Diversities in Plant Kingdom and Plant Physiology
Course Code: BOT 001
Presented by: Group Seven
Session : 2021-2022
Presented to
Shawon Mitra
Deparment of Botany
University of Barishal
Topics: Plant Pathology
Definition of disease in plants
A plant disease is any condition that adversely affects the growth,
development, and overall health of a plant, resulting from biotic (living
organisms such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes) or abiotic (non-
living factors such as environmental stress, nutrient deficiency, or chemical
exposure) factors. Symptoms may include discoloration, wilting, stunted
growth, and abnormal structures, ultimately leading to reduced yield and
quality.
Causes of plant disease
01 Biotic Factors:
Fungi: Fungal pathogens are among the most common causes of plant
diseases. They reproduce through spores and can infect plants through
wounds or natural openings. For example, Phytophthora infestans causes late
blight in potatoes, leading to significant crop losses. Fungi can cause various
symptoms, including leaf spots, wilting, and rotting of plant tissues.
Bacteria: Bacterial infections often result in wilting, stunted growth, or necrosis (death of plant tissue). They can spread through
water, soil, or contaminated tools. An example is Xanthomonas campestris, which causes black rot in crucifers. Bacteria can thrive
in moist conditions, making environmental management crucial in controlling these diseases.
Viruses: Viruses are responsible for a range of diseases characterized by
mottling, yellowing, or distortion of leaves. They are often transmitted by
insect vectors like aphids. For instance, the tobacco mosaic virus affects many
plants, reducing their vigor and yield. Viruses can severely impact agricultural
productivity and often have no cure, highlighting the importance of
prevention through resistant varieties and good practices.
02 Abiotic Factors:
Nutrient Deficiencies: Insufficient nutrients can lead to various symptoms,
such as yellowing leaves (chlorosis) or poor fruit development. For example,
nitrogen deficiency can result in stunted growth and pale foliage, making
plants more susceptible to diseases. Ensuring balanced fertilization is essential
to maintain plant health and resilience against pathogens.
Environmental Stress: Factors such as drought, excessive moisture, and
extreme temperatures can weaken plants and increase their vulnerability to
diseases. For instance, prolonged wet conditions can favor fungal growth,
leading to root rot and other issues. Understanding local climate conditions
and adapting agricultural practices can help mitigate these stresses.
Chemical Exposure: Pesticides, herbicides, and pollutants can cause chemical stress in plants, leading to symptoms similar to those
of diseases. For example, herbicide drift can cause leaf curling and chlorosis, which may make plants more susceptible to infections.
Proper handling and application of chemicals are crucial for minimizing negative impacts on plant health.
How do plant pathogen cause diseases in plants:
Entry and Infection:
Pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes, first gain entry into the plant through natural openings
such as stomata or through wounds caused by environmental damage or insect activity. They may also use specialized
structures to penetrate the plant’s protective layers. Once inside, they establish infection by overcoming the plant’s
physical and biochemical defenses.
Colonization and Nutrient Extraction:
After infection, pathogens proliferate within the plant tissues. Fungal pathogens form mycelium that invades cells, while
bacteria multiply in the intercellular spaces. To sustain their growth, pathogens extract nutrients from the plant, which
can weaken the host and impair its normal physiological functions. For instance, some pathogens secrete enzymes that
degrade plant cell walls, facilitating nutrient uptake.
Toxin Production and Virulence Factors:
Many pathogens produce toxins that can disrupt normal plant metabolism, leading to symptoms such as wilting,
chlorosis, or tissue necrosis. These toxins may target specific cellular processes, causing cell death or inhibiting growth.
Additionally, some pathogens have evolved virulence factors that help them evade the plant’s immune responses,
allowing for greater damage and disease progression.
Symptoms and Systemic Effects:
The interaction between the pathogen and the host plant manifests in various symptoms, including leaf spots, blights,
wilting, and rotting. These symptoms are the result of both the direct damage caused by the pathogen and the plant's
defensive reactions. In systemic diseases, pathogens can move through the plant's vascular system, leading to
widespread damage and affecting overall growth and yield.
Environmental Influence:
Environmental conditions, such as humidity, temperature, and soil health, play a significant role in disease
development. Favorable conditions can enhance pathogen survival and reproduction, exacerbating disease
severity. Effective disease management requires an understanding of these environmental interactions to mitigate
their effects on plant health.
Kinds and amount of losses owing to plant disease:
01 Yield Loss:
Plant diseases significantly reduce crop yields, impacting food supply and farmer income. For instance, wheat rust can cause
losses ranging from 30% to 70%, while late blight in potatoes has been responsible for up to 50% yield reduction. Such losses
not only affect individual farmers but can also lead to food shortages in regions reliant on these staple crops.
