Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

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Results in Engineering
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Multi-disciplinary optimization of hybrid composite radomes for

enhanced performance
Muhammad Talha Aamir a, Muhammad Ali Nasir a, Zafar Iqbal b, Haris Ali Khan c, *,
Zhaib Muneer a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology (UET) Taxila, Pakistan
b
Department of Surface & Materials Engineering (SCME), National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST) Islamabad, Pakistan
c
Aerospace Engineering Department, National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST) Islamabad, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The focus of this research is to develop a specialized multidisciplinary design optimization framework for
Multidisciplinary design composite sandwich-structured radomes. Radomes play a crucial role in safeguarding antenna systems from
Hybrid sandwich composite challenging environmental conditions. However, they can adversely impact the electromagnetic performance of
Electromagnetic transmission
the antenna. Unlike traditional approaches that separately address electromagnetic performance and mechanical
Aerospace applications
responses, our framework considers both aspects concurrently, resulting in a more efficient process. The main
Radome design
objectives of the optimization are to enhance electromagnetic performance while also accounting for de­
formations, material integrity, and structural stability. To evaluate the electromagnetic performance, a 3-dimen­
sional numerical simulation is employed to analyze parameters such as electromagnetic transmission loss, bore
sight error, and side lobe characteristics. The model’s accuracy is verified through experimental testing in an
anechoic chamber, utilizing a hybrid sandwich structure. The results indicate minimal attenuation, with an
average loss of only 1.5 % in the transmission of antenna signals, using the proposed radome thickness.
Furthermore, the configuration of the material provides structural stability, ensuring a factor of safety of 2.5
while satisfying operational constraints. Hence, the proposed multidisciplinary optimization model represents an
efficient and feasible approach to radome design. This advancement in the field equips engineers and researchers
with a valuable tool to develop dependable and effective radome systems.

1. Introduction electromagnetic radiation, and absorption capabilities [10]. This inte­

gration opens up new possibilities for practical applications, further
A radome design is a quantitative description of the radome emphasizing the need for a multidisciplinary design approach.
configuration and composition [1]. Radomes serve as a critical interface Sandwich-structured radomes are used for wide frequency bands to
between electromagnetic antennas and the external environment, ensure stable operation of the radome-antenna system [11,12]. Sand­
shielding antennas from wind, rain, dust, and other environmental ele­ wich structures consist of a low-density core layer with desirable prop­
ments [2–4]. However, they must also allow for the efficient passage of erties, such as low permittivity and dielectric loss, sandwiched between
electromagnetic waves, avoiding excessive signal attenuation and fiber-reinforced composite skin layers [13]. The use of sandwich struc­
interference [5,6]. Achieving the optimal balance between electro­ tures offers mechanical advantages over conventional laminates,
magnetic performance and structural integrity poses significant chal­ including superior specific strength [14,15], which has led to their
lenges that demand a holistic and integrated design approach whereby widespread adoption in radome applications.
optimizing the structural stability of radomes is crucial [7]. Sandwich Researchers have focused on addressing the design parameters of
structures have been extensively studied for their ability to achieve high radomes due to their influence on the overall performance of the
mechanical strength, low radar cross section (RCS), and antenna-radome system [16,17]. Various techniques, such as ray
multi-functionality [8,9]. Metamaterial antenna lattice cores have been tracing, aperture integration-surface integration, and plane wave
integrated into sandwich structures to provide mechanical support, spectrum-surface integration, have been successively introduced to

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hakhan@[Link] (H.A. Khan).

[Link]
Received 1 August 2023; Received in revised form 20 October 2023; Accepted 25 October 2023
Available online 26 October 2023
2590-1230/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

