Lectures in Abstract Algebra

Text Book: Topics in Algebra by I.N.Herstein

Prepared by K. THIRUMALAI., Assistant Professor of Mathematics
St. Ann’s College of Arts and Science, Tindivanam.
UNIT − II
A Counting Principle
Lemma 0.0.1. HK is a subgroup of G if and only if HK=KH.
Proof. Let HK is a subgroup of G.
To prove: HK=KH
Case(i): Let x ∈ HK be any element. x−1 ∈ HK.
x−1 = hk f or all h ∈ H, k ∈ K
(x−1 )−1 = (hk)−1
x = k −1 h−1 k −1 ∈ K, h−1 ∈ H
x ∈ KH
∴ HK ⊆ KH (1)
Case(ii): Let x ∈ KH then
x = kh
−1
x = (kh)−1
x−1 = h−1 k −1
∴ x−1 ∈ HK. HK is a subgroup of G. x ∈ HK
KH ⊆ HK (2)
From (1) and (2)

HK = KH
Conversely, Let HK = KH.
To prove: HK is a subgroup of G. Let x, y ∈ HK be any two element x = h1 k1 and
y = h2 k2 f or all h1 h2 ∈ H, k1 , k2 ∈ K.
xy −1 = h1 k1 (h2 k2 )−1
= h1 k1 k2−1 h−1
2

xy −1 = h1 (k1 k2−1 h−1

2 ) (3)

N ow, k1 k2−1 h−1

2 ∈ KH
−1 −1
k1 k2 h2 ∈ HK
k1 k2−1 h−1
2 = h3 k3 f or all h3 ∈ H, k3 ∈ K (4)
Sub (3) in (4) xy −1 = h1 h3 k3 . therefore xy −1 ∈ HK. Hence HK is a subgroup of G.

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Corollary 0.0.2. If H, K are subgroups of the abelian group G, then HK is a subgroup of G.

Proof. Let us suppose H and K are subgroups of an abelian group G, so that

H −1 = H and K −1 = K

HH −1 = H and KK −1 = K
To show that HK is a subgroup of G. For we have to show that (HK)(HK)−1 = HK. Now,
since G is abelian implies that ab = ba for all a, b ∈ G. ∴ h ∈ H, k ∈ K ⇒ hk = kh
⇒ HK = KH. Consider

(HK)(HK)−1 = H(KK −1 )H −1
= HKH −1
= KHH −1
= KH
= HK

Theorem 0.0.3. If H and K are finite subgroups of G of orders O(H) and O(K), respectively,
then O(HK) = O(H)O(K)
O(H∩K)
.

Proof. Let H and K are finite subgroups of G of orders O(H) and O(K). Let O(H) = m and
O(K) = n, then H = {h1 , h2 , ..., hm } and K = {k1 , k2 , ..., kn }. ∴ HK = {hk | h ∈ H, k ∈ K}.
Then

hk = h1 k1 f or some h 6= h1 ∈ H
h−1
1 h = k1 k −1

Since h1 ∈ H, h−1 −1
1 must also be in H, thus h1 h ∈ H. Similarly, k1 k
−1
∈ K. Since

h−1
1 h = k1 k
−1
h−1
1 h ∈ H ∩ K = (e)
h−1
1 h = e
h = h1

This is a contradiction. Then, hk = (hh1 )(h−1 1 k) where hh1 ∈ H. since h ∈ H, h1 ∈

0 0
H ∩ K ⊂ H and h−1 1 k ∈ K. since k ∈ K, h −1
1 ∈ H ∩ K ⊂ K. Thus, if hk = h k then
0 0 0 0
h−1 h = k(k )−1 = u and u ∈ H ∩ K, So h = hu, k = u−1 k. Consequently, hk ∈ HK exactly
O(H ∩ K) times. Thus the number of distinct elements in HK. i.e., O(H)O(K) divided by
the number times a given element. namely, O(H ∩ K). ∴ O(HK) = O(H)O(K)
O(H∩K)
.
p p
Corollary 0.0.4. If H and K are subgroups of G and O(H) > O(G), O(K) > O(G),
then H ∩ K 6= (e).

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Proof. Suppose that

H ∩ K = {e}
O(H ∩ K) = {e}

∴ By the previous theorem,

O(H)O(K)
O(HK) =
O(H ∩ K)
O(H)O(K)
=
{e}
= O(H)O(K)
p p
> O(G) O(G)
> O(G)

This is a contradiction. ∴ H ∩ K 6= {e}.