02
Economic Impact:
The economic ramifications of plant diseases are profound, encompassing both direct and indirect costs. Farmers often
spend 10-20% of their production budget on disease management strategies, including pesticides and additional labor. The
impact extends to market dynamics; for example, the presence of diseases can lead to decreased market prices for affected
crops, as seen when soybean rust outbreaks occur, sometimes leading to 80% yield losses.
03 Post-Harvest Losses:
Diseases can continue to affect crops after harvest, causing significant waste during storage and transport.
For example, mycotoxin-producing molds can lead to grain spoilage, resulting in losses of up to 30% during
storage. Additionally, damage during transport can account for losses of 10-20% of produce, further
compounding the economic impact on farmers.
04 Environmental and Socioeconomic Impact:
The reliance on chemical control methods to manage diseases can lead to environmental degradation,
affecting biodiversity and soil health. Furthermore, the socioeconomic impact is considerable; food
insecurity can arise from reduced crop availability, leading to nutritional deficits in communities. This has
long-term consequences for rural economies, where farmers face financial instability and communities
may experience increased poverty levels.
05 Global Impact:
Trade Restrictions: Quarantine measures can halt international trade. For example, the introduction of a
new pathogen can lead to trade bans on certain crops.
Loss of Varietal Diversity: Over-reliance on a few resistant varieties decreases genetic diversity, making
crops more susceptible to future diseases.
What are Koch’s Postulates:
Koch’s postulates are a set of four criteria used to establish a
causal relationship between a pathogen and a disease:
01 The pathogen must be found in all
organisms suffering from the disease.
It must be isolated and grown in pure
02
culture.
The cultured pathogen should cause
03
the same disease when introduced into
a healthy organism.
It must be re-isolated from the newly
04
diseased host and shown to be
identical to the original pathogen.
Use of Koch’s postulates in the diagnosis of Plant diseases:
Identification of the Suspected Pathogen:
Observation of Symptoms: Plant pathologists start by examining symptoms such as discoloration,
wilting, or lesions. The pathogen should be associated with these symptoms consistently in affected
plants but absent in healthy ones. 01
Initial Tests: Use microscopy or molecular techniques (like PCR) to identify the pathogen type (fungi,
bacteria, viruses) based on initial visual or genetic evidence.
Isolation in Pure Culture:
Pure Culture Techniques: The pathogen is isolated from the infected plant material and cultured using
appropriate media under controlled laboratory conditions. This allows for the growth of the pathogen free
from other organisms that might interfere.
Verification: Different techniques like colony morphology or biochemical tests may be used to confirm that
the cultured organism is indeed the suspected pathogen.
Inoculation into Healthy Plants:
Controlled Experiments: Healthy plants of the same species or variety are inoculated with
the pure culture of the suspected pathogen. Careful control over environmental conditions
is essential to ensure that other variables do not affect the results. 01
Observation of Symptoms: After a specified incubation period, these plants are observed
for the development of symptoms similar to those seen in the original infected plants.
Re-Isolation and Confirmation:
Confirmatory Tests: After symptoms develop in the inoculated plants, the pathogen is re-isolated
from these plants. This step ensures that the same organism has caused the disease again.
Molecular Techniques: Advanced molecular techniques, such as DNA sequencing or specific
primers, can be used to confirm that the re-isolated pathogen is genetically identical to the
original isolate.
Plant disease control through cultural and chemical methods:
Cultural Methods:
Crop Rotation: Alternating different crops each season prevents pathogens from becoming established in the soil. For example,
rotating non-host crops disrupts the life cycle of soil-borne pathogens like nematodes and fungi.
Sanitation: Regular removal of diseased plant parts, debris, and infected crop residues from fields or gardens limits the spread
of pathogens. Proper cleaning of tools, machinery, and greenhouses also minimizes contamination.
01
Resistant Varieties: Planting disease-resistant crop varieties, which have been bred for genetic resistance to specific pathogens
(e.g., blight-resistant tomatoes), reduces the need for chemical controls.
Good Irrigation Practices: Watering plants at the base rather than overhead and avoiding overwatering prevents excess
moisture, which encourages fungal growth. Drip irrigation is often recommended to reduce leaf wetness.
Optimal Plant Spacing and Pruning: Proper spacing and pruning allow for air circulation, lowering humidity and reducing the risk
of fungal and bacterial infections.
