately he died in 460 BC.
Udayain: (460-444 BC)
 He built Patliputra (Patna) transferred the capital from Rajgriha to Patliputra.
Nagadasa: last ruler was killed by his minister shishunaga. He established the shishunaga dynasty.

Naga Dynasty:

Shishunanga: (412-344 BC)

 Completely annexed Avanti.
 He temporarily shifted the capital to Girivajra.
 He was followed by his son Kala Ashok.
Kala Ashoka
 He conducted the second Buddhist council at vaishali at 383 BC. He shifted capital from Girivajra to
Pataliputra.
 Extra marital affair of shishunaga with Padma who is the sundra. His son is mahapadma Nanda.
NANDA DYNASTY: It is considered to non-kshtriya dynasty.
Maha Padma nanda:
 Jain text parsistaparvan says that he belong to a lower caste of Shudra
 Mahapadmananda the great conquerer and founder of the dynasty was also known as Ekarat, Eka-
chchhatra (sovereign ruler), Sarva kshatrantaka or Ugrasena (possesor of huge army).
 He removed all Kshatriya and called as second parasurama.
 He conquered Koshala and Kalinga (from here he brought an image of the Jina as victory trophy).
Dhanananda:
 army of more than 1 lakh soldiers, the largest army in the world.
 Alexander -326 BC in the Jhelum war or battle of hydaspes he defeated the Indian ruler porus.
 Agrammes or Xandrames in the Greek texts.
 In 321 BC one of the person from taxasila Chandragupta Maurya defeated and killed dhanananda due
to active support of Vishnu Gupta or Kautilya or Chanakya.
 The political mechanization deviced by Kautilya is mentioned in historical book mudrarakshasa written
by visakha Dutta.

The kingdoms of this region such as Kamboja, Gandhara and Madra were engaged in constant wars
among themselves. No kingdom was in position to bring them together as it happened in the North -
East under Magadha.
 In the middle of the 6th century B.C., Cyrus founded the Achaemenean dynasty in Persia. He extended
his dominions from Mediterranean in the west to Gandhar in the east.
 Later, Darius III, the third ruler of the dynasty, invaded India and occupied Sindh and parts of Punjab by
517 B.C. He made his Indian conquests as the 20th Satrapy of his empire.
 EMERGENCE OF NEW RELIGIONS IN 6th BC
 Brahmanical religion-untouchability, child marriages, caste system and violence.
 new religions preached social equality, non-violence, Moksha (salvation) to all. alternative path for
spirituality.
 Mankala Gosalaputra- Ajivikas. He preached the predetermined fate theory.
 Lokayatha- Ajithakesa kambalin-materialistic ideology.
 Katyayana-Vaishesika tradition- scientific and logical existence of the Universe and rejects the role of
supernatural powers and denied the meaningless beliefs.
 Jainism and Budhism Vardhamana Mahaveera and Gauthama Budha.
BUDDHISM
Siddhartha Gautam, born in 563 BCE.
Life of Buddha:
 The Gautama Buddha was born to Suddhodana
 (chief of republican Sakya clan) as Siddhartha in 563 BCE
 on Vaishakha Poornima day at Lumbini (Nepal).
 Mother (Mahamaya). Stepmother Gautami.
 He was married to Yashodhara at 16 and had a son Rahula.
 The Four Signs One day-charioteer Channa,
 he saw an aged man. very sick man, a corpse an ascetic.
 At the age of 29, he left, Channa, his charioteer and his horse, Kanthaka,
(Mahabhinishkramana/Great Renunciation).
 He learned sankhya philosophy from Arama kalama and meditation from Ruddaka Ramaputta.
liberation from sorrow can be obtained by mental discipline and knowledge only.
 The Buddha later joined five wandering ascetics – Assaji, Mahanama, Vappa, Bhaddiya and Kondanna.
severe austerities until his body was almost emaciated could not lead to realisation.
 village of Senani-peepal tree facing east.
 Mara, the Lord of illusions, tried to distract him.
 At the age of 35-Nirvana/enlightenment at Gaya, Magadha (Bihar) under a peepal tree (Bodhi tree), on
the banks of river Niranjana. Buddha – the Enlightened One. Tathagata (one who attained the truth).
 Sujata-offered him rice milk at Bodh Gaya.
 Deer Park at Sarnath (Isipatana)- first sermon-"Dharmachakra Paravartana" (Setting in motion the
wheel of Dharma). As a result five ascetics became his disciple Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana, Sari-Putra
and Ananda.
 The Buddha established an order of monks and nuns known as Sangha.
 He attained Mahaparinirvana (Death) under a Sal Tree at Kusinara. (The capital of Mallas) in 483 BC
at the age of 80.
 In Pavapuri -smith named Chanda (Kanda).
 Buddha's last teaching was heard by Subhadra and Ananda.
 His last words were; "Subject to decay are all component things. Strive earnestly to work out your own
salvation".
 Ananda (his favourite disciple), Kassapa or Kasyapa (his most learned disciple), Upali (the barber),
Yasa (the rich youth)
The five symbols that represent Buddha life are:

Teachings associated with Buddhism

 Madhyam Marg' or the middle path
 Everyone was responsible for their own
happiness in life, stressing upon the
individualistic component of Buddhism.
 Emphasized on moral progress.
 Buddha seems to have accepted the idea of
transmigration
Four noble truths of Buddhism are:
 Dukha (The truth of suffering) – (Sabbam Dukham).
 Samudaya (The truth of the cause of suffering)– Trishna
(desire) is the main cause of suffering.
 Nirodha (The truth of the end of suffering)
 Ashtangika-Marga
o Right understanding (Samma ditthi),
o Right thought (Samma sankappa),
o Right speech (Samma vaca),
o Right action (Samma kammanta),
o Right livelihood (Samma ajiva),
o Right effort (Samma vayama), Buddha also established code of conduct both for
o Right mindfulness (Samma sati) the monastic order and the laymen to follow Five
o Right concentration (Samma samadhi) Precepts- refrain from them.
 Violence
 Stealing
 sexual misconduct
 lying or gossip
 taking intoxicating substances e.g. drugs or
drink
Major Buddhist Texts
 The Buddha's teaching was oral-Sangha memorized the teachings.
 First Council and were divided in Three Pitakas in 483 BC.
 His teachings were written down around 25 B.C.E. in Pali.
Three Pitakas
 Vinaya Pitaka: rules of conduct and discipline-monks and nuns
 Sutta Pitaka: It consists of the main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha. It is divided into five Nikayas or
collections:
o Digha Nikaya
o Majjhima Nikaya
o Samyutta Nikaya
o Anguttara Nikaya
o Khuddaka Nikaya
 Abhidamma Pitaka: philosophical analysis and systematization of the teaching and the scholarly
activity of the monks.
 Other important Buddhist texts include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Milind Panha etc.
Sutta pitaka compiled by
Ananda and Vinaya pitaka by
Upali. Abidhamma pitaka was
compiled by Mogaliputta
Tissa.
Schools/Sects of Buddhism
Mahayana:
 Sanskrit word-"Great Vehicle".
 Idol worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
 Mahayana has two main philosophical schools – the Madhyamika & Yogachara.
 Salvation-faith and devotion to the mindfulness of the Buddha. It believes in mantras.
 It originated in northern India and Kashmir and then spread east into Central Asia, East Asia and some
areas of Southeast Asia. China, Korea, Tibet and Japan belong to the Mahayana tradition.
Hinayana
 Lesser vehicle. It believes in the original teaching of Buddha or Doctrine of elders.
 Its scriptures are in Pali.
 not believe in Idol worship-individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
 Theravada is a Hinayana sect.
 It was patronized by Ashok
Theravada
 It remains closest to the original teachings of the Buddha.
 Theravada Buddhism developed in Sri Lanka and subsequently spread to the rest of Southeast Asia
Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
Vajrayana
 “The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt- tantric Buddhism.
 developed in India around 900 CE.
Zen
 It is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty.
Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this Buddhist tradition.
Buddhism and Bodhisattva
 bodhisattva is any person who is on the path towards Buddhahood.
 bodhisattva refers to anyone who has made a resolution to become a Buddha
 Maitreya, Sakyamuni as the next Buddha in this world, and Avalokiteshvara, known in Tibet.
Names of Famous Buddhist Scholars
 Ashvaghosha: He was the Contemporary of Kanishka.
 Nagarjuna: "Madhyamika" school of Buddhist philosophy known as "Sunyavada".
 Asanga and Vasubandhu: teacher of the "Yogachara" or "Vijnanavada" School founded by his guru,
Maiteryanath. Vasubandhu's greatest work, "Abhidharmakosa" is still considered an important
encyclopedia of Buddhism.
 Buddhaghosha: Pali scholar.
 Dinnaga: founder of the Buddhist logic.
 Dharmakirti:
JAINISM
philosophy that teaches the way to liberation
and a path to spiritual purity and
enlightenment through disciplined nonviolence
to all living creatures.
The Jina or Jaina means ‘the conqueror’.
 There were 24 great teachers- Tirthankaras-
In Sanskrit Tirthankara means Ford
maker.
Rishabnatha:
 First Tīrthaṅkara-establisher of Ikshvaku
dynasty. first founder and has references in
Rig Vega and Vayu Purana.
 symbol-bull
 He had many sons including – Bharat and
Bahubali (Gomateshwara Statue-
Shravanabelagola in Karnataka.)
Neminatha:
 22nd Tirthankara.
 Symbol: Shankha (conch)
Parsvanath:
 23rd tirthankar.
 He was born in Banaras 817 BCE.
 He attained Kaivalya on Mount Sammeta (Parasnath) in Jharkhand.
 Symbol is serpent.
 According to Svetambaras Sect (White-Clad Sect of Jainism); Parsvnath founded four-fold restraints:
o Ahimsa
o Satya
o Asteya
o Aparigraha (The fifth one, ‘Brahmacharya’ was added by Mahavira.)
 Navagraha Jain Temple in Karnataka houses the tallest statue of Parsvanath.
Vardhamana Mahavira
 24th Tirthankara in 540 B.C. in Kundagrama near Vaishali.
 Jnatrika clan. He was a contemporary of Gautam Buddha.
 His father Siddharta was the head of the Jnathrika Kshatriya clan and his mother Trishala was a sister of Chetaka,
the king of Vaishali. His daughter is Priya darshini.
 At the age of 30 years, he renounced his home, became a disciple of mankana Gopala and followed his methods to
attain knowledge.
 Kaivalya at 42 years. He attained Kaivalya under a Sal tree. Vardamana also known as Kevali, Nigrantha.
 He delivered his first sermon at Pava.
 Mahavira’s symbol was a lion.
 He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at the Pavapuri in Bihar.
Tenets of Jainism:
 It mainly aims at the attainment of liberation, for which no ritual is required. three principles called Three Jewels or
Triratna i.e.
o Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
o Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
o Right Action (Samyakcharita)
Five Doctrines of Jainism
 Ahimsa: Non-injury to living being
 Satya: Do not speak a lie
 Asteya: Do not steal
 Aparigraha: Do not acquire property
Brahmacharya: celibacy
Council First Second