analyze the electromagnetic (EM) performance of radomes [18–21]. The incorporating inputs from different disciplines, the multidisciplinary
use of composite materials in radome design allows for optimal designs design approach ensures a holistic consideration of all relevant factors,
tailored to specific applications, utilizing a range of optimization tech­ enhancing accuracy and effectiveness [41]. It allows a comprehensive
niques including traditional gradient-based and random search methods evaluation of trade-offs and enables innovative approaches that may not
for wave reflection analysis [22]. However, these traditional techniques be apparent from a single disciplinary perspective [42].
are often limited in addressing nonlinear and local optimum issues [23]. In this research, a multidisciplinary approach to radome design is
To overcome these limitations, researchers have introduced implemented through a case study. The study commences by selecting
advanced optimization algorithms, such as the simulated annealing al­ an electromagnetic (EM) source with desired performance characteris­
gorithm, which was applied by Hsu et al. [23] to optimize the boresight tics, followed by the design of a radome tailored to a specific aerospace
error (BSE) performance in radomes. This approach not only achieved vehicle. Computational analyses are employed to assess environmental
optimal thickness profiles but also provided general design principles for effects such as aerodynamic and inertial loads under operational con­
radome optimization [24]. Variable thickness radomes (VTR) offer the ditions, such as 0.8 Mach @ 15000 feet. The selection of hybrid sand­
potential to improve electromagnetic performance by reducing phase wich materials, comprising distinct face sheet materials with a PMI foam
distortion and addressing limitations of constant thickness radomes in core, is carried out using Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM)
advanced applications. The concept of hybrid variable thickness ra­ techniques. Experimental testing and computational modeling are used
domes was initiated by Nair and Jha [11,25], who presented both to determine sandwich structure configurations that offer sufficient
monolithic and sandwich-structured configurations. Xu et al. [26] structural strength while minimizing degradation of electromagnetic
introduced the particle swarm optimization technique to optimize the performance. The overarching goal is to quantify electromagnetic
streamlined configuration of airborne radomes, while Cheng et al. [27] transparency and structural strength, satisfying all aerodynamic con­
achieved an optimal thickness profile using the immune clonal algo­ straints to ensure optimal antenna performance within the radome. This
rithm and cubic spline interpolation. For practical fabrication purposes, approach results in the design of an optimized radome that considers the
Meng and Dou [28] proposed a "local uniform thickness" approach for available electromagnetic source and expected operational conditions.
different regions of airborne radomes to achieve high electromagnetic This research introduces a novel approach to designing composite
performance across the entire antenna scanning range. sandwich-structured radomes, with a primary focus on aerospace ap­
In addition to electromagnetic considerations, the mechanical plications. Unlike prior studies that separately addressed electromag­
behavior and structural requirements of radomes, including factors such netic performance or mechanical aspects of radomes, this research
as stiffness, strength, and buckling, must be addressed [29]. Unexpected integrates both aspects into a comprehensive optimization process. The
forces in practical applications, such as bird strikes, air pressure, thermal innovative approach aims to strike a balance between electromagnetic
loads, rain, and wind impact, can cause severe mechanical damage to transparency and structural integrity, effectively addressing the com­
radomes [30–32]. Wang et al. [33] studied the mechanical responses of plex challenges associated with radome design in the aerospace sector.
ground radomes to wind loads using finite element (FE) analysis, Additionally, advanced materials selection is incorporated into the
revealing the critical role of lateral buckling deformation in the func­ research using Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) techniques. This
tionality of composite radomes with large working surfaces. To enhance empowers engineers to make well-informed decisions regarding mate­
the stability of large-scale sandwich radomes, Wang et al. [34] proposed rial selection, taking into account various material attributes and their
the use of stiffeners on the internal surface, and the layout of these significance in the design process. Furthermore, the study combines
stiffeners was optimized using an optimization technique. The study of computational analysis and experimental validation to ensure the pre­
Wu et al. [35] using a smoothed particle hydrodynamics model high­ cision and reliability of the design models. Computational fluid dy­
lighted the importance of structural operation in aircraft radomes when namics (CFD) analysis is utilized for aerodynamic considerations, while
subjected to bird strikes, particularly at the nose. Kinslow et al. [36] finite element analysis (FEA) is employed for structural analysis.
simulated raindrop damage on radomes of high-speed vehicles and Experimental testing conducted in an anechoic chamber validates the
found that stress waves caused by rain impacts could lead to fractures electromagnetic performance, ensuring that the radome functions as
and splits within the radome materials, posing a threat to their structural intended in real-world conditions.
integrity and lifetime. The main objective of this research is to advance the design and
In the past, literature primarily focused on either the electromagnetic optimization of radomes, enabling engineers and researchers to develop
performance or the mechanical responses of radomes. However, in radome systems that include the necessary elements of electromagnetic
recent years, there has been a shift towards multidisciplinary design and transparency and mechanical stability consideration. Through the
optimization algorithms that consider both aspects simultaneously. Kim integration of multidisciplinary design principles, advanced materials
et al. [37] proposed a coupled solution that takes into account both selection, and experimental and numerical analyses, this research pro­
disciplines and concluded that the density of the core material has little poses a more comprehensive and methodological design approach that
influence on transmission while increasing bending resistance. Although can be extended to other aeronautical and aerospace applications.
functional requirements have been achieved through rational design,
the discrete selection of design parameters may limit the overall opti­ 2. Multi-disciplinary design approach methodology
mization process. To address this challenge, the Multidisciplinary
Radome Optimization System (MROS) was initiated by the U.S. Army, In contrast to previous practices where aerospace vehicles were
providing a comprehensive design framework that considers structural designed first and hardware/systems were later adjusted or fitted onto
considerations, thermal effects, aerodynamics, and electromagnetism the vehicle, the contemporary approach involves initiating the design of
[38]. aerospace systems by selecting available hardware options. The design
A multidisciplinary design approach integrates expertise from mul­ of the vehicle is then centered on the chosen hardware, to achieve the
tiple disciplines to address complex design challenges [39]. It involves desired outputs to the maximum extent possible. This paper proposes a
diverse professionals collaborating to develop comprehensive solutions multi-disciplinary approach that begins with the selection of appro­
considering various aspects of a problem. In optimizing the electro­ priate electromagnetic (EM) hardware, followed by the design of a
magnetic performance and structural stability of sandwich-structured radome specifically tailored for a particular aerospace vehicle.
radomes, experts from electromagnetics, structural engineering, mate­ The design methodology for an aerospace vehicle radome begins
rial science, and thermal analysis collaborate [40]. They understand the with defining the electromagnetic (EM) source characteristics, such as
interdependencies between electromagnetic performance, structural frequency and power, and selecting operating conditions like speed and
stability, material properties, and thermal behavior of the radome. By altitude. Next, the radome’s shape and size are determined while