Mulching: Applying organic or synthetic mulch helps suppress weeds, reduces soil splashing (which can spread soil-borne
pathogens), and maintains soil moisture.
Soil Management: Practices such as adding organic matter (compost), maintaining proper pH levels, and ensuring well-drained
soil reduce plant stress and improve resistance to diseases. Solarization (covering soil with plastic to heat it) can be used to kill
soil-borne pathogens.
Chemical Methods:
Fungicides: These are chemicals specifically designed to kill or inhibit fungi. They are used as a preventive measure or to control
fungal infections like rusts, blights, and mildews. Common fungicides include copper compounds, sulfur, and synthetic
chemicals like azoxystrobin.
Bactericides: Chemicals that control bacterial infections in plants, often used to treat bacterial blights, wilts, and leaf spots.
Copper-based bactericides (e.g., copper sulfate) are commonly used.
01
Insecticides: Since many plant viruses and bacterial diseases are spread by insect vectors (like aphids and whiteflies),
insecticides help prevent diseases by controlling these vectors. Insecticides also manage insect-borne fungal diseases.
Nematicides: These chemicals are used to control nematodes, microscopic worms that infect plant roots, causing galls and
stunted growth. Examples include organophosphates and fumigants.
Seed Treatment: Seeds are often treated with fungicides and insecticides before planting to protect against seed-borne
diseases and early infection by soil-borne pathogens. This enhances seedling survival and early plant vigor.
Herbicides: Though not directly related to pathogens, herbicides control weeds that may host diseases or compete with crops,
indirectly reducing disease pressure.
Systemic Chemicals: Some chemical treatments are systemic, meaning they are absorbed and transported through the plant’s
vascular system to protect the entire plant. Examples include systemic fungicides and nematicides that provide longer-lasting
protection.
Caused by: Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
Overview: Tobacco Mosaic Disease is a viral infection that primarily
affects tobacco plants but also infects a wide range of crops, including
tomatoes, peppers, and cucumbers. First identified in the late 19th
century, TMV is notable for its ability to survive in the environment for
extended periods, making it a persistent threat to agriculture.
Tobacco Mosaic Disease
Symptoms and Impact
Mosaic Leaf Patterns: Leaves show a mottled appearance, characterized by alternating light and dark green areas. This
symptom is due to the virus's interference with chlorophyll production, leading to reduced photosynthesis.
Leaf Distortion and Stunting: The disease can cause leaves to curl and twist, severely limiting the plant's growth. Infected
plants often exhibit stunted growth, resulting in lower overall vigor and productivity.
Yield Loss: The cumulative effect of these symptoms can lead to decreased fruit and flower production, directly impacting
agricultural yield and profitability.
01
Transmission:
TMV spreads primarily through mechanical means. It can be easily transmitted by contaminated tools, hands, clothing,
and through physical contact with infected plants. Additionally, infected plant materials, such as seeds and cuttings, can
introduce the virus into healthy plants. While some insects can act as vectors, TMV predominantly relies on these physical
transmission methods.
Management Strategies:
Resistant Varieties: Using TMV-resistant cultivars significantly reduces the risk of infection and helps maintain crop health.
Sanitation Practices: Regular disinfection of tools and equipment, as well as removing infected plants, is crucial for
preventing the virus's spread.
Caused by: Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae
Overview: Bacterial Blight is a significant disease affecting rice, one of
the world’s most important staple crops. Caused by the bacterium
Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, this disease can lead to substantial
yield losses, threatening food security in rice-growing regions.
Bacterial blight of rice
Symptoms and Impact
Water-soaked Leaf Blades: Initially, the disease presents as water-soaked lesions on the leaf blades, which can rapidly
expand and turn yellow.
Brown Lesions: As the disease progresses, lesions become necrotic, resulting in brown, dead areas on the leaves.
Leaf Dieback: In severe cases, infected plants may experience complete leaf dieback, leading to significant yield
reductions.
Transmission: 01
Infected Seeds: The bacteria can be present in seeds, facilitating the initial introduction of the disease into fields.
Water and Soil: The pathogen thrives in warm, wet conditions and can spread through contaminated water or soil.
Mechanical Means: The disease can also be transmitted through agricultural practices, such as the use of infected tools
or through contact with infected plants.
Management Strategies:
Resistant Varieties: Planting resistant rice varieties is one of the most effective ways to control the disease.
Sanitation Practices: Implementing rigorous sanitation measures, such as cleaning tools and equipment, helps prevent
the spread of the bacteria.
Cultural Practices: Crop rotation, proper water management, and avoiding excessive nitrogen fertilization can help
reduce disease incidence.
Thank You
