STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO.

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CHANGES OF THE EARTH’S CRUST

MODULE OVERVIEW

This module introduces the changes of Earth’s crust which includes denudation,
weathering, and erosion. Furthermore, topics on earthquake and volcano are also
discussed.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. discuss the different changes of Earth’s crust;

2. explain the occurrence of an earthquake; and
3. discuss the volcano.

DIASTROPHISM

The earth’s crust is ever changing. Different land forming processes are
responsible to bring changes. Land forming processes are the activities by which the
changes are accomplished naturally in the formation of the land. For example, a river is
building a flood plain through deposition. So, the depositional activity of a river is a land
forming process. The land forming processes are accomplished with the help of
different physical agencies or forces such as the gravitational forces, interior
temperature and the solar energy. The different land forming processes with the help
of the aforesaid agents bring changes on the earth’s crust either slowly or rapidly.
Generally, the land forming processes are associated with external forces. The changes
brought about on the earth’s surface takes a longer period of time, so this type, of
changes is known as slow changes. The slow changes are accomplished in two
processes.

Denudation

It means to make the things exposed. The process by which the rocks on the
earth’s surface are broken into pieces through the application of external physical
forces and the debris are transported elsewhere is known as denudation. This
denudation work is performed through three processes such as weathering, erosion
and transportation.

Weathering

The weathering is a process by which the rocks on the surface of the earth is
broken mechanically into pieces due to snow or frost, the variation of temperature and
pressure or due to chemical (dissolution) action on the materials. Even the rocks are
dislodged by the animals. But the rocks weathered this way, are not transported
elsewhere.

Erosion

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 Erosion and transportation are accomplished together. The process by which the
rocks of the earth’s crust are eroded by the river, wind, glacier, ocean currents etc. and
the eroded materials are transported elsewhere is known as erosion. On the other
hand, the rapid changes are brought about on the earth’s surface by the land forming
processes associated with the internal forces.

Accordingly, the earthquake and the volcanism are mentionable of the rapid and
sudden forces responsible for the changes on the earth’s surface.

Earthquake

An earthquake is a vibration or oscillation of the surface of the earth caused by

sudden release of enormous pressure. If a stone is thrown in the quite water of a pond,
it will create ripples in the water which will scatter all around the pond. Sudden release
of enormous pressure from the interior of the earth creates waves in the surrounding
rock like the waves in water which also scatter all around. The point where the energy
is released is known as the centre. The point just vertically above the point of origin is
known as Epicentre. Seismography is used to measure the intensity of the earthquake
waves.

Types of Earthquakes

Normally, an earthquake originates between 5 to 1,126 kilometres deep into the

interior of the earth. The earthquake centre has been classified into three classes
according to their depth. These are:

The earthquake originating at a depth of 60 kilometres is termed as shallow

earthquake. The earthquake originating at a depth of 60 to 300 kilometres is known as
Intermediate. The earthquake originating at a depth of 300 kilometres and above is
known as deep earthquake.

About 90 per cent of the earthquakes that occur throughout the year over the
world originate within less than 100 kilometres of depth.

The terrible earthquakes which were occurred so far over the world are mostly of
shallow type.

Causes of Earthquake

The geologists opine that sudden tectonic actions in the fault line or along the
cracks are responsible to create earthquake. Besides, sudden ejection of lava with
great force can also produce earthquakes. Radiation of heat from the earth’s surface
causes shrinkage which in turn to maintain equilibrium develops cracks along the fault
line or folds and the earthquake is caused. The rocks if dislodged due to earth
movement or development of faults will also cause the earthquake.

Strength of Earthquake

The energy of earthquake means the amount of strength which is scattered from
the earthquake centre in all directions. Charles F. R. Richter, a seismologist first

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introduced an arithmetic scale to measure the intensity of seismic waves. The scale is
known as the Richter scale.

Earthquake Prone Areas or Belts

It can be realised that the severity of earthquake is not equal throughout the
world. Earthquakes mostly occur in the comparatively smaller areas which are long and
narrow in size. Among them, the most noteworthy areas are the circular islands
(Philippines and Japan), young fold mountains and ocean ridges. The earthquake prone
areas can be divided into three principal zones:

(a) The Pacific Zone: Maximum number of earthquakes occurs along the outer
border of the Pacific Ocean. Japan, the Philippines, Chile, Aleutian Islands and Alaska
have been identified as the most earthquake prone areas.

