Essay–Translation Approach
(Chapter 2 of Heaton, 1979)
1. Definition
The Essay–Translation Approach is one of the earliest methods of language testing, used
widely in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It focuses on testing learners' knowledge of
grammar, vocabulary, and translation rather than their ability to use the language for real
communication.
In this approach, students are typically asked to:
• Translate passages from their mother tongue into English (or vice versa).
• Write essays on given topics to test writing skills, vocabulary, and grammatical
accuracy.
• Answer open-ended grammar and vocabulary questions in descriptive formats.
2. Historical Background
The Essay–Translation Approach grew out of the Grammar-Translation Method of
teaching English, which was dominant in the 18th and 19th centuries. At that time, the main
goal of learning a language was:
• To read classical literature.
• To translate texts accurately.
• To master grammar rules and vocabulary lists.
Because of this, tests mirrored classroom activities—mostly translation exercises and essay
writing, not oral communication.
3. Characteristics of the Approach
Heaton (1979) explains several key features of this testing method:
a. Heavy Focus on Translation
• Learners are tested on their ability to translate sentences or paragraphs word-for-
word.
• The goal is accuracy rather than fluency.
• Example:
Translate the following sentence into English:
“Dia sedang membaca buku di perpustakaan.”
→ Expected answer: “He is reading a book in the library.”
b. Use of Essays
• Students are asked to write essays on general topics, e.g.:
“Write an essay on the importance of education.”
• Essays are used to measure:
o Vocabulary range
o Sentence structure
o Grammar accuracy
o Style and organization
However, scoring essays can be highly subjective, as teachers may differ in what they
consider “good writing.”
c. Open-Ended Questions
• Tests often include long-answer questions instead of multiple-choice items.
• Example:
“Explain the difference between the past perfect tense and past simple tense and give
two examples for each.”
This type of question assesses theoretical knowledge rather than practical language use.
d. Memorization-Oriented
• Students often memorize grammar rules and vocabulary lists for translation.
• There’s little emphasis on listening and speaking skills.
• The test encourages rote learning rather than meaningful language practice.
4. Advantages of the Approach
Even though this approach is considered outdated today, Heaton (1979) highlights several
strengths:
a. Easy to Construct
• Teachers can prepare test items quickly without special resources.
• Translating or writing essays requires little test design expertise.
b. Direct Measurement of Grammar and Vocabulary
• Suitable for students aiming to master written accuracy.
• Effective for academic purposes where reading and writing are prioritized.
c. Encourages Deep Thinking in Essays
• Essay writing can test higher-order skills such as:
o Organizing ideas logically
o Expressing opinions
o Developing arguments
5. Disadvantages of the Approach
Despite its early popularity, Heaton criticizes the Essay–Translation Approach for several
weaknesses:
a. Poor Reliability
• Scoring essays and translations is subjective and inconsistent.
• Two teachers may give very different marks for the same answer.
b. Low Validity
• The test doesn’t measure real communicative competence.
• Students may score well without being able to speak or understand spoken English.
c. Encourages Rote Learning
• Students often memorize grammar rules and vocabulary rather than practicing
language use.
• Produces learners who can translate well but struggle in everyday conversations.
d. Time-Consuming
• Writing essays and translating long passages take a lot of time.
• Scoring by teachers also requires more effort compared to objective tests.
6. Example of an Essay–Translation Test
Part A – Translation
Translate the following sentences into English:
1. Dia pergi ke sekolah setiap pagi.
2. Buku itu sudah saya baca dua kali.
Part B – Grammar and Vocabulary
Write five sentences using the past perfect tense.
Part C – Essay
Write an essay of 250 words on the topic:
"The Importance of Learning English in the 21st Century."
This format shows that the test focuses more on accuracy and knowledge about language,
not language in use.
7. Comparison with Modern Approaches
Aspect Essay–Translation Approach Communicative Approach
Focus Grammar, vocabulary, translation Real-life communication
Skills Tested Reading & writing mainly Listening, speaking, reading, writing
Test Format Essays, translations, long answers Role plays, interviews, tasks
Scoring Subjective, inconsistent More objective with rubrics
Learner Outcome Good at rules, weak at speaking Better communicative competence
8. Heaton’s Final View
According to Heaton (1979), the Essay–Translation Approach does not match the goals of
modern English teaching, especially in contexts where communicative competence is the
main target. However, he acknowledges that essay writing and translation can still be
useful components if combined with other testing methods, such as:
• Multiple-choice tests
• Oral interviews
• Listening comprehension tasks
This balanced approach increases both validity and reliability.