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

considering both the EM source and vehicle constraints. Aerodynamic

analysis using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is conducted to
optimize the radome shape. Composite materials are chosen through
multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) for structural and EM perfor­
mance, and wall thickness is optimized for EM transparency. The EM
performance is validated through computational EM analysis (FEKO)
and experimental testing. Structural analysis and material failure
assessment are performed, followed by mechanical testing to validate
structural performance. Trade-offs between EM transparency, structural
integrity, and aerodynamic efficiency are evaluated to finalize the
optimized radome design for production. The design methodology has
been illustrated in a flowchart, as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 2. X-band antenna.

2.1. Selection of electromagnetic source (antenna)

2.2. Radome shape and size considerations

When selecting an electromagnetic (EM) source for the radome
design, several crucial factors must be taken into account. These factors
Once the electromagnetic source has been selected, the subsequent
include the frequency range of the electromagnetic source, power level,
step involves designing a radome that can effectively accommodate the
polarization state, beam width, and angle of incidence of the electro­
chosen electromagnetic source without any performance degradation.
magnetic, among others. Furthermore, specific design objectives such as
The shape and size of the radome must also take into consideration
signal transmission efficiency, reduction of electromagnetic cross-
factors such as the diameter of the radar antenna, swing radius, size of
section, minimization of phase distortion, and electromagnetic inter­
the aerospace vehicle, and space requirements for thermal management.
ference (EMI) shielding may also play a role in the selection process.
Additionally, other variables like installation and fixation requirements
In the case study presented in this paper, an electromagnetic source
should be considered.
known as the X-band antenna (shown in Fig. 2) has been chosen. The X-
In the current study, the operating conditions are limited to sub-sonic
band antenna operates within a frequency range of 8–12 GHz and has a
speeds of 0.8 Mach at an altitude of 15,000 feet. Therefore, the geo­
power level of 25 W. It utilizes X-band polarization and has a beam
metric sizing and shaping of the radome are conducted while adhering
width of 20◦ . The antenna’s cross-section measures 70 × 60 mm, and it
to the constraints posed by the selected electromagnetic source and the
can accommodate an angle of incidence ranging from 0 to 30◦ . This
specified operating conditions. The under-consideration radome is pre­
specific electromagnetic source has been selected to serve as the basis for
sented in Fig. 3. These limitations ensure that the radome design is
the radome design in the study.

Fig. 1. Radome design optimization flow chart.