Time 310 BCE 453 or 466 CE

Period

Chairma Sthulabhadra Derridhiganj

The sacred literature of Jainism includes Angus,
n upangas written in Ardha Magadi

Place Pataliputra (Bihar) Vallabhi (Gujarat) Sects/ School of Jainism:

 Digambara and Svetambara.
Outcome Compilation of 12 Compilation of 12 angas
angas to replace 14 and 12 upangas.
 famine in Magadha-Bhadrabahu to move
purvas South India.
Digambara:
 Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya).
 Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
 Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
 Major Sub-Sects
o Mula Sangh
o Bisapantha
o Terapantha
o Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha
 Minor Sub-Sets
o Gumanapantha
o Totapantha
The Concept of God in Jainism
 universe and all its substances or entities are eternal. It has no beginning or end. Jainism does not
believe in God as a creator, survivor, and destroyer of the universe.
 However Jainism does believe in God, not as a creator, but as a perfect being. When a person destroys
all his karmas, he becomes a liberated soul. He lives in a perfect blissful state in Moksha forever.
MAURYAN EMPIRE
India witnessed political unity for the first time over a region extending from the Himalayas and Oxus River in
North to river Tungabadra in the South.
Different Views Regarding the Origin of Mauryas

 Mudrarakshasa Mauryas were connected with Nandas.

 Jaina tradition- Maurya Poshaka (Peacock tamers)
 Buddhist tradition Divyavadana and Vamsathapakasini-Moriya clan of Pipphalivana-some way linked
to the tribe of the Sakyas.
 Puranas : Sudras. Vishnu purana-Chandragupta was son of Mura a Shudra wife of Nanda king
 Romila Thapar: Moriya tribe of Pippalavana-Vaishya"
 Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman: Vaishya origin.
 KSHEMENDRA’S Brihatkathamanjari: Mauryas were of Sudra origin.
Sources:
Literary Sources
 Arthashastra (Sanskrit)
 The Ashokavadana and Divyavadana
 The Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa- Sri Lankan chronicles.
 Sthaviravali Charita or Parisishtaparvan of Hemachandra (A biography of Chanakya)- early life, conquest
of Magadha, famine in Magadha.
 Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta- socio-economic conditions.
 Rajatarangini of Kalhana, Kathasaritasagar of Somadeva and Brihatkathamanjari of Kshemendra.
 Banas Harsaha charitha-decline of Mauryans.
 Milindapanha-Nanda ruler was killed in the war with Chandragupta.
Foreign Literary Sources
 Pliny’s Natural history -mauryans military strength.
 Megasthenes: sent by Seleucus, his book Indica. Greek Governor
 Strabo : matrimonial - alliance between Seleucus and Chandragupta Maurya and women bodyguards of
Chandragupta.
o Plutarch (AD 45-125) mentions Chandragupta as Androcottas
o Justin (AD 2nd century) mentions Chandragupta as Sandrocottus
Epigraphical sources:
 Prakrit is the official language.
 Total three languages were used prakrit, Greek and Aramic with four scripts Kharosti, Brahmi, Greek and
Aramic. James Princep deciphered the Brahmi Script of Ashokan rock edicts in 1837.
Types of edicts
 Rock edict
 pillar edicts
 Cave edicts
Ashok was the first king who built Rock cut
Caves.
 Rock edicts there are two types based on length
o Major
o Minor
Fourteen Major Rock Edicts
 Major rock edict I - Prohibition of animal
sacrifice.
 Major rock edict IV - Dhammaghosha
 Major rock edict V - About
Dhammamahamatras.
 Major rock edict VIII - Ashoka’s first visit to
Bodh Gaya.
 Major rock edict IX - Condemns popular
ceremonies.
 Major rock edict XII - Mahamattas in charge of
women’s welfare.
 Major rock edict XIII - Mentions victory over
Kalinga. period of Ashoka and his coronation
 Major rock edict XIV - Purpose of rock edicts.
Minor rock edicts:
They were located at Bairat (Rajasthan), Jatinga- Rameshwar (Karnataka),
Sahsaram (Bihar), Rupanath (Madhya Pradesh), Gavimath (Mysore), Maski
(Karnataka), Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (Madhya Pradesh), Palkigundu
(Karnataka), Rajula-Mandagiri (Andhra Pradesh), Siddapura (Karnataka),
Suvarnagiri (Karnataka), Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh), Nittur (Karnataka),
Udegolam (Karnataka), and Kandahar (Afghanistan).
 The Edict found at Kandahar is bilingual, Greek and Aramaic.
 Devanampiya Piyadasi (Beloved of the Gods).
 The name Ashoka is explicitly mentioned in Minor Rock Edicts at Maski,
Gujjara, Nittur and Udegolam.
 Bhabru in west Bengal contains 3 sharanyas in Buddhism.
o Buddham Saranam Gachhami
o Dhammam Saranam Gachami
o Sangam Saranam Gachami
Seven Pillar Edicts
 Ashokan Pillar at Allahabad: Gupta ruler Samudragupta-Prayaga Prasasti-
[Link] Emperor Jahangir.
 Bhabra Edict Found at Bairat in Rajasthan.
 Rummindei Pillar Ashoka visited Lumbini- 1/8 of the produce.
Cave Edicts:
 Barabar hills-Ajivikas.
Maurayns ruled entire India except TN, kerla.

Chandragupta Maurya (321BC-298BC)

 Pataliputra in 321 BC –Kautilya-Chanakya or
Vishnugupta. Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta).
 Title was Simant Raja.
 Maurya defeated Niketar. Niketer married his
daughter Helena with Chandragupta.
 Nicator- megasthenes- Indica-society and
economy.
 The Junagarh inscription of rudradaman-
Pushyagupta -Sudarsana lake.
 Parisisthaparvan of Hemachandra-Jainism.
Bhadrabahu Chandragupta accepted Jainism.
Bindusara: (298-273BC)
 Chinese text- Bindupala. Greeks as Amitrochates
 Taranatha-Tibetan Buddhist monk who visited India in the 16th century, Bindusara conquered 16
states,
 Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana or Susima as Viceroy of Taxila and Ashoka at Ujjain.
 Antiochus I-Ptolemy-Dionysius.
 Ajivika sect
 In 297 BC -first Jain council.
Ashoka: (268-232 BC)
 Puranas-Ashokavardhana. governor to Avanti and Takshila.
 Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa-ninety-nine brothers.
 Kamasoka-Chandasoka-Dhammasoka.
 Kalinga war-In 261 BC- dhauli- Daya river.
 The Bhabra inscription-Buddhism-Upagupta.
 Kalhana's Rajatarangini-Asoka built the city of Srinagar.
 Third Buddhist council was held in 250 BC by Ashoka in Patliputra.. The texts Kathavathu and
Abhidamma Pitika were codified in this council.
 He sent his own son Mahindra and daughter sangamithra to Ceylon
 In 232 BC Ashoka died.
Week successors:
 Kunala (son of Asoka)- blind. Dasaratha- Devanama-Priya.
 Samprati (grandson of Asoka)-Jainism .
Bana's Harsha-Charita and Vishnu Purana-assassination of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Sunga.
Administration of mauryas:
Central Administration
Kautilya's Arthasatra and Megasthanese's Indica.

Kautilya- saptanga.
o Swamin-king
o Amaatya- ministers
o Durg-Fort
o Kosha- treasury
o Bala-Army
o Mitra-Ally
o Shartru- enemy
 Secretariat divided into several
departments. There are totalling 32
departments.
 Tirtas: 18 tirthas. The four highest functionaries among them were Mahamantri-Chief Minister Chief
priest-Purohita, Senapati-Commander-in-chief, Yuvaraja-Crown Prince.
 Other Fourteen Tirthas:
 Adhyakshya: High ranking officials next to Tirthas.
They were twenty.
 Mahamattas:
 Amatyas: present day secretaries.
In addition to Adhyaksha, several Amatya-executive
officers, mahamantras- governors, pradeshika- incharge of
revenue collection, Rajjukas- judicial officers and Yuktas-
treasury officials were also appointed.
Provincial Administration:
5 provinces
 Pariharaka Village-free from taxes.
 Ayudhia-Which provided army corps
 Hiranya-Which provided taxes in the form of
grains, animals and gold
 Kupyas Which provided raw material.
 Vishti-Which provided forced labour
The City Administration
Nagarapalika was the city superitendent assisted by two officials (Gopa and Sthanika). Megasthenese call
them "Astynomoi."
Megasthenes-city council was divided into six boards of five each.
 1st board: To look after everything relating to industrial arts.
 2nd board: To attend to the entertainment of foreigners.
 3rd board: To register birth and death.
 4th board: Regulation of trade and commerce.
 5th board: Supervised manufactured articles.
 6th board: Collected the title on the prices of goods sold and evasion of this tax was punishable with
death.