Normal Subgroups

Definition 0.0.5. A subgroup N of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if for every g ∈ G

and n ∈ N , gng −1 ∈ N .

Lemma 0.0.6. Let N is normal subgroup of G if and only if gN g −1 = N for every g ∈ G.

Proof. Let N be a normal subgroup of G, for every g ∈ G. Then

gN g −1 ⊂ N, f or all g, g −1 ∈ G (5)

Taking g −1 in g on both sides

g −1 N (g −1 )−1 ⊂ N
g −1 N g ⊂ N

Pre-multiple g and post multiple g −1 on both sides

g(g −1 N g)g −1 ⊂ gN g −1
(gg −1 )N (gg −1 ) ⊂ gN g −1

N ⊂ gN g −1 (6)
From (5) and (6), we get N = gN g −1 . Conversely, Let gN g −1 = N for every g ∈ G containing
gng −1 ⊂ N . So, N is normal subgroup of G.

Lemma 0.0.7. The subgroup N of G is a normal subgroup of G if and only if every left coset
of N in G is a right coset of N in G.

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Proof. Let N be a normal subgroup of G. Then gN g −1 = N for all g ∈ G. Post-multiple by
g on both sides.

(gN g −1 )g = N g
gN (g −1 g) = N g
gN = N g

Every left coset N in G is the right coset N in G. Conversely, Let every left coset of N in G
is the right coset of N in G. Let g ∈ G, e ∈ N , then,

ge = g ∈ gN
eg = g ∈ N g

Thus, two right cosets are either disjoint or identical. ∴ Ng is the unique right coset which
is equal to the left coset gN. ∴ gN = N g for all g ∈ G. post-multiple by g −1 on both sides.

gN g −1 = N gg −1 g ∈ G
gN g −1 = N

Hence, N is normal subgroup of G.

Lemma 0.0.8. A subgroup N of G is a normal subgroup of G if and only if the product of
two right cosets of N in G is again a right coset of N in G.
Proof. Let N be a normal subgroup of G. Let N N = {n1 n2 | n1 , n2 ∈ N } ∈ G.

N = Ne ⊂ NN
N = NN

Let a, b ∈ G then

N aN b = N (aN )b
= N (N a)b
= N N ab
= N ab

Thus, the product of two rights cosets of N in G is a right cosets of N in G. Conversely, Let
the product of two right cosets of N in G is again a right cosets of N in G. Let g ∈ G then
g −1 ∈ G. Therefore Hg and Hg −1 are two right cosets of H in G. Then HgHg −1 is a right
cosets of H in G. Now e = egeg −1 ∈ HgHg −1 . Since H = He, H itself is a right cosets of H in
G. Then He = e ∈ H. Any two right cosets are either disjoint or identical. ∴ HgHg −1 = H.
Hence h1 gh2 g −1 ∈ H for all h1 , h2 ∈ H and g ∈ G. Pre-multiple of h−1
1 on both sides.

h−1 −1 −1
1 (h1 gh2 g ) ∈ h1 H
(h−1
1 h1 )gh2 g
−1
∈ h−1
1 H
−1
gh2 g ∈ H

∴ H is a normal subgroup of G.

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 G
Theorem 0.0.9. (Quotient group) If G is a group, N is a normal subgroup of G, then N
is
also a group. It is called the quotient group or factor group of G by N.
G
Proof. Let N = {N g | g ∈ G} define by N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 for all g−1 , g2 ∈ G.
G
(i). Colsure: Let X, Y ∈ N . Then X = N g1 , Y = N g2 for some g1 , g2 ∈ G.
XY = N g1 N g2
G
= N g1 g2 ∈
N
∴ closure is satisfied.
G
(ii). Associative: Let X, Y, Z ∈ N
, then X = N g1 , Y = N g2 and Z = N g3 for some
g1 g2 , g3 ∈ G. Then,
X(Y Z) = N g1 (N g2 N g3 )
= N g1 N g2 g3
= N g1 (g2 g3 )
= N (g1 g2 )g3
= (N g1 g2 )N g3
= (N g1 N g2 )N g3
X(Y Z) = (XY )Z
∴ Associative is satisfied.
G G
(iii). Identity: For every e be the identity of G, then N e ∈ N for every N g ∈ N . Now
G
N gN e = N ge = N g and N eN g = N eg = N g. ∴ Ne is the identity of N .
(iv). Inverse: Let N g ∈ N G
where g ∈ G, g −1 ∈ G. Then, N g −1 ∈ N G
. Also, N gN g −1 =
N gg −1 = N e and N g −1 N g = N gg −1 = N e. ∴ N g −1 is the inverse of Ng. NG
is a group under
the coset multiplication.
G O(G)
Lemma 0.0.10. If G is a finite group and N is a normal subgroup of G, then O( N )= O(N )
.
G
Proof. Let O( N ) = r. we know that,
n
[
G = ai N
i=1
= a1 N ∪ a2 ∪ ... ∪ ar N
= a1 N + a2 + ... + ar N
Xr
T hen, |G| = | ai N |
i=1
Xr
= |N | [∵ ai N = N ]
i=1
|G| = r|N |
|G|
T hen, = r
|N |
G O(G)
O( ) =
N O(N )