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

CFD simulation. This allowed for faster and more efficient simulations.
Additionally, the cone construction provided an appropriate represen­
tation of the pressure distribution around the radome. The spherical far
field has meshed in ANSYS Mesher with tetrahedral elements.
The CFD analysis was conducted using the ANSYS Fluent® software,
where the front half of the fuselage was simulated inside a spherical far
field. The k-epsilon turbulence model [11] was utilized to compute the
steady-state solution. The fluid domain was discretized using unstruc­
tured tetrahedral elements with a growth rate of 20%. To precisely
capture the fluid flow around the radome and fuselage, an inflation layer
was employed. A pictorial representation of the geometry and setup is
shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
Fig. 3. Radome shape.
Mesh convergence is an essential step in computational fluid dy­
namics (CFD) analysis. It involves increasing the number of mesh cells in
optimized for the given electromagnetic source and operating condi­
the simulation until the solution values for the variables of interest
tions, providing an effective solution without compromising
converge to a stable value. The final mesh consisted of approximately 12
performance.
million cells, which was found to be sufficient for the analysis as shown
in Fig. 7.
2.3. Aerodynamic design requirements The CFD simulations were performed at straight and level flight at a
speed of 0.8 Mach, at the maximum angle of attack (AOA) of 10◦ , and
The most aerodynamically effective cross-section for subsonic flight maximum sideslip angle ranging from 5◦ . These conditions represent a
is a slender body, yet the best radome shape for radar transmission is a range of real-world scenarios that the radome may encounter during its
hemisphere. The shapes of existing radomes are a compromise between operation as shown in Fig. 8.
these two alternatives. Another objective in radome shape design is to The outcomes of the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis
maximize radome volume to support additional electronic devices. are crucial in assessing the aerodynamic performance of a radome
Typically, the radome shapes consist of cones, ogives, or a combination structure. The analysis reveals that the drag coefficient and force on the
of both. Keeping in view the antenna size and aerodynamic regime of the elliptical-shaped radome are exceptionally low, even at maximum speed
radome elliptical radome shape was selected because it offers minimum and angle of attack. A low drag coefficient indicates that the radome
drag at subsonic speed. The elliptical shape of the radome was designed structure is more streamlined and offers less resistance to fluid flow.
in ANSYS SpaceClaim using the elliptical shape formula (Fig. 4). The Additionally, the low drag force minimizes the aerodynamic loads on the
coordinates of the elliptical shape were calculated using the following radome and the aircraft, enhancing overall performance. As a whole,
equation [43]. CFD was utilized to get aerodynamic loads for further mapping into the
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ FE modeling of the radome.
x2
yR 1 − 2 (1)
L 2.5. Materials selection
where variables x and y are the coordinates in the x and y-axis,
In this research, Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) has been
respectively, L is the radome length and R is the radome radius (See
employed to optimally select the appropriate materials for aircraft nose
Table 1).
radome that must offer sufficient mechanical properties as well as low
dielectric constants. The details of the MCDM selection process can be
2.4. Aerodynamic analysis (computational fluid dynamics) found in our previous study as the focus of this paper is a multi-
disciplinary design process encompassing all major parameters. The
A three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis materials selected for face sheets based upon the significant materials
was used to calculate the aero pressure loads on the radome during attributes and corresponding weights are as under.
various flight conditions. For CFD simulations only the frontal half of the
fuselage was used because whole vehicle CFD models are computa­ 2.6. Radome wall thickness
tionally expensive. The wings and rear half of the fuselage were changed
with a straightforward cone construction, greatly decreasing the size of Achieving optimal performance for X-band radar sensors is heavily
the computational model since only the pressure profile around the influenced by the wall thickness of the radome. It is crucial to ensure
radome was of relevance. A spherical far-field fluid domain was used for that the radome wall thickness corresponds to an integer multiple of half
the wavelength of the radar signal. This alignment allows the radome to
exhibit a high level of transparency for the intended X-band frequency
range as shown in Fig. 9.
The determination of the radome thickness is expressed by Equation
(2), taking into account the relationship between the wavelength within
the radome material and its dielectric constant, as depicted in Equation
(3) [44].

Fig. 4. Plot of radome shape function mentioned in equation 1. Fig. 5. Design CAD for CFD analysis.

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

Fig. 6. CFD mesh (a) spherical far field and (b) radome close-up.

Fig. 7. Mesh convergence criteria for (a) drag and (b) lift coefficient.

Fig. 8. Velocity distribution around radome with (a) straight and level flight at 0.8 Mach, (b) 10 deg AOA, and (c) 5 deg sideslip.

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

reliability of the computational models could be validated.

3.1. Far-field computational electromagnetic testing

To ensure reliable signal transmission, radome walls should be built

to reduce transmission loss at the operational frequency. The far-field
transmission analysis was performed in a commercial electromagnetic
tool Altair FEKO. An X-band horn antenna was modeled as a perfect
conductor in the X-band frequency range of 8–12 GHz as shown in
Fig. 10. The waveguide port was used to excite the antenna’s funda­
mental mode. At 1◦ intervals, far fields were requested in all directions.
To determine the radome transmission loss the Multi-Level Fast
Multi-pole method (MLFMM) was used to solve the problem. The
following mathematical models were implied [45]:
E(x, y, 0) = f (x, y)ax + g(x, y)ay (4)

