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Industrial Policy in Europe, Japan and the USA
Also by Khalid Sekkat
LES RELATIONS VERTICALES INTER-ENTREPRISES: Objectifs Et Instruments
TRADE AND JOBS IN EUROPE: Much ado about Nothing (co-edited with
M. Dewatripont and A. Sapir)
EUROPEAN INTEGRATION AND THE FUNCTIONING OF PRODUCT MARKETS
(co-edited with A. Dierx and F. Ilzkovitz)
VERTICAL RELATIONSHIPS AND THE FIRM IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY
L’ ÉCONOMIE MACROCAINE EN QUESTIONS (co-edited with L. Achy)
COMPETITION AND EFFICIENCY IN THE ARAB WORLD (co-edited volume)

Also by Pierre-André Buigues

THE ECONOMICS OF ANTITRUST AND REGULATION IN TELECOM-

MUNICATION: Perspectives for the New European Regulatory Framework
(co-edited with Patrick Rey)
COMPETITIVENESS AND THE VALUE OF INTANGIBLE ASSETS (co-edited with
A. Jacquemin)
EUROPEAN POLICIES OF COMPETITION, TRADE AND INDUSTRY: Conflicts
and Complementaries (co-edited with Jacquemin and A. Sapir)
MARKET SERVICES AND EUROPEAN INTEGRATION: The Challenges for the
90’s (co-edited with A. Sapir and J. Gual)
Industrial Policy in Europe,
Japan and the USA
Amounts, Mechanisms and Effectiveness

Pierre-André Buigues
and

Khalid Sekkat
© Pierre-André Buigues and Khalid Sekkat 2009
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this
work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published 2009 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke,
Hampshire RG21 6XS.
Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC,
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.
Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies
and has companies and representatives throughout the world.
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ISBN: 978–0–230–57988–0 hardback
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processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Printed and bound in Great Britain by
CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne
To Chantal To Claude and William
Pierre-André Buigues Khalid Sekkat
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

List of Tables x

List of Figures xii

List of Acronyms xiii

Acknowledgements xvi

Introduction xvii

Part I Theory and Empirical Evidence

1 Public Support to Business: An Overview 3
1.1 Motivations 3
1.2 Types of public support to business 5
1.3 Instruments of public support to business 6
1.4 Conclusion 9

2 Cases for Public Support: Market Failures 10

2.1 Information 10
2.2 Externalities 11
2.3 Imperfect competition 16
2.4 Conclusion 18

3 Argument Against Public Support: Government Failures 20

3.1 Information 20
3.2 Conflicts with other policies 22
3.3 Political economy 25
3.4 Conclusion 27

4 Instruments of Support: Subsidies and

Public Procurement 29
4.1 Subsidies 29
4.2 Public procurement 43
4.3 Conclusion 54

5 Effectiveness of Public Support 55

5.1 Assessment issues 55
5.2 Empirical evidence on the arguments in favour of
public support 57

vii
viii Contents

5.3 Empirical evidence on the arguments against

public support 73
5.4 Conclusion 81

Part II Quantitative Assessment

6 Subsidies and State Aid 85
6.1 Public support policies in the OECD countries (1998) 89
6.2 Quantitative analysis of state aid in the EU 91
6.3 Public support policies in the EU, the USA, and Japan 94
6.4 Conclusion 98

7 Public Procurement 101

7.1 Divergences in assessments 101
7.2 Aggregate assessment using the EU definition 102
7.3 Public procurement by functions (the EU definition) 105
7.4 Conclusion 111

Part III Country Studies

8 Public Support in Germany 115
8.1 Objectives of public support 116
8.2 Actors 121
8.3 Instruments 125
8.4 Industry sector and structure 127
8.5 Public sector structure and public procurement 128
8.6 Evaluation and efficiency of instruments 132
8.7 Conclusion 137

9 Public Support in France 140

9.1 Objectives of public support 142
9.2 Actors 145
9.3 Industry sector and structure 150
9.4 Public sector structure and public procurement 152
9.5 Evaluation and efficiency of public support policy 155
9.6 Conclusion 157

10 Public Support in the United Kingdom 160

10.1 Objectives of public support 160
10.2 Actors 161
10.3 Instruments 162
10.4 Outcomes of public support in
the United Kingdom 167
10.5 Conclusion 169
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 Contents ix

11 Public Support in the United States 170

11.1 Objectives of public support 171
11.2 Actors 172
11.3 Instruments 173
11.4 Outcomes of public support in the United States 179
11.5 Conclusion 182