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 Homomorphisms

Definition 0.0.11. (Homomorphism) A mapping φ from a group G into a group G is said

to be a homomorphism if for all a, b ∈ G, φ(ab) = φ(a)φ(b).
0
Definition 0.0.12. (Epimorphism) Let f : G → G be a homomorphism if f is onto then its
called an epimorphism.
0
Definition 0.0.13. (Monomorphism) Let f : G → G be a homomorphism if f is one to one.
then its called an monomorphism.
Definition 0.0.14. (Canonical homomorphism) Let G be a group and N is a normal subgroup
G
of G. Then f : G → N given by f(a)=Na is a homomorphism. Then f is called canonical
homomorphism.
Example 0.0.15. φ(x) = e for all x ∈ G. This is trivially a homomorphism. Likewise
φ(x) = x for every x ∈ G is a homomorphism.
Example 0.0.16. Let G be the group of all real numbers under addition. Define φ : G → G
by φ(a) = 2a .
Example 0.0.17. Let G be the group of integers under addition and let G = G. For the
integer x ∈ G define by φ(x) = 2x.
Example 0.0.18. Let G be the group of nonzero real numbers under multiplication, G =
{1, −1}, where G = {1, −1}, Define φ : G → G by φ(x) = 1 if x is positive, φ(x) = −1 if x
is negative.
Example 0.0.19. Let G be the group of positive real numbers under multiplication and let
G be the group of all real numbers under addition. Define φ : G → G by φ(x) = log10 x.
 
a b
Example 0.0.20. Let G be the group of all real 2×2 matrices such that ad−bc 6= 0,
c d
under matrix multiplication.
 Let
 G be the group of all nonzero real numbers multiplication.
a b
Define φ : G → G by φ = ad − bc.
c d
Lemma 0.0.21. Suppose G is a group, N a normal subgroup of G; define the mapping φ
from G to G | N by φ(x) = N x for all x ∈ G. Then φ is a homomorphism of G onto G | N .
G
Proof. Let N be a normal subgroup of G. Define φ : G → N
by φ(x) = N x for all x ∈ G.
Let x, y ∈ G then

φ(xy) = N xy
= N xN y
= φ(x)φ(y)

Hence φ is a homomorphism.

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Definition 0.0.22. (Kernel) If φ is a homomorphism of G into G, the kernel of φ, Kφ , is
defined by Kφ = {x ∈ G | φ(x) = e, e = identity element of G}.
Lemma 0.0.23. If φ is a homomorphism of G into G, then

1. φ(e) = e, the unit element of G.

2. φ(x−1 ) = φ(x)−1 for all x ∈ G.
Proof. Let H be a subgroup of G. Since H is nonempty in G. Therefore φ(H) is nonempty in
G. Let x, y ∈ φ(H) then x = φ(a) and y = φ(b) where a, b ∈ H.
xy −1 = φ(a)[φ(b)]−1 [∵ f (x−1 ) = [f (x)]−1 ]
= φ(a)φ(b−1 )
= φ(ab)
Now, since H is a subgroup of G. ∵ xy −1 = φ(ab−1 ) ∈ φ(H). φ(H) is a subgroup of G.
To prove: Let x ∈ G then
φ(x)e = φ(x)
= φ(xe)
= φ(x)φ(e) [∵ By lef t cancellation law]
= φ(e)
To prove: Let x ∈ G
e = φ(e)
= φ(xx−1 )
= φ(x)φ(x−1 )
−1
eφ(x) = φ(x−1 )
∴ By the definition of φ(x)−1 in G.
φ(x−1 ) = [φ(x)]−1 e
= [φ(x)]−1