Judicial administration of mauryan

There are two types of courts:
o civil courts dharmasya
o criminal court: Kantakashodana
Trial by ordeal system.
City Tribunal was presided by Amatya.
Military administration:
 Megasthenes:600000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants, 8000 chariots.
 The commander-in-chief -Senapati
 Megasthenes says that there was a war council comprising of thirty members, divided into six sub
councils of five members viz
o the Infantry,
o Cavalry,
o Elephant,
o Chariots,
o Transport and Admiralty (navy).
o The commissariat.
 salaries were paid in cash.
Revenue Administration
Land revenue 1/4 to 1/6 th and paid in cash.
 Kautilya-21 types of Taxes. Samaharta supervised revenue collection for the entire Kingdom.
 Sanidhatta was in charge of the treasury.
 According to Rummindei pillar inscription the Village of Lumbini was exempted from Bali and was to pay
only 1/8th of the Bhaga.
 Different Types of Taxes
o Bhaga Land revenue (1/6th)
The Financial year of Mauryns used to beign in the month of Ashada.
Guilds/Srenis
 Jesthaka head of the sreni.
Society:
 Megasthenes-no slavery in the society.
 Brahmins, old people and disabled were exempted from paying taxes.
 Ashoka-open hospitals-Besaj (doctors) were appointed.
 Ashoka was the first king who created many wildlife sanctuaries.
 Mauryan rulers to care of irrigation facilities and created canals.
 women as palace guards.
 Mahamattas-welfare of women-Ithijhakha Mahamattas.
 Buddhist text-Slavery was legally recognized.
 Arsha" form of marriages were popular in mauryan society.
 Arthashastra –wrongdoer-branded on his forehead According to Megasthenes there were seven classes
in India.
The Economic Pattern of the Mauryas
 State land was called Sita kept under Sitadhyaksha.
 Terms Related to Land
o Kshetraka Owner of land
o Upawas -Tiller of land
o Adevamatrika: Land which can produce without rain
o Warta: Term used for agriculture, trade and animal husbandry
o Aratani: Instrument used for measurement
o Krishta: Cultivated land land
o Akrishta: Uncultivated waste land
o Kedara: Fields having crops
o Vata: Plantations of sugar cane
o Shanda: Plantation of fruit
o Vivita: Pasture land for cattles
o Mula-Vapa Fields used for growing roots like ginger, turmeric etc.
o Forest factories Drovya Vanakarmanth
 Bhaga (Land Tax 1/6th)-collected directly by the King's officials.
 new agricultural settlements.
 facilities of irrigation
 Dakula and Kasaum were better quality cotton clothes. Swarnakunda in Assam was known for Silk
Goods.
 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
 Shrenis or Sanghas
 Trade tax was one-fifth of the total value of the commodity.
 Punched marked coins mainly of silver and copper was used. Pana was the Silver coin. Masika and
Kakini were the coins of copper. Gold coins were absent.
 Arthashastra-money lending-15% to 60% per annum.
 A toll tax of 1\5th of the value of commodity was levied.
 Important ports were Bhirukachchha (in Gujara), Tamralipti, Sopara etc.
 Balance of trade was in favour of India.
 Weights and Measurments:"Potwadhyaksha"
Religion
Chandragupta Maurya worshipped lord shiva.
Literature
Arthasastra written by Kautilya, a book on polity.
Prakrit was the official language of the Mauryas.
The Mauryan Art and Architecture
 Sarnath pillar the four lions. four
Ashoka's edicts and stupas.
animals (Lion, elephant, horse
and the bull) in relief on the
abacus the inverted lotus and the
sacred Dharma Chakra (with 24
Spokes).
 'National Emblem'.
Stupas:
 built over the graves of the Buddha or Boshistva which are in the shape of an umbrella. It was said that
Ashoka built 84,000 stupas of which the Sanchi was the best. He enlarged the stupa of Kanakamana a
"former Buddha“
•Sir Alexander Cunningham (First Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India), excavated
the Dhamekh, Dharmarajika, and Chaukhandi stupas along with a monastery and temple between
1834 and 1836.

Caves:
 Caves in Barabar hills. Lomas Rishi and Sudama Caves were denoted by Ashoka to Ajivikas.
Post Mauryan Period (200BC-300ad)
Foreign rulers
 Indo-Greeks
 Scythians(shaka)
 Parthians
 Yuchies (kushans)

Native Dynasties
Northern India
 Shunga
 Kanva
Central India
 Satavahanas
 Mahamegavarma
South India:
 Cholas
 Pandya
 Chera
In 220 BC, Shih-Hung-Ti- Great Wall of
China
Indanised and Hinduised.

Indo greeks
 by 165 BC. Demetrius 1 was the first ruler.
 These people came from Bactria (area
between Hindu Kush-Oxus-Herat
Mountains) Afghanistan.
 Yavana -greeks by Sanskrit literature
 Menander as incharge of the province.
 Indo Greek –first- introduced gold coins.
Menander: (160-135BC).
 capital at shakala (Sialkot in Pakistan)
 nagasena- milindapanho in pali language.
 Milinda has two titles: Devavratha and Sudevavratha
 Milinda was first to introduce/gold coins in India. He was the first king to mint double die struck coins.
Sakas (Scythians) 90BC-100AD
 Sakas reached Sindh region through
hindhukush and Bolan Pass.
 by 90 BC.

five branches of the sakas

 Kapisa as Capital
 Taxila as Capital
 Mathura as Capital
 Kardamaka Kingdom with Uijain as Capital
 Kshaharata Kingdom with Barukachaha as
Capital
 The first Şaka king in India was Maos or Moga –
Gandhara.
Kardamaka Empire:
 Ujjain-greatest
 Gujarat and Malwa region.
 King Rudradaman-greatest king of all Sakas.

Rudradaaman:
 Junagadh inscription (Prasasti) in Girnar hills- reconstructed Sudarshana lake
 first inscription-pure Sanskrit.
 He defeated satavahana ruler vashishth Putra satakarni two times.
 The city Ujjain became a famous centre of learning.

Kshaharata Kingdom:
 Maharashtra -Nahapana -Gautamiputra Satakarni.
Jogathambi village-10000 silver coins were over struck.
Parthians: (Pahlav)
 They came from Parthia (North Western Province of Iran). In india they called Pahlavas. They entered
India after Sakas.
 The first known ruler is Vovonose.
Gondopharnis: 15-45AD)
 Christianity came to India.
 Saint Thomas
 Marco Polo- Rudramadevi
 Kushans defeated Parthians and Occupied his Kingdom.
Kushans: (Yuchies)
 by 15 AD. Yuechi tribe (Mongol tribe)
 The first branch is the kadphise branch. The first king is Kujula kadphsis.
Kujula Kadphsis (1st King) 15-65 AD
 Founder.
 two Capitals one at Purushapur (Modern Pakistan, Peshawar)
and other at Mathura, India.
 Maharaja, Rajadhiraja, Devaputra.
Vima Kadphises (65-75 AD)
 Shaivism
 Kushans minted Gold double minted coins called Dinars'.
 bull, a trident and a snake minted. A title of this king is also
inscribed on it "Paramamaheshwara".
Kanishka:
 Son of Vima Kadphises,
 follower of 'Mahayana."
 By 78 AD Kanishka branch started its campaign. They defeated the
northern shakas-Shaka samvat from 78 AD. Official calendar of
Government of India.
 lord Shiva
 Ashwagandha and Vasu Mitra he convened 4th Buddhist council in
Kashmir. After the 4th Buddhist council he joined Mahayana Buddhism.
 Buddhist sculptures in Mathura and Gandhar.
 urban growth in India
 2 new cities Kashipur in Jammu valley and Purushapur in
Peshawar(capital).
 high level of monetization. He released a large number of copper and gold
coins. Gold coins of this period are the purest of pure quality.
 Indo Greeks introduced curtains in India, kurta pyjamas and long coats
were introduced by kushanas.
 Vasumitra-'Mahavibasha Shastra" in Sanskrit.
 Aswagosha- the first dramatist (play writer) in India. He wrote number of
Buddhist dramas
o a) Sauriputra Prakarana
o b) Sundara Nandana (Nanda – Cousin of Buddha)
o c) Buddha Charita
o d) Vajra Suchi.
 Charaka Great Doctor and author of 'Charaka Samhita'(encyclopedia for Indian medicine
 Kanishka has two titles
o Devaputra
o Kaiser(Indian rendition for Roman emperor 'Caesar')

The last Kushana ruler was Vasudeva came to an end in 220 C.E.

Kanishka -Administrtion
 followed the Saka system of administration with certain changes.
 Kanishka appointed Kshatraps and Mahakshatraps in the NorthWestern region.
 The governors- Amatyas and Senapathis.
 Dual Kingship, father and son ruling simultaneously.
 The empire was divided into Ahara, Janapada, Vishaya and village.
 Rajamatya was chief adviser of the ruler.
 Dandanayaka, provincial administrator-in civil and military affairs.
 Bhadrapala and Gramika were village administrators.

Economy
 Chief occupation of the people was agriculture.
 The internal and external trade was in boom and coins such as ‘Karshapana' and 'Dinara' were in
circulation on large scale.
 Srenis-18 guilds or Srenis headed by 'Srenika'.
 'Vanikkas'-local traders. 'Sarthavahas'-distant trade.
 According to the Greek text the Periplus of the Erythrian Sea, the balance of trade with Rome was
always in favour of India. As a result, a large amount of gold drained from Rome to India.
 The chief port of this period was Barukachcha.