12 Public Support in Japan 184

12.1 Objectives of public support 187
12.2 Actors 189
12.3 Instruments 191
12.4 Industry sector and structure 194
12.5 Public sector and public procurement 196
12.6 Evaluation and efficiency of public support policy 198
12.7 Conclusion 201

Conclusions 203

Notes 206

Bibliography 213

Index 225
Tables

4.1 Classification of state aid by objective 33

4.2 Different approaches of subsidies 35
4.3 The use of countervailing mearsures by
reporting members from 1995 to 2006 39
4.4 The sectoral distribution of measures by
reporting members from 1995 to 2006 40
6.1 Differences between data sources on subsidies 87
6.2 Sectoral allocation of subsidies notified by WTO
members: Yearly average 1999/2002 (percentage) 88
6.3 EU Member States: Rankings for average subsidy 88
6.4 Reported expenditures (on manufacturing) by policy
objective in OCED 91
6.5 Sectoral distribution of aid by Member State (2006) 92
6.6 State aid for horizontal and sectoral aid in 2006 93
6.7 International trends in government subsidies
(as percentage of GDP) 95
6.8 Trends in government subsidies (as percentage of GDP) 95
6.9 Classification of subsidies by functions (2004) 97
7.1 Public procurement 102
7.2 Public procurement (own definition) 103
8.1 Total aids of the Federation in 2006 119
8.2 Industry support of the Federation in 2006 119
8.3 SME support in 2006 121
8.4 The financial equalization system between the Länder 122
8.5 Total aids by instrument and source 126
8.6 Aid mechanisms, ranked in descending order of
budgetary cost (Federation) 127
8.7 Total aids of the Federation in 2006 128
8.8 Public procurement in Germany in 2005 131
8.9 Federation public procurement in 2005 131
9.1 Breakdown of aid by objective 144
9.2 Breakdown of competitiveness clusters
by sector and type 148
9.3 R&D project funding: Clusters with a global
dimension 148
9.4 Public support by instrument 149

x
 Tables xi

9.5 Aid mechanisms, ranked in descending order

of budgetary cost 149
9.6 Sectoral aid by sector 151
9.7 Public procurement in France (2006) 154
10.1 Selected government expenses 163
11.1 Selected Federal expenses 174
12.1 Expenditure by policy objectives in Japan 185
12.2 Distribution of public funding in R&D in Japan 189
12.3 SME financing in Japan (September 2006) 193
12.4 SME favourable tax system 193
12.5 Entities with large procurement in 2005 197
12.6 Total value and number of government procurement
contacts in Japan 197
Figures

3.1 Competition, industrial and trade policies 23

7.1 The share of public procurement in GDP 104
7.2 Components of public procurements as a percentage
of GDP 105
7.3 Public procurement by function 106
8.1 Economic growth in the Länder 123
8.2 Unemployment rate in the Länder in 2006 124
8.3 Debt interest burden and investment ratio of
the Länder in 2006 124
8.4 The German public procurement system 130
8.5 Total private ‘private equity’ in Germany 134
8.6 Seed and start-up financing provided by private
‘private equity’ firms 134
8.7 Seed and start-up financing vs all remaining private
‘private equity’ 135
9.1 Presents the main actors of public support for R&D and
SMEs in France 145
9.2 Organization of procurement at
the national level 153
12.1 Trends in new business launches and closures by
number of enterprises 188
12.2 Distribution of public funding in R&D in Japan 190
12.3 Framework for SME policy 191

xii
Acronyms

ACI American Competitiveness Initiative

(The United States)
AII Agence de l’Innovation Industrielle (France)
ANR Agence Nationale de la Recherche (France)
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
ARD Annual Respondents Database
ATP Advanced Technology Program (The United States)
BEEPS Business Environment and Enterprise
Performance Survey
BMBF Federal Ministry for Education and Research
BMWi Federal Ministry for Economics and Technology
CVD Countervailing Duty
CIADT Regional Planning and Development Committee
(France)
CMPE Commission des Marchés Publics de l’Etat (France)
CNRS Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique
COFOG Classification of the Functions of the Government
DBERR Department for Business, Enterprise & Regulatory
Reform (The United Kingdom)
DC Developed Countries
DG-ECFIN Directorate General Economic and Finance (European
Commission)
DIUS Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills
(The United Kingdom)
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
(The United Kingdom)
EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
EC European Communities
EDA Economic Development Administration
(The United States)
EDF Electricté de France (France)
EPL Employment Protection Legislation
ERP European Recovery Plan
EU European Union
E&S Equipment and Software
FAR Federal Acquisition Regulation (The United States)

xiii
xiv Acronyms

FCE Fonds de compétitivité des entreprises (France)