Where ax , ay , and az are the unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions

respectively.
The plane-wave spectrum associated with each component can be
obtained by taking the Fourier transformation of the aperture field
Fig. 9. Wave interaction interface of the radome, air, and electromag­
components as:
netic waves.
∫ ∫
( ) {( )}
Fx Kx , Ky = f (x, y)exp j Kx x + Ky y dxdy (5)
n ∗ λm
toptimum = (2)
2
With a similar expression holding for Fy , and if we define a combined
C spectrum function F(K) as
λm = √̅̅̅̅ (3)
f ∗ εr
F(K) = Fx ax + Fy ay + Fz az (6)
where,
where K, the propagation vector, is defined as
toptimum = Optimum wall thickness or target thickness to make the
radome transparent. K = Kx ax + Kay + Kz az (7)
n: 1,2,3 …, ( )/
λm : Wavelength of the material, Fz = − Xx Fx + Ky Fy Kz (8)
C: Speed of light,
f: Mean carrier frequency used, with expressions for the field at field point r being
εr : Relative permittivity. ∫ ∫
Using equations (2) and (3), incorporating the values for the vari­ E(r) = F(K)exp(− jk ∗ r)dkx dky (9)
ables mentioned, the thickness of the radome comes out to be 6 mm. To
minimize transmission loss through the radome, an A-sandwich radome and
configuration was employed. This configuration consists of a thick core ∫ ∫
of 4 mm Rohacell foam sandwiched between face sheets made of three H(r) = KΔF(K)exp(− jk ∗ r)dkx dky (10)
layers of S-glass and Kevlar. The face sheets have a thickness of 1 mm
each for both the front and back layers. This reference configuration was Far field transmission analysis was performed with a composite
chosen based on its potential to provide a balance between strength, sandwich radome sheet of size 1.5 × 1.5 ft. at frequencies of 8–12 GHz.
weight, and transmission loss reduction. The 3D antenna pattern was checked for Change in Power level (dB) of
the Main Beam and Bore Sight Error (Angular Shift in Main Beam) in the
3. Computational electro-magnetic transmission and horn antenna wave pattern (Power level in decibels vs. Azimuth angle in
experimental validation

To evaluate the electromagnetic performance of the radome and

determine the transmission loss in antenna waves, both computational
analysis and experimental testing were conducted. The transmission
analysis was carried out using the FEKO software, which allowed for the
calculation of transmission loss and bore sight error in antenna waves
with and without radome. This analysis provided a theoretical under­
standing of the radome’s impact on the antenna’s performance.
To validate the computational results and assess the real-world
performance, far-field experimental testing was conducted. The an­
tenna, both with and without the radome, was tested in an actual
environment to measure the transmission loss and bore sight error. The
experimental setup involved measuring the radiation patterns and other
relevant parameters to compare the performance of the antenna in the
presence and absence of the radome. By comparing the results obtained
from computational analysis and experimental testing, the accuracy and
Fig. 10. X-band horn antenna 3D wave pattern.

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

degrees) from 8 to 12 GHz with and without radome panel are shown in Table 1
Fig. 11. Radome dimensions.
The transmission loss and bore sight error from 8 to 12 GHz in an­ Parameter Value (mm)
tenna waves due to radome are given in Tables 2 and 3).
Length 500
Radius 300
3.2. Free space experimental electromagnetic testing

The free space measurement technique is used to measure the Table 2

transmission and reflection of electromagnetic waves through a com­ Electro-Mechanical Properties of Sandwich materials.
posite sandwich panel [46]. The free space test setup used in this study is
Material Dielectric Loss Young Modulus Tensile Strength
shown in Fig. 12. It primarily consists of a horn antenna and a Constant Tangent (GPa) (MPa)
wave-guide probe antenna, serving as a transmitter and receiver
S Glass 5.2 0.007 85.5 2415
respectively to permit electromagnetic wave transmission at designated Kevlar 4.1 0.02 112 3620
frequencies in an anechoic chamber. The network analyzer is one of the 49
most important parts of the test setup, along with the antennas which Rohacell 1.05 0.001 0.0686 1.86
can generate electromagnetic waves in the frequency range of 300 kHz Epoxy 3.6 0.04 98 51
to 110 GHz. The network analyzer has three basic components a source Rohacell foam was selected because this high-performance structural foam is
that generates the electromagnetic signal, an electromagnetic signal perfect as a core material for composite structures since it exhibits good me­
detector, and a processing unit. chanical capabilities across a wide temperature range and at low densities.
The experimental testing was performed at frequencies varying from Moreover, it has a very less dielectric constant.
8 to 12 GHz with and without a sandwich panel. A comparison of the
antenna wave pattern was carried out to check for transmission loss and panel. The simulation results aligned closely with the experimental
bore sight error which is shown in Fig. 13. findings in which maximum 1.9 % and 4.1 % transmission losses were
The transmission loss and bore sight error from 8 to 12 GHz are given observed respectively, whereas the corresponding max bore sight error
in Table 4. remained at 0.70 % and 0.46 %. The minor differences in results in the
two techniques are due to manufacturing imperfections of the sandwich
3.3. Discussion on electromagnetic testing panel used in experimental testing. This suggests that the simulation
model effectively captures the electromagnetic performance of the
For the simulation, specialized software was employed to predict the radome design and can be utilized as a predictive tool in the design
behavior of electromagnetic waves within the composite sandwich process.