Society
 The Budhist text Milindapanho-Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras.
 Patriarchy -'Grihapati'.
 women upper class made donations and gifts.
 polygamy
 'Kanyasulka'- Budhacharitha of Asvaghosha.
 Street of Prostitutes- 'Ganikavidhi'.
Religion
 Kanishka was a strong follower of Hinduism.
 Ashvaghosa-Kanishka embraced Buddhism.
 Kanishka-Chaithyas and viharas.
 Kasyapa and Mathanga on missionary activity to Tibet, China and Central Asia.
 Kanishka-Fourth Buddhist Council (Sangeethi) in Kundalavana, Kashmir. Taranath, the fourth Budhist
council was presided over by Vasumitra while Ashvaghosa was the Vice-President.
 Hiuen Tsang-Principles of Buddhism which were codified into 'Mahvibhasasastra'.
 During the reign of the Kanishka, Budhism split into Hinayana and Mahayana Budhism.
Literature:
 Ashvaghosha-Buddha charitha, Sundarananda and Sariputraprakarana, sanskrit drama.
 Acharya Nagarjuna, who proposed Madhyamika Siddantha and propagated Mahayana Buddhism
belonged to the reign of Kanishka.
 Vasumitra-Mahavibhasa Sastra was patronized by Kanishka.
 Charaka-Charaka Samhita was in the court of Kanishka.

Art and Architecture

 Chaityas and Vihara
 Alberuni- KANISHKA built Peshawar Vihara and Kanishka Chaitya at his capital Purushapura.
 Kalahana's Rajatharangini mentions that Kanishka
built the City of Kaniskapura in Kashmir.

Gandhara Sculpture
 Kanishka- Indo-Greek sculpture. Peshwar was the
centre.
 The sculpture art mostly dedicated to Buddhism.
 The important characteristic features of Gandhara art
consists of thin drapery of Greeks,curled hair style of
Romans, strong body, hair knot, thrimukha
bhangimas, half open heavy eye-lids, accurate
dimensions of sculpture and gentle smiling faces.
 realistic life and for the first time Buddha was shown
in image form.
Shunga:
pushyamitra shunga:
 It was founded by pushyamitra shunga in 187 BC by killing Brihadhrata.
 Banas Harsha charita -destroyed many Buddhist monasteries in Sanchi and Vidisha.
 Vidisha as capital of Shunga.
 He revived Vedic practices. Ayodhya inscription.
 Patanjali -head priest of the shunga- yoga sutra. Maha Bashaya, basically commentary upon panini's
ashtadhyayi.

Agnimitra shunga:
 Vidisha malvika- Kalidasa malavikagnimitra.
 He performed Ashwameda yaga twice to declare the dominance of Brahmanism.
Vasu Mitra shunga:
 revived Buddhism but also reconstructed the Buddhists stupas and monasteries destroyed by
pushyamitra shunga.
 Vasudeva kanva. Heliodorus erected pillar at Vidisha/ besnagar or bhilsa to Mark worship of Vishnu in
prakrit infront of Vasudeva temple.
 first archaeological evidence of worship of Vishnu in India.
Devabhuthi:
 In 75 BC Vasudev Kanva killed the last ruler of Shunga and established the kanva dynasty in Magadha
for a very short time.
Kanva Dynasty
 Vasudeva Kanva founded- Pataliputra.
 Last king of Kanva dynasty was Susharma
A reference in purana was made saying Susharma was killed by an Andhra King Pulomavi and captured
Pataliputra.

Satavahanas:
 225 BC-225 AD.
 Andhras and Andhrabrithyas.
 Shimuka is the real founder of the dynasty.
 The major source of information- Purana.
 Pratishthanapuran modern (Phythan) Aurangabad (maharastra)- Godavari. Danyakataka (modern
Amravati)-Krishna.
 Many inscriptions of Sathavahanas -Prakrit language.
 30 kings.
Simukha:
 He was first king - his coins were found at Kotilingala, Karimnagar district. Potin coins.
Satakarni I:
 He was third king
 Nanaghat Inscription-Naganika. Ashwamedhayaga and Rajasuyayaga, donation of 13 villages to
Brahmins (in course of time these villages are called 'Agraharas tax free grants
 Dakshinapadapathi." Lord of South India
Kuntalasatakarni:
 He was eleventh king
 Sarvarma-“Katantravyakarana.
 Gunadya- "Brihat Katha" in Paisachi dialect.
Hala:
 He was seventeenth king
 'Gatha Saptasathi' in Prakrit language- 'Kavi Raja'.
Gautamiputra Satakarni:
 He was Twenty-third king,
 Metronymic
 Nasik inscription-Gautami Balasree (rajamata) in Prakrit language in Brahmi script.
 Titles Eka Brahmana, → Dvija Kulavardhana (protector of 3 varnas)
 Raja Raja.
 Trisamudrapittoyvahana
 first ruler who released lead coins for commercial transactions. Brahmins were granted land-It was the
first time in India that a land grant was given for somebody's service.

Yagnasri Satakarni:
 Twenty-seventh King.
 Coins-ship symbols
 Acharya Nagariuna lived in this period

Pulomavi III
 30th Last king, after his death Sathavahana kingdom was split into three small kingdoms like
Ikshvaku, Abhira and Chutu kingdoms.

Ikshvaku were the immediate rulers of Andhra region of Sathavahanas with Vijaypuri (Present Nagarjuna
konda) as capital.
Abhira Kingdom dominated the Maharashtra region with Nasik as capital.
Chutu Kingdom dominated the Karnataka region with Banavasi (also known as Vijayanthi) as capital city.
Acharya Nagarjuna
Acharya Nagarjuna is said to be second Tathagatha and he is follower of Mahayana Buddhism. He founded
new philosophies called Madhyamika Vada and 'Sunya Vada.' He is also called as Indian Einstein.
Acharya Nagarjuna wrote almost 2 dozen books. and all in Sanskrit.
 Madhyamika Karika
 Shunya Saptati
 Suhrellekha (Good Letters)
 Arogya Manjari
 Pragna paramita
South Indian Kings/SANGAM AGE
Sangam means parishad or Association.
The Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas was referred in this literature. historians believed that it existed
from 6th century B.C. to 3rd century B.C. whereas some opined that it during 1st to 3rd century C.E.

Sangam Literature
Sangam period is considered the golden age of Tamil literature.
3 Sangams were held at Madurai as venue.
First Sangam
 Pandyan King Makeerthy.
 First Sangam was presided over by Agasthya-first person from Aryan culture who came down to South
and introduced Aryan culture to Dravidians.
Second Sangam
 Kapadapuram, the second capital of the Pandyas.
 Tolkkatiyam-Tamil grammar-first text available "Tolkkatiyar
Third Sangam
 Malkanakku(18 books)
 Kikanakku(18books).
Third Sangam was presided over by Nakkiral. Texts and
books like
 Thirumurugaruppadai - author is Nakkiral
 Thirukural written by Thiruvalluvar. Bible of Tamil
literature.
More over 3 epics have also been written during this
Sangam.
 1. Salappadikaram (Gold Anklets) - 'Illango Adigal'
tragic love story of Kovalan of Puhar and his wife
Kannagi.
 2. Manimegalai Author is Sattalai Sattanar'
 3. Sivigasindamani – author is “Tiruttokadevar";.
 Tiruthakkatevar wrote Jeevaka Chintamani in
Sanskrit.
 Tamil Ramayana of Kamban

 Tamil is the most ancient language (

 Kannada emerged in 9th C AD
 Telugu in 11th C AD
 Hindi -13CAD (Ayan group of language)
 Later Malayalam in 14th CAD.
Name Region capital Emblem Great king
Cholas Present north TN Uriyur later tiger Karikala chola
Kaveripatnam
Pandyas Present south TN Madurai Crap(two Nedunjuliyan
fishes)
Cheras Kerla Vanji/Karur Bow & Senguttavan
Arrow

The chera:
 Kerala putraas- capital Karur.
 Udayinjeral was the earliest ruler of chera.
 It extended from Cochin in North to Tiruvallur in south.
 Nedum Chenguttuvan, the successor of Udayan. " Adhi Raja".
 Cheran Sengettuvan was probably the greatest Chera king of Sangam age. He is also known as good
chera or red chera. Silappadhikaram was written by his brother Illango Adigal depicts the victories of
Cheran and the naaval force of the Chera Kingdom.
 He introduced the Kannagi Cult in the kingdom
 He built temple of kannagi and also founded pattini cult.
  There was a good relation between chera and Romans. At the
port of muzuri the Romans created temple of Augustus.

The chola:
 Elara was the earliest ruler
 The chola kingdom extended over Arcot to Tiruchunapally.
 The capital is kaveripattinam.
 The most important ruler is karaikala. Karaikala means man with charred [Link] created city of puhar
(Cauveripattanam) on the banks of river Kaveri.
 He enbanked Cauvery River on a stretch of 150 km. Perhaps he was the first ruler who created at dam
on Kaveri river called karaikala dam.
 City of Uraiyur is known for its cotton cultivation and textile industry.
 Kaveripatnam and Arikamedu was the important port cities of cholas.
The Pandya Kingdom

 Mudukumudi Peruvalludi was the first ruler. They ruled from Madurai
 Nedumchelian was the most important ruler of pandyas. He is known for curse of kannagi.