Lemma 0.0.24. If φ is a homomorphism of G into G with kernel K, then K is a normal

subgroup of G.
Proof. Let e be the identity element of G. Then, K = {g | g ∈ G and φ(g) = e}.
To prove: Let K is a subgroup of G. Let x, y ∈ K. Then, φ(x) = e and φ(y) = e.
φ(xy −1 ) = φ(x)φ(y −1 )
= φ(x)[φ(y)]−1
= ee−1
= e

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∴ xy −1 ∈ K. ∴ K is a subgroup of G. Let g ∈ G and k ∈ K, then
φ(gkg −1 ) = φ(g)φ(k)φ(g −1 )
= φ(g)e[φ(g)]−1
= φ(g)[φ(g)]−1
= e
∴ K is a normal subgroup of G.
Lemma 0.0.25. If φ is a homomorphism of G onto G with kernel K, then the set of all
inverse images of g ∈ G under phi in G is given by Kx, where x is any particular inverse
image of g in G.
Proof. Let φ be a homomorphism of G onto G. Suppose that K be a kernel of φ. If g ∈ G.
An element x ∈ G is an inverse image of g under φ. If φ(x) = g all the inverse image of g.
Then g = e ∈ K. Now, Suppose g 6= e. Let x ∈ G is one inverse of image of g. Clearly
k ∈ K if y = kx then,
φ(y) = φ(kx)
= φ(k)φ(x)
= eg
= g
Thus, all the element Kx are in the inverse image of g. Let us suppose
φ(z) = g
φ(z) = φ(x)
φ(z)[φ(x)]−1 = e
φ(z)φ(x−1 ) = e
φ(zx−1 ) = e
Consequently, zx−1 ∈ K then z ∈ Kx. Kx for exactly all the inverse image of g.
Definition 0.0.26. (Isomorphism) A homomorphism φ from G into G is said to be an
isomorphism if φ is one-to-one.
Definition 0.0.27. Two groups G, G∗ are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism
of G onto G∗ . In this case we write G ≈ G∗ .
Corollary 0.0.28. A homomorphism φ of G into G with kernel Kφ is an isomorphism of G
into G if and only if Kφ = {e}.
Proof. Let K = kerφ and a, b ∈ K. Then φ(a) = e and φ(b) = e. Now,
φ(ab−1 ) = φ(a)φ(b−1 )
= φ(a)[φ(b)]−1
= ee−1
= e

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. ab−1 ∈ K. Therefore K is a subgroup of G.
φ is one to one: Let φ(a) = e and φ(e) = e. Then
φ(a) = φ(e)
a = e
K = {e}
Conversely, Let K = {e}. Then
φ(a) = φ(b)
Post-multiple by φ(b−1 ) on both sides, we get,
φ(a)φ(b−1 ) = φ(b)φ(b−1
φ(ab−1 ) = φ(bb−1 )
φ(ab−1 ) = φ(e)
ab−1 = e
a = b
∴ φ is one to one.
Theorem 0.0.29. (First isomorphism theorem) or (The homomorphism theorem) or (The
fundamental theorem of homomorphism on groups) Let φ be a homomorphism of G onto G
with kernel K. Then G/K ≈ G.
Proof. Let g ∈ G, n ∈ K. Then
φ(gng −1 ) = φ(g)φ(n)φ(g −1 )
= φ(g)eφ(g −1 )
= φ(g)φ(g −1 )
= φ(gg −1 )
= e
∴ gng −1 ∈ K ∴ K is a normal subgroup of G. G/K = {Kg | g ∈ G} is quotient subgroup of
G. Define σ : G → G/K by σ(g) = Kg for all g ∈ G. Let g, f ∈ G implies that gf ∈ G.
σ(gf ) = Kgf
= KgKf
= σ(g)σ(f )
∴ σ is homomorphism. Let X ∈ G/K there exists an element g ∈ G and X = Kg for some
g ∈ G such that X = σ(g). ∴ σ is onto. ∴ σ : G → G/K is homomorphism onto image of
G. Let K = Kerφ define ψ : G/K → G by ψ(Kg) = φ(g) for all Kg ∈ G/K and g ∈ G. Let
X, Y ∈ G/K then X = Kg, Y = Kf for all g, f ∈ G. Then
XY= KgKf
= Kgf
So that, ψ(XY ) = ψ(Kgf )
= φ(gf )
= φ(g)φ(f )