Fig. 11. EM simulation results with and without radome at (a) 8 GHz, (b) 10 GHz and (c) 12 GHz.

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

Table 3 The experimental testing focused on measuring the transmission loss

Transmission loss and bore sight error; 8–12 GHz. and bore sight error of the composite sandwich panel using the free
Frequency (GHz) Transmission Loss (%) Bore Sight Error (%) space measurement technique. The results revealed that the panel
exhibited minimal impact on the power level and bore sight error of the
8 1.3 0.5
9 1.8 0.1 main beam within the X-band frequency range. With an average trans­
10 1.4 0.24 mission loss of only 0.57 dB, the composite panel demonstrated excel­
11 1.1 0.7 lent performance in allowing the transmission of electromagnetic waves
12 1.9 0.4 through the radome. These experimental findings validate the effec­
Average 1.5 0.3
tiveness of the electromagnetic design and its capability to maintain the
The antenna patterns in terms of main lobe level, side lobe level, and bore side integrity of the transmitted signals.
error have not changed much. Thus, it can be concluded that the selected
sandwich structure is electromagnetically transparent and has very little impact 4. Mechanical testing of radome materials
on antenna radiation properties in X-band frequencies.

For this study, the mechanical behavior of selected sandwich

Fig. 12. Free space electromagnetic testing in anechoic chamber.

Fig. 13. Electromagnetic Simulation results with and without Radome at (a) 8 (b) 10 and (c) 12 GHz.

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

Table 4
3Fmax
Transmission loss and bore sight error; 8–12 GHz. τ= (12)
4wd
Frequency (GHz) Transmission Loss (%) Bore Sight Error (%)

8 3.1 0.6 where, w and d, are the width and depth, respectively, of the composite
9 3.5 0.28 specimen used and Fmax is the maximum load.
10 2.6 0.46
11 4.1 0.35
12 3.6 0.24
5. Structural FEM analysis
Average 3.3 0.38
The most important mechanical loads on air vehicle radome during
The transmission loss in the main beam of the horn antenna due to this sandwich
its service life are the wind pressure and inertial loads. The structural
panel is calculated at an average value of 1.01 dB (see Table 5). It can also be
seen from the results that this combination of face sheets and foam core has very analysis of radome was performed in Ansys static structure. The Ansys
little effect on the power level and bore sight error of the main beam in X-band Composite PrePost (ACP) module is utilized to develop an initial model
frequency. of the composite structure, which includes defining its geometry, ma­
terial properties, and layup. Subsequently, this composite model is
transferred to a static structure module for static analysis to assess its
Table 5 strength and durability by calculating the factor of safety for the com­
Results of mechanical testing. posite failure. The radome structural model was composed of 2D shell
Testing Type Material S01 S02 S03 Mean elements with laminate composite properties as its definitions. The
Tensile Strength (MPa) S Glass 273 260 245 259
Rohacell foam core was modeled as isotropic, while the S-glass and
Kevlar49 349 335 321 335 Kevlar plies were modeled as orthotropic with young modulus Ex = Ey
Flexural Strength (MPa) S Glass 394 357 346 365 and Ez = 0. The coatings were disregarded because of their minimal
Kevlar49 354 321 304 326 structural rigidity. Nodes at the base of the nose cone were restricted in
ILSS (MPa) S Glass 18 22 23 20
all degrees of freedom to depict the connection between the radome and
Kevlar49 25 24 26 25
fuselage. To calculate the radome deformation under aerodynamic and
inertial load at various flight conditions the pressure profile obtained
composites was investigated in systematic experimental procedures. from the CFD analysis was mapped onto the structural FEA model. The
Test specimens were fabricated and cut from the laminate plates in structural stiffness can be approximately represented by equation (13)
rectangular beams using a jig saw cutter. for an elastic system, taking into account the perturbations [46].
K = Kconst + K(Q0 ) + λQ K(XQ ) (13)
4.1. Tensile testing
The mechanical responses associated with buckling loads are deter­
mined by the following expression:
The tensile testing of the composite specimen was performed on a
universal testing machine (Zwick Roewell Z100), according to the ASTM dQ = [Kconst + K(Q0 ) + λQ K(XQ )]dw (14)
D-3039 standard, using a crosshead speed of 2 mm/min and a 100 KN
The increment of the load is denoted as dQ, and dw represents the
load cell. Specimens were cut from the prepared laminate composite
increment of displacement. The initiation of bifurcation occurs when
panels. The composite specimen of nominal dimension 250 × 25 × 2.5
there is no further increase in load for an increasing displacement,
mm (Length x width x thickness) was used for the tensile testing.
indicating the onset of buckling. Mathematically, the critical load can be
determined by solving the eigenvalue problem through the following
4.2. Flexural testing equation.