Kalinga Chedi Dynasty

 The land between Mahanadi and Godavari-Kalinga.
 The Mahameghavahanas of Chedi family ruled Kalinga
 Hathigumpha inscription -Kharavela "Maharaja"
 Kharavela sent a large army on Satavahana kingdom up to kannabenna (Krishna River) and destroyed
the city Musika.
 he invaded Gorathagiri in Barabar hills and seized Rajagriha.
 Kharavela followed Jainism, he exhibited tolerance.
 He built a Jain temple in Udayagiri hills.
 Kharavela was instrumental in convening the Jain Parishad in Kumaragiri and codification of Jain texts.
 title of "Bikshu Raju".
Economy of the Post Mauryan Period
 Indo-Roman trade:
 two important land routes Uttarapanth: connecting Pakistan- Bangladesh. kaushambi (Allahabad) was the centre
point of this route.
 Dakshinpanth: it started from Bhrigu Kutch and connected paithan(Maharashtra) and then muziri(kerala).
 Guilds
 Muslin- 'Sathavahana and Chola Kingdoms.
 Spices, mostly pepper, were exported to the Roman Empire from the Chera kingdoms.
 Pearls from the Pandyan Kingdom were exported to the Roman Empire.
Two Greek books which have accounted information about this Indo-Roman trade were:
 Pliny-'Natural History' in Latin language in 72 AD A Greek text Periplus of Eritrean Sea
o Barygaza, Gujarat (modern Barouche)-Satavahana port.
o Tyndis, modern Kozhikode (Calicut)
o Muziris, modern Cochin
o Poduka, modern Pondicherry, Arikamedu( chola port)
o Masolia, modern Machilipatnam
o Gang, ancient Tamralipti, West Bengal
The Red sea port is Alexandria which is in Egypt. This is the main halting station and meeting point of various sailors.
  Discovery of monsoon in 46 AD-by- Italian sailor
Hippalus'

Silk Route:
 Trade between China and Roman Empire initially
carried through land passing through Central
Asia. A passage between Tibet and Sikkim is
called Nathu La Pass.
Religion in post Mauryan period:
 A huge revival of Vedic religion.
 Bhagavata: New religion was formed called Bhagavata'. Worship of 5 Gods.
o Vasudevakrishna.
o Samkarshana (Balarama, elder brother of Krishna)
o Sambha (Son of Vasudevakrishna & Jambavathi)
o Pradhyumna (Son of Vasudevakrishna & Rukmini).
o Anirudha (Son of Pradhyumnal
 Main philosophy of Bhagavatism is that it is a Bhakti based religion and anti-ritualistic. Self-surrender.
 A pillar inscription found at Besanagar, MP, issued by Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador calls himself as
Paramabhagavata' and worshipper of Deva Deva Vasudevakrishna.
 In Sangam Tamil literature Krishna is referred as Mavon.'
Art and Architecture Developments
 Gandhara School of Architecture: Taxila (Rawalpindi) and Purushapura (Peshawar) are headquarters.
This was patronized by Kushans, particularly Kanishka.
 Mathura School of Architecture:Mathura as headquarters. This was also patronized as Kushans.
 Amravati school of Architecture : Krishna-Godavari basin. Amravati as its headquarters. This was
patronized by Sathavahanas.
GuPta Period (300ad-550ad)
Literary sources:
 Kamandaka: Netisara- administration of
Guptans
 Vajjika: Kaumudhi Mahotsava.
 Visakhadatta: Mudra Rakshasa and Devi
Chandraguptan-Drams on a Queen called
Duadevi and Chandraguptan II about their
marriage.
 Shudraka: Mrichchakatika-A Brahman falls in
love with Vasanthasena' and consequences.
 Basa: Swapnavasavadatta-
 Somadeva: Kathasaritsagara.
 Kalidasa: Raghuvamsam,
Abhignanashakuntalam.
 Rajasekhara: Kavyamimamsa
 Puranas
 Fahien-Chandragupta II -information on
heinous life of untouchables.
 Information from Fa-hein, Hiuen-Tsang, and I-
tsing.
Archeological Sources
 Epigraphical sources: 42 inscriptions were found all are in Sanskrit.
 Allahabad inscription (Prasasti) of Samudragupta. Author-Harisena
one of the officers of Samudragupta. it is inscribed on the same pillar
used by Ashoka.
 Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription. in front of Qutub Minar.
Chandragupta II issued this describing his victories. Height of this
pillar is 23 ft and weighs 6 ton- no rust is formed.
 Copper Buddha Statue at Sultanganj- Bihar
 Bhitari inscription, Madhya Pradesh- Scandagupta-invasion of Huns'
central Asian tribe.
 Toramana-Destroyed Thakshashila and many other cities.
 Mihirakula- Son of Toramana (He was a Hinduised Hun he was a
Saiva.
Eran inscription, Madhya Pradesh-510 AD. Banugupta-first time
epigraphical evidence of sati' was given in it.
Numismatics sources:
 Gold coins of Guptans are called 'Dinars'.
 Silver coins of Guptans are called 'Rupaya.
Kumaragupta coins - title Aswamedha Mahindra was
mentioned.
Political History
 Samanthas of Kushans. They are not independent.
 320 A.D.-550 A.D.
Sri Gupta-founder (240-280 AD)
 title of Maharaja.
 Chinese traveller I Tsing- Maharaja Sri Gupta. It
comprised the areas of Bengal and some parts of
Bihar. A patron of the Buddhist cult, Maharaja Sri
Gupta, constructed a temple for the Chinese pilgrims
near Mrigashikhavana, close to Varendri or Varendra
bhumi in Bengal
Ghatotkacha (280-320 AD)
 He also titled as maharaja.
Chandragupta 1 (319-335AD):
 real founder of guptas.
 Chandragupta I coins-have his wife 'Kumaradevi'
on them. Licchavi princess.
 title "Maharajadhiraja".
 Gupta Era to comoemorate his coronation to The
Throne in 319 or 320 AD.
 policy of military annexation
 policy of matrimonial alliance and married
Kumar Devi of Licchavi.

Samudragupta (335-375)
 Harisena -Asoka pillar at Allahabad.
 Eran inscription
 Dr. V.A. Smith has described him as the "Indian Napoleon".
 reached as far as the kingdom of the Pallavas up to Kanchi. However Samudra Gupta showed political
diplomacy in his southern conquests
 In the North and North-East the kingdoms: East Bengal, two kingdoms of Assam (Kamarupa and
Devalsa).
 He created a big empire, assumed the titles of Maharajahiraja
and Vikramanka, and performed one or even more Asvamedha
sacrifices.
 Harisena described him as a hero of hundred battles, poet and
musician. He was titled Kaviraja as is engraved on the type of
coins. On some Gold coins he has been represented as playing
Vina.
 Playing veena and on the top of it a title Kaviraja' was mentioned.
 Ashwamedhayaga and on the top of it a title Aswamedha Parakrama' was mentioned.
 title Vyagra Parakrama' (Vyagra - Tiger in Sanskrit).
 Vasubandhu
 Meghavarma, king of Ceylon was granted permission to build a monastery at Bodha Gaya for the
Buddhist pilgrims.
 The allround progress which ultimately gave the Gupta age the title of golden age of Ancient India really
began in the period of Samudra Gupta.
 Samudra Gupta was succeeded by his son Rama Gupta
Chandragupta 2(385-415 AD)
 son of Samudra Gupta born of his chief queen Dattadevi.
 Chandra Gupta's chief opponent was the Saka ruler of Gujarat and Kathiawar. Chandra Gupta invaded
the kingdoms of Sakas and killed Saka chief Rudrasimha III and annexed his entire kingdom.
 An inscription engraved on the iron pillar near QutbMinar at Delhi states the achievements of a king titled
Chandra.
 He married a princess of Naga family named Kuveranaga and married his daughter, Prabhavati to Vakataka king
Rudrasenal. Both the Nagas and the Vakatakas held strategic positions on his frontiers
 His was a period of all round achievements, Religion, literature, sciences, fine arts, Economic prosperity and the rest
developed in his age.
 He maintained several luminaries in the court: Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Dhanvantari and Varahmira- he gave cloud
formation theory.
 He conquered Ujjain and took two titles
o Sakari (Destroyer of Sakas)
o Vikramaditya
The Navaratnas are: (all are Sanskrit Scholars)
Kalidasa;
He wrote 3 dramas
 Abhignana Shakuntalam
 Malavikagna Mitram (Story of Queen Malavika and Agnimitra)
 Vikramaurvasi (Story of King called Vikrama and Urvasi)
He also wrote kavyas
 Megadootam
 Kumara Sambhavam
 Ruthusamhara
 Raghuvamsha
Vishnu Sharma Author of 'Panchatantra' (Collection of short stories)
Amara Simha - Author of 'Amarakosha' (À Sanskrit dictionary)
Vararuchi - Author of Prakrita Prakasha (He is only Scholar to write in Prakrit and it is a book on
grammar).
Susruta Susrutasamhita (A great book on surgery) (A great surgeon of ancient period) (Scholars believe he
is first plastic surgeon of the world)
Dhanvantari-Nigantu (A medical Dictionary) (A doctor).
Aryabhatta-A Mathematician and Astronomer - he wrote 2 books
 Suryasiddhanta (On Astronomy)
 Aryabhattiam (On Mathematics)
Varahamihira A Mathematician and Astronomer Brihatsamhita (An encyclopedia of Indian Sciences) and
another book panchasidhantika on Astronomy
Brahmagupta - A Mathematician and Astronomer - Khandanakhandakhadyaka’ (he is known as Indian
Newton in his book he speaks about peculiar behavior of Earth that keeps every object attracted to it.
Later understood as Gravitational force).
[In 11th C-Alberuni- translated many books into Arabic. He translated Brihatsamhita into Arabic.
 He also translated (Euclid's Principles of geometry into sanskrit. This book was_in Greek originally and
Euclid belonged 2nd C BC..
 Alberuni was the first Muslim Indologist.
 At this point of time the first Chinese Buddhist traveller fa-hien came to India and wrote a book Fu–
kuo-ki.

Kumara Gupta (415-455 C.E.)