(b) The Mediterranean and the Himalayan Zone: This region extends from the
Alps to New Zealand covering Caucasus, Iran, the Himalaya, Indo-China and East Indies
following the northern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

(c) Ridges of the Mid-Atlantic and the Indian Ocean: The north-south ridges of the
Mid-Atlantic Ocean meeting with the ridges of the Indian Ocean extend up to the
Mediterranean zone through the Red Sea. Besides these three specified belts, there are
some areas located separately within the continents and in the deeps of the oceans
where the occurrence of the earthquake is felt.

Effects of Earthquakes

Earthquake is accepted as a natural calamity. Most of the times, it causes great

loss of lives and wealth in some parts of the earth. Generally, it may be mentioned that
the devastative nature of earthquakes brings the following damages and changes in
the earth’s crust.
(a) Faults, cracks or landslides occur in the earth’s crust due to the earthquake.
The course of the rivers is also changed. For example, the bed of the Brahmaputra
River was raised and the river changed its original course and started flowing through
the channel of the Jamuna due to the earthquake of Assam in 1787.

(b) Earthquake, if it occurs in a thickly populated area, then causes great

devastation to houses, roads and railways, water and gas supply line and other
properties of the area. Moreover, if the area is a hilly one, then the landslides and mud
flow create devastation to the settlements located at the foot of the mountains.

(c) Earthquake that originates in the ocean floor creates tremendous waves on
the surface of water. Waves thus created by earthquakes are known as Tsunamis.
Tsunamis bring sudden flood in towns and other localities in coastal areas.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Matching Type

Column A Column B

_____ 1. aftershock a. The on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus
of an earthquake

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_____ 2. crust b. A sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically
causing great destruction, as a result of movements in
the Earth’s crust.

_____ 3. disaster c. An earthquake becomes a disaster when there is

significant damage to property and loss of life.

_____ 4. earthquake d. The outermost, solid layer of the Earth.

_____ 5. epicenter e. A smaller earthquake following the main shock of a

larger earthquake.

_____ 6. faults f. A fracture in a rock formation along which there has

been movement of the rocks on either side of the
fracture.

_____ 7. focus g. A collapse of a mass of Earth from a mountain or a

cliff.

_____ 8. hazard h. A phenomenon where the shaking of the earth by an

earthquake reduces the strength of the soil, forcing the
liquid to rise to the top.

_____ 9. landslides i. The size of an earthquake as measured by the

energy released.

_____ 10. liquefaction j. The place of origin of an earthquake.

_____ 11. magnitude k. An instrument that measures earthquake’s size and

duration and also known as seismometer.

_____ 12. plate boundary l. A danger or a risk.

_____ 13. ring of fire m. A logarithmic scale so that a difference of one has a
roughly thirty fold different in size.

_____ 14. Richter scale n. Where two tectonic plates meet.

_____ 15. Seismograph o. The zone of activity that surrounds the Pacific Ocean
and the Pacific plate.

Eruption

Eruption is one of the major forces or processes bringing changes on the surface
of the earth. Eruption of the volcanoes or the magma is the main sources of igneous
rocks on the surface of the earth. Volcanoes, by dint of their internal energy produce
different landforms which are known as initial configuration of the land. Different
weathering agents start erosion on these initial landforms with various external forces
and such areas are gradually transformed into plain lands. Thus it can be noted that

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there are continuous attempts to maintain equilibrium between the internal and the
external forces.

Volcanoes

Extreme temperature released from the radioactive minerals in the interior of

the earth cause the rocks of the lower part of lithosphere to melt. This melted rock
finds its way to the earth’s crust through the cracks or weak points. This erupted
material is known as lava, gradually accumulated surrounding the vent and creates a
high landform which is called volcano.

On the crest of the volcano, there is a forepart with vertical slopes which is
known as crater. This crater through a tunnel is linked with the magma in the interior of
the earth. Sometimes the molten materials instead of ejecting out may be solidified
inside. After ejection, the crater collapses creating a hole which is known as caldera.
Crater Lake of Oregon State of the United States of America is a Caldera. The volcanoes
which eject lava from time to time are active volcanoes. At present, there are about
850 active volcanoes in the world. The volcanoes where volcanism remains suspended
for a certain period of time are known as dormant and where the volcanic eruption has
stopped permanently are known as extinct volcanoes.

Erupted Materials

Large number of rock fragments, volcanic dust and fine volcanic ashes are
ejected with the lava. Besides, large amount of gaseous materials is also ejected. In the
ejection process, firstly comes the basaltic lava followed by the andesite lava and lastly
the rock fragments.

Types of Volcanoes

Though the nature of each volcanic eruption is quite different, but the specialists
on the basis of shape, size and eruptive nature have divided the volcanoes in three
different types as Shield Volcano, Cinder Cone and the Mixed Cone.