FDI Foreign Direct Investment
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEM Global Entrepreneurship Monitor
GNP Gross National Product
GPA Government Procurement Agreement
IMF International Monetary Fund
INSEE Institut National de Statistique et d’Etudes Economiques
(France)
KfW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (the former bank for the
rebuilding of Germany)
LDC Less Developed Countries
MEP Manufacturing Extension Partnership (The United States)
METI Ministry of Economy Trade and Industry (Japan)
MITI Ministry of International Trade and Industry (Japan)
NAICS North American Industry Classification System
NAO National Audit Office
NAS National Account Statistics
NCG Net Cost to Government
NEG new economic geography
NERA National Economic Research Associates
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
(The United States)
NPISH Non-Profit Institutions Serving Households
OECD Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development
OFPP Office of Federal Procurement Policy (The United States)
OFT Office of Fair Trade (The United Kingdom)
OGC Office of Government Commerce (The United Kingdom)
OMB Office of Management and Budget (The United States)
PAT Prime d’Aménagement du Territoire
PMR Product market regulation
R&D Research and Development
RDA Regional Development Agencies (The United Kingdom)
RIETI Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry (Japan)
RSA Regional Selective Assistance (The United Kingdom)
S&T Sciences and Technology
SAMIS Selective Assistance Management Information System
SAP Structural Adjustment Programs
SBA Small Business Administration
SBIR Small Business Innovation Research (The United States)
SBS Small Business Service (The United Kingdom)
 Acronyms xv

SEC scale efficiency change

SCM Subsidies and Countervailing measures
SGEI Services of General Economic Interest
SMART/SPUR Small Firm Merit Awards for Research and
Technology (The United Kingdom)
SME Small and Medium Enterprise
SNA System of National Accounts
SNCF Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français
STEP Science, Technology, and Economic Policy
STT strategic trade theory
STTR Small Business Technology Transfer program
(The United States)
TAA Trade Agreements Act (The United States)
TC technical change
TEC technical efficiency change
TFP Total Factor Productivity
VAT value-added tax
VC Venture Capital
VCRs video-cassette recorders
VW Volkswagen
WCR World Competitiveness Report
WTO World Trade Organisation
Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Fabienne Ilzkovitz, Paul Seabright, Damien

Neven, David Encaoua, Dominique Guellec, Elie Cohen, Patrick
Messerlain, and Jean Pisani for very helpful discussions. Japanese gov-
ernment officials and economists also helped us to better understand
the specificities of the Japanese model to support the industry: Akira
Kawamoto, Akira Goto, Sumita, Hirose, Motohashi. The book has bene-
fited from valuable inputs provided by Christian Lechner and Eugenie
Kulozhenko. Needless to say, the opinions expressed in the book do not
reflect the policy lines of the institutions to which the authors are
affiliated.

xvi
Introduction

Over the past half century the mainstream view of public support to
business, also called industrial policy, has varied markedly. From the
early 1950s to the early 1970s industrial policy was seen as the panacea
to growth and development problems. The apparent success of some
East Asian economies has for a long time supported the conviction of
those who were in favour of such policy. However, since the end of 1970s
and until recently such conviction has been challenged. Evidence was
provided to show that industrial policy may lead to misallocation of
resources, not improve long-run growth, and give rise to rent-seeking.
Therefore, the widespread consensus among economists limited the role
of the state mainly to the protection of property rights and contract
enforcement, maintenance of macroeconomic stability and the creation
of a good general-purpose business environment, in addition to public
goods provision and social protection. As a result, a number of industri-
alized countries initiated a dramatic reversal of their discourses toward
supporting business and, under their persuasion, the IMF and the World
Bank incited developing countries to reduce or stop support to business
under the framework of the Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP).
At present, convictions seem to be softening. The Berlin Wall has
been broken. New economic theories have been developed (new growth,
geography, trade, etc.) and tested. As a result, few people still seriously
think that state planning and intervention can act as the main driving
force of economic development. At the same time, it is increasingly rec-
ognized that public action can, in some circumstances, combine with
private initiative to foster restructuring, diversification, and techno-
logical dynamism beyond what market forces on their own would gen-
erate. As a result, public support to business can take an intermediate
attitude between the two extremes. While market forces and private
initiative remain the driving force, governments could set strategies for
the productive sphere beyond simply ensuring property rights, enfor-
cing contracts, and stabilizing the economy.
As Wade (2003) points out, there is no clear-cut evidence that the
creation of efficient, rent-free markets coupled with transparent public
sectors is even close to being a necessary or sufficient for a dynamic
economic development. Moreover, it is increasingly recognized (Rodrik,
2004) that appropriate incorporation of private initiative into a

xvii
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