 Chandra Gupta II was succeeded by his son Kumara Gupta born of his chief queen Dhruvadevi.
 fa-hien that he decided to create the modern university Nalanda for Buddhist learning
 He founded Nalanda University in 5th CAD. A Mahayana Buddhist university at Nalanda. first truly
international modern university.
 invasion of the Huns
Skanda Gupta 452- 467 AD
 His greatest achievement was to save the empire from the invasion of the white Huns.
Vishnugupta (last King)
Administration under guptas:
o Kingship is hereditary.
o The Gupta rulers assumed the titles such as Maharajadhiraja, Parama bhattaraka. Harisena described Samudra
Gupta as a God dwelling on earth.
o The king had to rule according to the Rajya Dharma,
o In practice the king respected the advice of his ministers. Mahamantri, the Mahabaladhikrita,
Mahadandanayaka, and the Sandhivigrahika, The officials appointed to look after the district administration
were called Kumaramatyas. The sub-ordinate officials were known as Ayuktas..
 The primary source of income of the state was the land revenue. The total taxes imposed were numbered 18
 government servants were paid in cash.
 The novelty of the Gupta administration was its decentralization.
 The provincial administration:
o The empire was divided into provinces called Bhuktis or Desas.
o The smallest unit of the administration was Grama (Village).
o The Vishayas were administered by Vishayapati, with the help of subordinate officers called Kumaramatyas and
Ayuktas.
o The district officers were helped by junior officers called Dandikas, Dandapasikas, and Kulikas.
 The important officers of the village were Gramikas and Bhojakas.
o Bhukti(province)- Uparika
o Vishaya(district)-Vishayapathi
o Vithi(Block)-Vithipathi
 The stamps of Gupta's included the image of Garuda.
 The normal rate of tax is 1/6th of the produce but in emergency situations it was increased 1/4 of the produce.
 Vishti:
The agrarian structure and Revenue system:
 Land revenue-primary sources of the income of the state and Guptas put all efforts in increasing
agricultural production.
 Waste lands were brought under cultivation
 The land grants given to Brahmins were called Agraharas.
Social conditions:
o Revival of Hinduism under the patronage of the Gupta rulers.
o Increased trade and commerce helped in the growth of a city culture.
o four fold division of the society, The status of the Vaishyas and Sudras also improved.
 Except the Chandalas, theoretically every caste witnessed improvement in its social status
 The inferior status of Women continued
 patriarchal society
 It was advocated that girls should be married before attaining puberty.
 Education was limited only to upper class women.
 There was no purdah system.
 The practice of sati was practically restricted to the upper class families and that too some places only.
 institution of prostitution and Nagara Vadhu (city bride) had become popular.
 Devadasis were kept at the temples.
 Streedhan concept was elaborated by a famous lawgiver katyayana.
 Public and personal morality was high
Religion
 New religion called Hinduism.
 Rudra of Aryans and Shiva of Dravidians were identified as one and sole.
 Bhakti(s)
 Temple activity spurred up in Hinduism.
 Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati. These female deities wear considered as consorts of Shakti (Durga).
 Temple architecture was started under guptas.
 VaisheShika philosophy also appeared during this period.
 Budhism, Jainism and Hinduism remained popular religions.
Renowned Budhist scholars like Asanga, Vasubandhu, Kumarjiva and Dignnaga wrote best scholarly
works during this time. Besides, the artistic creations of Ajanta and Ellora caves and the Stupas,
Economic conditions:
 age of economic prosperity.
 Mathura-cotton cloth, Banaras -silk production.
 Traders and different professional people formed their own association. These associations were called
guilds. Each guild elected its own head, who was called Shrestha, and this shrestha became shresthi
and later shetty. These guilds became professional centers, supervised and acted as bankers to their
professions.
 For external trade on the east Tamralipti, in the west Chaul, Broach, Cambay are the important ports.
 Fa-hein described that even the cauries (sea-shell) were used as medium of exchange.
 urbanization.

Literature and Education:

 Pataliputra, Vallabhi, Ujjain, Padmavati, Avarapura, Vatsagulma, Kasi, Mathura, Nasik and Kanchi, were
the centers of learning where universities were established.
 universities provided both religious and secular education
 Sanskrit has become a prominent language during this period. The beautiful Sanskrit in Kavya style
reached its maturity.
 The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata received their present form during this age.
 Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dignaga, and Dharmapala (Vice-Chancellor of Nalanda University) were the
famous Buddhist scholars of this age.
 Secular literature also progressed during this period. Amongst prominent works of this age are:
o Vasavadata by Subandhu,
o Ravanavadha by Bhattin,
o Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi,
o Mudrarakshasa by Vishakadatta,
o Mrichakatika by Sudraka.
o Dasa akumara Charitra by Dandin.
o Amarasimha wrote Amarakosha
o Vatsayana wrote Kama sutra.
o The author of the Prasasti of Allahabad pillar Harisena was also great scholar of Sanskrit.
o Greatest of all these scholars in Sanskrit was Kalidasa, who wrote many works like Ritu Samhara,
Meghduta, and Kumara Sambhava. Raghuvansa, Vikramorvasiyam, Malavikagnimitram and
Abhijnana Sakuntalam.
Science, Grammar, Astronomy and Medicine etc.:
 Aryabhatta -Aryabhatiyam in which he found solutions to many problems of Algebra, Geometry and
Trignometry. The decimal system was discovered by the Hindus.
 Varahamihira-Brhat-samhita.
 Brahma Gupta-Brahma siddhanta.
 In medicine Dhanvantari Sushruta and Vagbhata belongs to this period.

Art and Architecture:

 The Gupta architecture-cave and temple architecture of those times. Apart from these, there were two
Buddhist stupas.
 The "MirpurKhas stupa" was built in 4th century A.D., which contains a number of arches.
 The relics of the "Dhameka Stupa, built of bricks represent the idiom of the Gupta architecture.

 The stupa at Rajagriha and Dhameka, stupa at Sanchi are the most prominent....
 Ajanta caves 16 and 17 were constructed in this period.
 The construction of Hindu temples began in this period. The remnants of these temples are found at
Jabbalpur, Bhumara and Udayagiri.
Cave temples
 Buddhist temples (9 in number) at Bagh, MP found to be built by Guptans.
 Some Ajanta (out of 31 caves) are built by Guptans. Viharas and Chaitya.
 9 caves at Udayagiri MP are found to be built by Guptans and these are the first Hindu-caves.
Structural Temples
 Kanakali Devi temple in Jabalpur, MP.
 Vishnu and Varaha temples at Eran, MP.
 Guptans were worshippers of Vishnu (in VarahaAvatar)
 Parvati and Mahadeva temple at Nachanakuthara, MP.
 Shiva temple a Bhumara, MP.
 Dashavatara temple at Beogarh, UP.
Sculpture:
 Mathura, Sarnath and Pataliputra In these centers images of Buddha and different Hindu gods and
goddesses were prepared.
 the seated Buddha image from Sarnath, and the standing Buddha image in the Mathura museum.
Painting:
 Ajanta and Bagh caves.
 No 16 and 17 frescoes of Ajanta are certainly belong to Gupta age. In cave no 16 the scene known as the
'dying princess' and in cave no 17 the mother and the child' are regarded as the most beautiful ones.
 Hindu caves are found in Udayagiri, Bhopal.
Sculptures and Paintings.
 Sultangunj Buddha-
 The Great Boar (Varaha) - Found at Udayagiri caves (Hindu caves)
Ajanta:
 These caves are in a row numbered to 31 (1st cave to last cave - 500 mts) various periods. Caves here
are Viharas and some Chaitya.
 fresco mural paintings.
Styles of Temple building in India
 The temple is a representation of the macrocosm (the
universe) as well as the microcosm (the inner space).
Nagara
 North Indian architecture-'Nagara or Shikara style.
 In this Nagara style the tower is beehive shaped (That
means semi cylindrical).
 Nagara style was developed in 4th C AD.
Dravida
 Pallavas were pioneers of south Indian
architecture
 progressively smaller storeys of
pavilions. (That is tower is in semi-
pyramidal shape).
 This Dravida style which was developed
somewhere in 6-7th C.
 The major difference between Nagara and
Dravida style is the shape of
superstructure over sånctum sanctorum.
(Called Vimana)
Vesara
 In Deccan a new style of temple building.
Composite style. This was developed by
Chalukyas of Badami.
 Best Vesara style temples were built by
Hoysala(s) who dominated the Karnataka
region.
Ideas in Science and Technology in Ancient India
Ancient Indians made immense contributions in Science and Technology.
Physics
 Vaiseshika School elaborated the atomic theory.
 Brahmagupta (later 6th and early 7th century) anticipated Newton by declaring that "All things fall to
Earth by law of nature"
Mathematics
 Indians made three distinct contributios- notation system, decimal system and zero usage.
 Indians were the first to use the decimal system.
 Zero was discovered by Indians in 2nd century BC. Alberuni says that it was Brahmagupta who gave
zero its status in Mathematics.
 Knowledge of Geometry is reflected in the Sulvasutras of 5th century BC. Aryabhatta (Surya Siddhanta)
formulated the rule for finding out the area of a triangle which led to the origin of Trignometry.
Astronomy
 Jyotisha Vedanga (500 BC)- astronomy.
 Aryabhatta explained the true cause of solar and lunar eclipses, He gave the value of n =3.1416, he
stated that the Earth was spherical in shape in his book called Aryabhattiya (AD 499)
 Varahamihira is his book Brihat Samhita (AD 6th century) stated that the Moon rotates round the
Earth, and the Earth rotates around the Sun.
Chemistry
 Gupta Period copper statue of Buddha from Sultanganj and Iron pillar of Mehrauli at Delhi are finest
examples.
Medicine
 Hyms is Atharavaveda associated with Ayurveda.
 Charaksamhita of Charaka (AD 100)
 Sursutasamhita of Susruta -rhinoplasty
Grammar and Linguistics
Astadhyayi of Panini in 400 BC and Mahabhasya of Patanjali 2nd century BC.
 Post-GuPtan aGe (550 ad-750 ad)
Political Divisions
Northern India:
 Pushyabhuti Kingdom - Capital Taneshwar, Haryana
 Maukhari Kingdom - Capital Kannauj, UP
 Gauda Kingdom - Capital Karnasuvarna. Gouda
Shashanka, he was a shaivite and anti-buddhist. He
destroyed the original Pipal tree at Gaya.
 Kamarupa Kingdom Capital Pragiyothisvanura (Modern
Guwahati): The Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited the
kingdom in the 7th century then king was
Bhaskaravarman.
 Maitraka Kingdom - Capital Vallabhi, Gujarat. Hinayana
Buddhist University was developed at Vallabhi by this
Kings.
Deccan
 Badami Chalukyas - Capital Badami (original name was
Vatapi).- present name Karnataka
South
 Pallava Kingdom - Capital Kanchi
Pushyabhuti Kingdom
The main sources for the History of
Harshavardhana are:
 Harsha charita of Bana bhat.
 Heung Tsang's Si-Yu-Ki,
 Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II,
 Contemporary inscriptions and coins.
Pushyabuti founded this kingdom. In
Pushyabhuti dynasty four kings ruled, were:
 Naravardhana
 Rajavardhana
 Aditya Vardhana.
 Prabhakara Vardhana.
Prabhakara Vardhana married Malwa princess,
and had children two sons Raja Vardhana,
Harsha Vardhana and Rajya sree daughter.
Rajya sree was married to Maukhari ruler
Grahavarma.
Prabhakara Vardhana -the title 'Huna Harina
Kesari'.
Harshavardhana (606-647AD)
 Harshavardhana belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty, and Thaneshvar as capital.
 Harsha occupied Kanauj and united both Kanauj and Thaneshvar and ruled from the Kanauj as his
capital, and assumed the title 'Shiladitya'.
 Harsha's conquests:
o Harsha invaded first Malwa and defeated Deva Gupta then he attacked Vallabhi (Gujarat).
o It was only after the death of Sasanka Harsha could occupy Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
 War with Chalukyas: Chalukya Pulakesin lI . The battle took place on the bank of Narmada River. In
this battle Pulakesin-ll defeated Harsha- Pulakeshin's Aihole inscription.
 Harsha's Kingdom.
o Heung Tsang and Bana bhat referred him as the sovereign ruler of whole of north India.
 Harsha was a patron of scholars and he himself is a scholar. He wrote. 3 Sanskrit drama
o Priyardarshi
o Naganandam
o Ratnavali
There was a scholar in his court named 'Banabhatta. He wrote books like
 Harshacharitha
 Kadambari
 Parvati Parinayam
Administration:
 To assist the king a council of ministers were appointed.
 Besides ministers, there were many other important officials a detailed list was given by Bana in his
Harsha charita.
 Among the higher officials, Maharajadhi krita, Mahapratihara, Mahasandhi Vigrahaka etc..
 The empire was divided into Bhuktis, Vishayas and Gramas. The head of the Bhukti was called
Uparika, Vishayapati at Vishaya, head of the village was called Gramaadhyaksha.
 Local administration was done by Bhogapati, Ayukta, and Pratipalaka.
 Main source of income to the state was land revenue. 1/6 of the produce was collected as land revenue.