Shield Volcanoes

This type of volcanoes is mainly constituted of basaltic lava. Mauna Loa and
Kilauea of the Hawaii Islands are the best examples of this type of volcano. Mauna Loa
is 5,000 metres wide beneath the ocean and it rises to 4,170 metres above the ocean.

Cinder Cone

This type of volcano is created by rock fragments and lava. Parcutin and Mount
Helena of Mexico are the proper examples of this type of Volcano.
Mixed Cone
This type of volcano is created mainly by andesite lava which is fluid type with
more viscous components. Hard rock fragments, volcanic dust, volcanic ashes and the
heated gas are thrown with violent explosions and are accumulated near the crater and
the viscous lava accumulates above them. Mount Mayon of the Philippines and the
Fujiyama of Japan are the examples of this type of volcanoes.

Volcano Prone Areas

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 Almost all the volcanoes are located along the border of the continents and the
oceans. The main belt stretches from New Zealand in the Pacific to the southern tip of
South America covering the Philippines, Japan, Alaska and the western coast of North
America and this belt is known as Fiery Ring. Out of 850 active volcanoes of the world,
this belt simply accounts for 75 per cent of the total. Moreover, traces of volcanic
activities are also manifested in the submarine ridges of the oceans. For example, the
land forming activities in the submarine ridges of Mid-Atlantic are still active.

Effects of Volcanism

Volcanic eruptions and heavy lava flow are a kind of natural calamity which
causes heavy damages to the living creatures and different human activities. In the
past, many towns and settlements were destroyed by lava flows and thousands of
people died instantaneously due to the release of poisonous gas from the volcanoes.
Many of the volcanoes are situated in high mountainous regions and their crests always
remain under heavy ice cover. But when eruption starts, the ice covering melted and
creates mud flow and creates heavy damages to the localities situated at the foot of
the mountains. Moreover, occasionally the rock fragments and ashes ejected with
explosive forces are being thrown into the air.

The landforms that are created from the volcanic eruptions and lava remain
unutilised for a longer period and bring noteworthy changes in the landscape. However,
the landforms thus formed by volcanoes are very fertile and are also very rich in
mineral resources. Moreover, the volcanic landforms are very important for tourists.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Volcano Unscramble

Using your knowledge of famous volcanoes, see if you can unscramble these
letters to reveal the names of famous volcanoes from around the world.

1. KAARATKO ______________________
2. NUTMO JIUF ______________________
3. MUTON VUISUESV ______________________
4. TUONM NISTA NELSEH ______________________
5. AAMUN OAL ______________________
6. AJLAULALYKFLOEJJ ______________________
7. MONTU LEPEE ______________________
8. TIRHA ______________________
9. NOADEV LED IRZU ______________________
10. NAITOPBU ______________________
11. RSTOMBOLI ______________________
12. CACGOUNAA ______________________
13. PCIRTINAU ______________________
14. PITCAXOO ______________________
15. HKLEA ______________________
16. NUOTM TANE ______________________
17. WAHKA JINE ______________________

SUMMARY

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 Different land forming processes are responsible to bring changes on Earth’s
crust. Land forming processes are the activities by which the changes are
accomplished naturally in the formation of the land.

Denudation is the process by which the rocks on the earth’s surface are broken
into pieces through the application of external physical forces and the debris is
transported elsewhere is known as denudation. This denudation work is performed
through three processes such as weathering, erosion and transportation.

Weathering is a process by which the rocks on the surface of the earth is broken
mechanically into pieces due to snow or frost, the variation of temperature and
pressure or due to chemical (dissolution) action on the materials.

Erosion and transportation are accomplished together. The process by which the
rocks of the earth’s crust are eroded by the river, wind, glacier, ocean currents etc. and
the eroded materials are transported elsewhere is known as erosion.

An earthquake is a vibration of the surface of the earth caused by sudden

release of enormous pressure from the interior of the earth.

The effects of earthquake are: (a) folds, cracks and landslides may occur and
even the course of the rivers is may be changed; (b) earthquake, if it occurs in any
densely populated areas, will cause enormous damage to houses, roads and streets,
water and gas supply system and other resources; and (c) Earthquake, if occurs
beneath the sea creates tremendous waves on the surface of the water.

The molten rocks of the interior of the earth find its way to the surface through
the cracks or weak points of the lithosphere. These ejected materials are known as lava
which gradually accumulates in the surroundings areas of the cracks or openings and
forms a high landform which is known as volcano. The volcanoes may be classified into
three types viz, shield volcano, cinder cone and mixed cone.