The flexural strength and modulus of the specimens were determined [Kconst + K(Q0 ) + λQ K(XQ )]Φ = 0 (15)
using the three-point bend test method following the ASTM D-7264
Therefore, the minimal eigenvalue λQC and its corresponding eigen­
standard. Samples with a length of 127 mm, width of 13 mm, and a span
vector ΦQC are indicative of the critical load factor and buckling mode,
of 85 mm were used, maintaining a span-to-depth ratio of 30:1. This test
respectively. In this study, it is approximated that structural stability is
was performed on a Jinan Zhongzhang Universal testing machine with
maintained only when λQC > 1.0.
10 KN load cell. The load was placed midway between the supports. The
The structural analysis of radome was performed in Ansys static
crosshead speed applied was 3 mm/min. The bending strength was
structure. The ANSYS Composite Prepost (ACP) module is utilized to
calculated using the following equation [47].
develop an initial model of the composite structure, which includes
3Fmax L defining its geometry, material properties, and layup. Subsequently, this
σ= (11)
2bh2 composite model is transferred to a static structure module for static
analysis to assess its strength and durability by calculating the factor of
where, b, h, and L are the width, height, and length respectively of the safety for the composite failure.
composite specimen used and Fmax is the maximum load.

5.1. Tsai Wu failure criterion

4.3. Inter laminar shear strength testing (ILSS)

The Tsai-Wu criterion [33] is employed to predict material failure in

The inter-laminar shear strength test was performed on composite
radomes. The expression of the Tsai-Wu criterion in the plane stress form
specimens following the ASTM D-2344 standard. This test was per­
is demonstrated as follows:
formed on the Jinan Zhongzhang Universal testing machine with a 10
KN load cell. The specimen of size 40 × 12 × 4 mm was used to conduct a fskin = F11 σ21 + F22 σ22 + F66 τ212 + 2F12 σ1 σ2 + F1 σ1 + F2 σ2 + F6 τ12 (16)
short beam shear test under the three-point bending with a 10 mm span
at a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min using the same testing machine as for in the Tsai-Wu criterion, the stresses σ1 and σ2 represent the first and
the flexural test. The inter-laminar shear strength (ILSS) of the com­ second principal directions, respectively, while τ12 represents the in-
posites was found using Equation (12) [48]. plane shear stress. Material failure is assumed to occur when the

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

failure index f reaches a value of 1.0. The coefficients Fii and Fi are behavior. By considering factors such as tension, compression, and shear
determined by the equations as follows. strengths, the Tsai-Wu Criterion provides a more realistic representation
of how composite materials may respond to complex loading conditions
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F11 = , F22 = , F66 = 2 , F1 = − , F1 = − , F6 = 0 (17) experienced by radomes during aerospace operations. Therefore, its
Xt Xc Yt Yc S Xt Xc Yt Yc
selection is based on its ability to offer a comprehensive and reliable
Where Xt and Xc represent the tension and compression strength in the assessment of structural integrity, ensuring that the radome materials
longitudinal direction, Yt and Yc denote the transverse strengths, and S can withstand the mechanical demands of their intended applications.
represents the in-plane shear strength. Specifically, the coefficient F12 At 0.8 Mach speed and 4.5 G’s of inertial Load. The normal stresses
can be obtained by. along the fiber direction of each layer ranged from 1.43 MPa in the
The maximum stress criterion is employed to assess the failure within tensile region to 14.68 MPa in the compressive region. The maximum
the core layer, which is made of foam or honeycomb material. The deflection on the radome was observed to be 0.03 mm, indicating that
failure factor fcore is determined using the following expression. the change in the radome shape is negligible due to aerodynamic and
[ ] inertial load. Normal stresses in S-glass plies and Kevlar plies are shown
|σ1 | |σ3 |
fcore = max cm , cm (18) in Fig. 14.
σ1 σ3 The data obtained from the static module is then transferred to an
The utilization of the Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion in this research is eigenvalue buckling module to determine the value of the buckling
justified due to its applicability and effectiveness in assessing the failure factor as shown in Fig. 15. The radome structural model was composed
of composite materials [49]. The Tsai-Wu Criterion is a widely recog­ of 2D shell elements with laminate composite properties as its defini­
nized and validated failure theory that takes into account both tensile tions. Data obtained from the structural analysis are tabulated in
and compressive strengths of composite materials along different axes. Table 6.
In the context of radome design, where structural integrity is crucial, the
Tsai-Wu Criterion offers a comprehensive approach to predicting po­ 6. Discussion on mechanical analysis
tential failure points by considering multiple stress components
simultaneously. The results of the radome design and analysis demonstrate its
This criterion allows for a more accurate assessment of material effectiveness in maintaining signal integrity while minimizing aero­
failure compared to other failure theories that may focus solely on one dynamic drag. The chosen X-band antenna, operating at a frequency
stress component or make simplified assumptions about material range of 8–12 GHz with a power level of 25 W, was successfully

Fig. 14. (a) von-Mises stresses in outer Kevlar face sheet plies and foam core (front view). (b) von-Mises stress in inner S-glass face sheet plies (front view).