Dharma Parishat:
 Maha moksha Parishat every five years at Prayag (Allahabad).
 Heung Tsang attended the sixth Maha moksha parishat
 According to Si-Yu-Ki this Mahamokshaparishat is conducted for about 75 days every five years.
 Heung Tsang wrote that Harsha accepted Buddhism.
 Heung Tsang wrote that, Harsha built stupas and Viharas, brought Buddha Dhatuvu from Kashmir and
consecrated as a standing Buddha idol made of gold,.
 In 643, Harsha organized a Buddhist assembly (Parishat) at Kanauj, Heung Tsang presided over the
parishat and this was held for 18 days (Sarva matha sammelanam)
Social conditions:
 Chatur Varna system
 Women's freedom was reduced. Child marriages took place. Women were confined to arts and education
only.
 Devadasi system got strengthened.
Economic conditions:
 Main occupation of the people at that time was Agriculture
 Si-Yu-Ki mentioned that for lifting and supplying of water to the fields Pulley machine were also used.
 Guilds were well developed.
 The internal and external trade was going on very high.
Religion:
 During Harsha's period, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were prevalent.
 Si- Yu-Ki informs us that Harsha used to worship Buddha, Siva and Surya
 Kasi was a great Saiviate center.
 In Saivism sects like Kalamukha and Kapilika were formed.
 Vajrayana Buddhism evolved in the eastern part of India during this age.
 During this period Nalanda University became famous one.
 Harsha granted the income of one hundred villages for the maintenance of Nalanda University.
There is slight information of period between 650 and 750 AD.
Yasovarma:
 It was known that Yasovarma was ruling from Kannau
 Yasovarma-Ramabhyudayam in Sanskrit.
 There was a scholar in his court named Bhavabhuti. His few Sanskrit books are
o Uttararamacharitha
o Malathimadahavam.
o Mahaviracharitha
Another scholar by name Vakpati wrote a book called Gaudavaho. This book tells about Yashovarma's
conquest of Bengal. This book was written in Prakrit.
Badami Chalukyas ( Circa Mid 6th C-Mid 8th century)
The founder of this dynasty was Jayasimha (C.E.485 510).
His son Ranaraga ruled from C.E.510 to 533. Their capital
city was Badami. Chalukyas confined to the Bijapur
district of modern Karnataka.
Pulakeshi I (C.E.535-566):
 Ranaraga's son was Pulakeshi I.
 According to the Badami inscription- an independent
kingdom. He built the fort at Badami.
 titles 'Satyasraya', 'Chalukyavallabha' and
'Ranavikrama'.
Kirtivarma (C.E. 566-598):
 After Pulakeshi I his son Kirtivarma ascended the
throne.
 His conquests and his capability is known from his
inscription Badami. He constructed many palaces and
temples at Badami and made it a beautiful city.
 Mahakuta pillar inscription informs that he invaded
Anga, Kalinga, Magadha and conquered them.
Mangalesha (C.E.591-609):
 He conquered the Revati Island on the west coast, defeated the Kalachuris. Mangalesha had the title
'Parama bhagavata'.
Pulakeshi II (C.E. 609-642):
 Pulakeshi II was greatest
 His conquests are mentioned in the Aihole inscription issued by his court poet Ravikeerti.
 First he conquered Pithapuram and entered the Vengi kingdom. In the Kolluru battle he defeated
Visnukundina king Madhava varma III and occupied Vengi. He appointed his brother Kubja
Vishnuvardhana as royal representative. Historians opined that Kolluru war took place around 624 C.E.
later in Pullaluru battle he defeated Pallava Mahindra Varma and merged Pallava kingdom into his
kingdom.
 After Gautamiputra Satakarni, Pulakeshi II is the one who united the whole of South India and
established a great empire.
 Aihole inscription- Pulakeshi Il defeated Harsha on the bank of Narmada River.
 title 'Parameshwara'
 Persian emperor Khusru II, wishing his friendship sent many gifts and one ambassador to the court of
Pulakeshi II and this fact is known from the writings of the Persian historian Tabari.
 Heung Tsang's visit:. 640-641,
 Pallava Narasimhavarma I, took revenge in C.E. 642. In the Manimangala war Pulakeshi II was
defeated and killed by Narasimha verma, As mark of his victory Narasimhavarma assumed the title
'Vatapi konda'.
Vikramaditya I (C.E.642-680):
 he invaded on the Pallava kingdom and defeated
Mahindravarma II and got married his daughter.
 Pallava Parameshwaravarma defeated him in the
Peravallavuru battle.
Vinayaditya (C.E.680-696):
 temples at Alampur were constructed. Vinayaditya's inscription
in Kannnada was found at Alampur.
Vijayaditya (C.E.696-733):

Vikramaditya II (C.E.733-747):
 He stopped the invasion of Arabs
 After this Vikramaditya II attacked Pallava kingdom and defeated Pallava Nandivarma and looted
Kanchipuram. As a mark of this victory, he issued an inscription in the Kailasnath temple.
 As a mark of his victories his chief queen constructed a temple in Pattadakal.
Kirtivarma II (C.E.747-757):
 one of the feudatories Dantidurga declared independence in Maharashtra.
 The successor of Dantidurga, Krishna I defeated Kirtivarma II and expelled him.
 Rashtrakutas in Deccan with a capital Yellora
Religious conditions:
 great revival of Hinduism took place.
 Deccan region came under the influence of Saiva, Vaisnava and Jaina sects.
 In Badami and Pattadakal many temples of Harihara, Trimurthy, Jaina and Buddhist were constructed
and also gave monetary support for building of these temples.
 In Aihole Ravikirti constructed Jaina temple.
 Vikramaditya-I patronized Jaina teacher Udayadeva.
 Sanskrit became the official language
 Ravikirti was the court poet of Pulakeshi II great Sanskrit poet.
 Ganga Durvinita wrote 'Shabdavatara, a grammatical work, and also wrote a commentary to Bharavi's
Kiratarjuniyam'.
 Telugu and Kannada got the shape in this period only.
Art and Architecture:
 laid the foundation for construction of Hindu temples
 Vesara style was developed.
 They constructed 70 temples in Aihole. In Pattadakal they constructed 10 temples,
 Badami Chalukyan's built both the Rock-cut cave temples as well as Structural temples.
Structural temples
o All the three styles (Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara) of structural temples were built by them.
o Aihole:
o Huchimalligudi
o Melagetti Shivalinga-Vesara style.
o Durga temple
o Lad khan temple (It is a Shiva temple, but named after à Sufi saint who lived in this)

o Pattadakal: More than 10 temples are here.