9
∴ φ is a homomorphism G onto G. But,
ψ(X) = ψ(Kg) = φ(g)
ψ(Y ) = ψ(Kg) = φ(f )

ψ(XY ) = ψ(X)ψ(Y )
= φ(g)φ(f )
∴ ψ is homomorphism of G/K onto G. φ(gf −1 = e, e is the unit element of G.
φ(g)φ(f −1 ) = e
φ(g)φ(f −1 )φ(f ) = eφ(f )
φ(g)φ(f −1 f ) = φ(f )
φ(g) = φ(f )
ψ(Kg) = ψ(Kf )
∴ ψ is well-defined.
To prove ψ is homomorphism: Let Kg, Kf ∈ G/K, then
ψ(KgKf ) = ψ(Kgf )
= φ(gf )
= φ(g)φ(f )
= ψ(Kg)ψ(Kf )
∴ ψ is homomorphism.
To prove ψ is onto: Let Y ∈ G, φ : G → G by onto there exists X ∈ G such that φ(X) = Y
if X ∈ G then there exist KX ∈ G/K such that
ψ(KX) = φ(KX)
= φ(X)
= Y
∴ ψ is onto.
To prove ψ is one to one: Let Kg, Kf ∈ G/K such that
ψ(Kg) = ψ(Kf )
φ(g) = φ(f )
φ(g)φ(f −1 ) = φ(f )φ(−1 )
φ(gf −1 ) = φ(f f −1 )
φ(gf −1 ) = e
gf −1 = e
g = f
Kg = Kf
∴ ψ is one to one.

10
 ∴ G/K ∼
=G.

Corollary 0.0.30. If G is abelian of order O(G) and pα | O(G), pα+1 - O(G), there is a
unique subgroup of G order pα .
Proof. Let S,T are subgroups of G of order pα . Then T 6= S. Since ST=TS, so that ST is
a subgroup of G. We know that S and T are finite subgroups of G of order O(S) and O(T)
respectively. Then
O(S)O(T )
O(ST ) =
O(S ∩ T )
pα pα
=
O(S ∩ T )
Since S 6= T , O(S ∩ T ) < pα , leaving us with O(ST ) = pγ , γ > α. Since ST is a subgroup of
G, O(ST ) | O(G), thus pγ | O(G), α is the largest power of p/O(G). Thus no subgroup T
exists and S is the unique subgroup of order pα .
Theorem 0.0.31. (Third isomorphism theorem) Let φ be a homomorphism of G onto G with
kernel K, and let N be a normal subgroup of G, N = {x ∈ G | φ(x) ∈ N . Then G/N ≈ G/N .
Equivalently, G/N ≈ (G/N )/(N/K).
Proof. Given K is a normal subgroup in G. Then ghg −1 ∈ K for all h ∈ K, g ∈ G. In
Particular, khk −1 ∈ K, for all k ∈ N, h ∈ K. therefore K is normal in N. Let φ : G/K → G/N
defined by φ(Kg) = N g.
(i) φ is well-defined: Let g1 , g2 ∈ G,
Kg1 = Kg2
−1
Kg2 g1 = K
g2−1 g1 ∈ K
Since N is normal subgroup in K. So that g2−1 g1 ∈ N .
g2−1 g1 N = N
g1 N = g2 N
φ(g1 K) = φ(g2 K)
∴ φ is well-defined. (ii) φ is homomorphism: Let g1 , g2 ∈ G.
φ(Kg1 .Kg2 ) = φ(Kg1 g2 )
= N g1 g2
= N g1 .N g2
= φ(Kg1 )φ(Kg2 )
So, φ is homomorphism. (iii) φ is onto: For N g ∈ G/N there exists Kg ∈ G/K under φ such
that φ(Kg) = N g. So, φ is onto. Then, By First isomorphism theorem.
G/K ∼
= G/N (7)
kerφ

11
So, we have to show that,
N
kerφ =
K
Let Kg ∈ kerφ
φ(Kg) = N
Ng = N
Ng ∈ N
N
Kg ∈
K
Now,
kerφ ⊆ N/K (8)

N K ∈ N/K
φ(N K) = N N
= N

N/K ⊆ kerφ (9)

From (8) and (9) Thus, kerφ = N/K. So, the equation (7) becomes, G/N ≈ (G/N )/(N/K).

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