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

Fig. 15. Total deformation and Eigen-value bulking of radome structure.

Table 6
Data from structural analysis.
Layup Sequence Thickness (mm) Total Deformation (mm) Failure Criteria von-Mises Stress (MPa) Weight (kg)

Skin Core Tsai-Wu Bulking Factor

G3-F-K3 2.0 4.0 0.044 2.51 2.59 10.65 1.04

integrated into the elliptical-shaped radome. Aerodynamic analysis emerged as a strong candidate in terms of electromagnetic transparency.
using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) revealed a drag coefficient Notably, it exhibits only marginal percentage variations in transmission
value of 0.035, indicating the radome’s streamlined shape and low loss and bore sight error when compared to existing literature. These
aerodynamic drag. This optimized aerodynamic performance is crucial distinctions can be primarily attributed to the thoughtful design de­
for reducing fuel consumption and enhancing the overall efficiency of cisions we incorporated and the inherent differences in operating fre­
the aircraft or spacecraft. quencies, showcasing the success of our radome in fulfilling its intended
In terms of mechanical strength, experimental testing showed that purpose.
the selected sandwich composite materials, including the Rohacell foam One noteworthy achievement of our work is the balanced consider­
core and s-glass/Kevlar face sheets, achieved the desired mechanical ation of both electromagnetic and mechanical performance. In contrast
properties. The radome exhibited favorable tensile and flexural prop­ to much of the existing research, which predominantly focuses on one
erties, ensuring its structural integrity and durability during real-world aspect or the other, our study comprehensively addresses both facets
aerospace applications. concurrently. This dual focus ensures that our radome not only main­
The Tsai-Wu failure criteria yielded a factor of safety of 2.51, indi­ tains signal integrity and aerodynamic efficiency but also upholds
cating that the radome composite structure can withstand mechanical structural strength. Such a holistic approach to radome design is rela­
loads well above the expected operating conditions. This demonstrates tively uncommon in the literature, further highlighting the novelty and
the robustness and reliability of the radome, ensuring its capability to significance of our work.
withstand the harsh environmental conditions typically encountered In essence, our research not only demonstrates the effectiveness of
during aerospace operations. our X-Band radome in preserving signal and structural integrity but also
contributes to advancing the understanding of radome design by
7. Benchmarking with the state-of-the-art research emphasizing the importance of concurrently optimizing both electro­
magnetic and mechanical performance aspects.
Comparing our findings with the existing literature, we can identify
both noteworthy distinctions and commonalities, as outlined in Table 7. 8. Future research opportunities
Despite the inherent challenges posed by variations in frequency,
materials, and specific design parameters, our X-Band radome has While this research contributes significantly to the design and opti­
mization of composite sandwich-structured radomes, it’s essential to
acknowledge its limitations and the inherent trade-offs associated with
Table 7
Research comparison with literature.
the proposed method. Firstly, one limitation lies in the complexity of
multidisciplinary optimization. Integrating electromagnetic perfor­
Study Radome Frequency THICKNESS Transmission
mance, mechanical strength, and aerodynamic considerations necessi­
Material AND Loss (dB) %
Design tates a comprehensive understanding of various disciplines, leading to
increased computational demands and time-consuming simulations.
CURRENT Elliptical A-type X-band 6 mm 1.01
Study sandwich (8–12 GHz)
Balancing these aspects can sometimes result in compromises, where
radome achieving optimal EM transparency may require thicker radome walls,
Sheret ET BTCy-1, Von 15 GHz 6.13 mm 0.5 potentially increasing aerodynamic drag.
AL [50]. Kármán-shaped Secondly, the selection of materials is a critical aspect of radome
Shin ET AL Tangent Ogive 10 GHz Not 0.53
design, and while the Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) approach
[51]. FSS radome mentioned
Kurri ET AL Multilayered 5.65 GHz Not ~0.35 helps in this regard, it also has its limitations. The weights assigned to
[52]. wall structure mentioned different material properties in the MCDM process are inherently sub­
Wu ET AL Spherical MSF 2.3 GHz Not 1.19 jective and can vary depending on the specific application, potentially
[53]. radome mentioned
leading to different material choices. Moreover, the availability and cost
Li ET AL A-type sandwich X-band Not 5
[54]. radome (8–12 GHz) mentioned
of certain materials can be constraining factors in practical applications.

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M.T. Aamir et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101547

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