o Lokeshwara (Virupaksha) temple. King Vikramaditya II built this
temple on request of his queen Lokamahadevi'.
o Alampur Beautiful temple in Nagara style and these are
popularly known as Nava Brahma temple.'Bala Brahmeshwara
temple.
o Sangameshwara Temple.
Pallavas (550-850 AD)
Kanchi as their capital the Pallavas
patronized Sanskrit and it is their official language.
Sources:
 Mahindravarma's Tiruchinapalli, Mandagapattu, Kudiyamalai inscriptions.
 Narasimha Verma's Badami inscription,
 Pulakesin II's Aihole inscription,
 Nandi varma's Udayindiram inscription,
 Manchikallu, Myadavolu inscriptions.
 Mahindra Varma's Mattavilasa Prahasana,
 Dandin's Dashakumara Charitra,
 Bharavi's Kiratarjuniyam
 writings of Alwars and Nayanars, Kural and Mahavamsa etc..
Early Pallavas: the Political history of Pallavas can be divided into two parts, as Early Pallavas and later
Pallavas.
 The founder of this dynasty was Veerakurucha Varma. He was defeated by Samudra Gupta. After him
Trilochana Pallava came to the throne and donated Agraharas to the Brahmins.
New Pallavas:
Simhavishnu (C.E. 575-600):
 title 'AvaniSimha'.
Mahindravarma I (C.E.600-630):
 struggle between Pallavas and Chalukyas began.
 Pulakeshi II- Pullaluru battle C.E. 630 defeated Mahindravarma I but Mahindravarma I saved his
capital,
 He wrote a drama 'MattavilasaPrahasanam' in Sanskrit.
 In South India, Mahindravarma I started the Dravidian art and architectural styles. The cave paintings of
Sittanavassal were painted during his period.
Narasimhavarma I (C.E.630-666):
 greatest among all the Pallava rulers.
 Narasimhavarma I defeated pulakesi-2 in the Manimangalam war. victory pillar in Badami. title
'Vatapikonda'.
 He built a great port city by the name 'Mahamallapuram'. titles 'Mahamalla'. In his court lived the great
poet of Sanskrit, Bharavi. Bharavi wrote a book 'Kiratarjuniyam' in Sanskrit.
 During the time of Narasimhavarma I, Chinese traveler Heung Tsang visited Kanchi.
Mahindravarma II (C.E.668-670):
 He was defeated by the Chalukya Vikramaditya.
Parameshwaravarma I (C.E.670-685):
 Chalukya Vikramaditya invaded Kanchi and defeated him in the Peruvallaluru battle.
Narasimhavarma II (C.E.685-730):
 He built shore temple in Mahabalipuram, and Kailasnath temple in Kanchi. He had the title 'Rajasimha'.
 He built large number of 'Ghatika(s)' in Kanchi.
Parameshwaravarma II (C.E. 730-733):
 During his reign Chalukya Vikramaditya II, attacked Kanchi, and issued a victory inscription in
Kailasnath temple and collected tribute from him.
Nandi Varma (C.E. 733-794):
 title 'Pallavamalla'.
 Chalukya Vikramaditya II invaded and looted Kanchi.
 Later founder of Rashtrakuta Dynasty Dantidurga invaded Pallava kingdom and defeated Nandi Varma.
Nandi Varma was a great builder, who built Vaikuntha Perumal temple in Kanchi.
Dantivarma (C.E. 795-845):
 During his period Rashtrakuta Govinda III invaded Pallava kingdom and plundered Kanchi.
Nandivarma III (C.E. 845-866):
 In his court there was a scholar called Perundevanar He translated Mahabharata into Tamil.
 Pampa translated Mahabharata into Kannada circa 10th C
Aparajitavarma (C.E. 896-897):
 Aditya Chola invaded Aparajitavarma in C.E. 885. In this war Aparajitavarma died. With the death of Aparajitavarma,
the history of Pallava dynasty came to an end.
Administration:
 Satavahana system of administration.
 Pallavas assumed the titles 'Dharma Maharajadhiraja'.
 Pallavas kingdom is divided into Rashtras, Rashtras into Vishayas, Vishayas into Bhogas, Bhogas into
Gramas.
 Rashtra was administered by an official called vyapruta.
 Villages had three types of Sabhas.
o Ur was the Sabha of all Land owners as members.
o All Brahmins as members was called 'Sabha'
o All traders as members is called Nagaram.
 With the advice of the village official Gramabhojaka, these committees looked after the affairs of the village.
 Courts are called Dharmasanas, which enquired and punished the criminals.
 Gramasabhas were responsible for the administration of village temples, gardens, irrigation facilities and census.
 every village appeared like a self-reliant republic.
Economic conditions:
 Heung Tsang wrote that the land was very fertile and the people were hard working.
 Landless people worked as agricultural laborers, paid the labour in kind.
 Cottage industries functioned, along with agriculture. Cottage industries formed into a guild.
 Inscriptions mention the names of the guilds as Nanadeshi and Manigramam.
 From the Ports of Mahabalipuram and Nagapattinam,
 Inscriptions mention 18 types of taxes collected by the Pallavas.
 Land revenue was the major income of the state, collected 1/6 to 1/10 of the produce as tax.
Social conditions:
 Pallava rulers followed the 'Varnashrama Dharma'.
Religious conditions:
 Pallava rulers were the followers of Vedic religion.
 Among the early Pallavas, Sivaskanda varma and Kumara Vishnu performed Vedic sacrifices.
 Bhakti became more popular- Saiva Nayanars and Vaisnava Alwars played active role.
 Among the 63 Nayanars
 Pallavas insignia was bull and eagle was accepted on their flag.
 In Saivism, extremist sects like Kalmukha Pashupatas were born.
 In Tamil language Nayanars bhakti songs Tevarams and Alvars Nayilar (four thousand) prabhandas
spread the religion and developed.
Literature.
 By establishing Ghatikas, the Pallavas patronized especially Sanskrit language and Vedic education.
 Temples Saiva and Vaisnava mathas developed into great educational centers. The educational center
was Kanchipuram was very popular
 Mahindra Varma was a greatest poet among the Pallava kings. He wrote 'Mattavilasaprahsana' in
Sanskrit. The great Sanskrit poets Bharavi and Dandi were patronized by Pallava kings.
 Bharavi in the court of Nandivarma II wrote Kiratarjuniyam and Sishupalavadha,
 Dandi in the court of Narasimhavarma II wrote Dasakumara Charitra and Kavya darshanam.
 Tamil Shaiva literature called Tevaram/Tirumural was written by a group of 63 Shaiva saints and poets
called Nayanars'. This Shaiva literature is also called as Dravida Vedas.
 Tamil Vaishnava literature called "Nalayiradivya prabhandham, was written by a group of 12 vaishnava
saints and poets called Allavars.
 Mahindravarma and Narasimha varma had great expertise in music. During the Pallava period Bharata
Natyam got special recognition and became popular.
Art and Architecture of Pallavas:
 laid a strong foundation for the south Indian temple styles.
 Pallava architecture style - period of Mahindravarma (C.E.600-630).
Architecture during the Pallavas developed in four stages. They were known with the names of the kings
who developed them.
 1. Mahindra style (600-630),
 [Link] style (630-690), Mandapas and monolithic chariots
 3. Rajasimha style (700-800)-structural temples,
 4. Nandivarma style.
1. Mahindra style:
 He built Panchpandava caves at Pallavaram
 Mahindravarma I mentioned in his Mandagapattu inscription that he constructed a temple of Trimurthy
2. Mamalla style:
 Narasimhavarma I continued the style of his father. His style is known as Mamalla style.
 In Mahabalipuram, he excavated cave temples to Mahishasuramardini, Dharmaraju, Shivatrimurthy,
Durga and Varahamurthy.
 In Mahabalipuram new type of temples in the form of chariots were excavated. These chariots were built
in monolithic. These were called as Panchapandavarathas (chariots).
3. Rajasimha style:
 Narasimhavarma II
 Important constructions of this style were shore temple at Mahabalipuram, Kailasnath temple at Kanchi,
which is the first structural temple built in Dravidian style.
 The shore temple is known as Trimurthykoil.
 The highlight of the Rajasimha style is the Kailasnath temple at Kanchi.
4. Nandivarma style:
 Vaikuntha Perumal temple built in Kanchi is important. In Kanchi chief temples constructed in the last
stage are Mukteshwara, Matangeshwara, Airavateshwara, Tripurantakeshwara.
 In Gudimallam, temple of Parushurameshwara built in gajaprushtakara was constructed by
Nandivarma.
Sculpture:
 Among the sculptures of the Pallavas, the descent of Ganges is very popular; the story of
Kiratarjuniyam is beautifully carved on this sculpture.
Paintings:
 sittannavasal caves in Tamilnadu.
Rock-cut temples
Mahendravarma I: Bhairiarakonda – TN, Sittanavasal, TN - A Shiva cave temples
 Undavalli, AP Ananthashaiyanaswami temple
Narasimhávarma I
Mahabalipuram-Pandava Rathas
 Arjuna's penance sculpture is also found at
Mahabalipuram. Historians gave it another name
called "Descent of Ganga'.
Structural Temple
Narasimhavarma II
 first king to build temples in Dravidian style.
 Mahabalipuram is considered as the birthplace of
Dravidian style
 Shore Temple -
 Another famous temple at Kanchi known as
Kailasanatha temple of Rajasimheshwara temple.
This is the best of all temples of South India of
Ancient time.
He also built many structural temples. Some famous
temples are
 Muktheshwara Temple, Kanchi
 Mathengeshwara Temple, Kanchi
 Vaikunta Perumal, Kanchi
 Parushrameshwar temple at Gudimallam, AP
(Bordering to TN) Chittor.

Vengi Chalukyas (Eastern Chalukyas)

with Vengi and Rajamahendravaram as capital cities.
Kubja Kubja Visnuvardhana:
 Founder of the Vengi Chalukya dynasty
Visnuvardhana.
 the title 'Vishamasiddi'.